Module 7 Lesson Proper (CEP)
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LESSON PROPER
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
Fundamentals of Mathematics is designed for the student who needs to improve or review basic math skills
and concepts. This course includes computation using integers, fractions, decimals, proportions, and percent,
along with an overview of measurement, geometry, statistics and linear equations. Fundamentals of Math
provides the mathematical foundation upon which subsequent studies in mathematics and other areas
depend.
BASIC TERMS AND RULES IN MATHEMATICS
1. ALGEBRA
Basic Operations (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division)
Basic arithmetic operations form the foundation of algebra. These operations involve combining numbers
(or algebraic expressions) in various ways.
Example:
Addition: 3 + 7 = 10
Subtraction: 12 - 5 = 7
Multiplication: 4x3 = 12
Division: 16 ÷ 4 = 4
Solving Linear Equations and Inequalities
Linear equations are mathematical statements where the highest power of the variable is 1. Inequalities
compare two expressions using signs like >, <, ≥, or ≤.
Example:
Linear Equation: 2𝑥 + 5 = 9
Solution: Subtract 5 from both sides: 2𝑥 = 4 Divide by 2: 𝑥 = 2
Inequality: 3𝑥 − 7 ≤ 11
Solution: Add 7 to both sides: 3𝑥 ≤ 18. Divide by 3: 𝑥 ≤ 6
Polynomials and Factoring
Polynomials are expressions consisting of variables and coefficients. Factoring involves breaking them into
simpler terms (factors) that multiply to give the original polynomial.
Example:
Polynomial: 𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 6
Factoring: (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
Quadratic Equations
Quadratic equations have the form 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0. They can be solved using factoring, the quadratic
formula, or completing the square.
Example:
Solve: 𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 4 = 0
Factoring: (x+4) (x-1=0, so x=-4 or x=1
Functions and Graphs
A function represents a relationship between two variables where each input has exactly one output.
Graphs visually display these relationships.
Example:
Linear Function: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3
The graph is a straight line with slope 2 and y-intercept 3.
2. GEOMETRY
Points, Lines, and Angles
Geometry starts with basic objects like points, which have no size, and lines, which extend infinitely in two
directions. Angles are formed when two lines meet.
Example:
A line has infinite length, no thickness, and is straight.
Types of angles: acute (< 90𝑜 ), right (90𝑜 ), obtuse (< 90𝑜 )
Triangles, Quadrilaterals, and Polygons
Triangles and quadrilaterals are specific types of polygons. Triangles have three sides, while quadrilaterals
have four.
Example:
Triangle: Equilateral (all sides equal), Isosceles (two sides equal), Scalene (no sides equal).
Quadrilaterals: Square, rectangle, parallelogram.
The Pythagorean Theorem
In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides.
Example:
For a triangle with legs of length 3 and 4, the hypotenuse is 5, since 32 + 42 =9+16=25=52 .
Circles: Properties and Theorems
A circle is a set of all points equidistant from a center point. Key properties include radius, diameter, and
circumference.
Example:
Circumference: 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟, where 𝑟 is the radius.
Perimeter, Area, and Volume of Shapes
Perimeter is the distance around a shape, area is the space inside a 2D shape, and volume is the space
inside a 3D object.
Example:
Area of a rectangle: 𝐴 = 𝑙 𝑥 𝑤
Volume of a cube: 𝑉 = 𝑠, where \(s\) is the side length.
3. TRIGONOMETRY
Basic Trigonometric Ratios (Sine, Cosine, Tangent)
Trigonometric ratios relate the angles of a triangle to its side lengths.
Example:
Solving Right and Oblique Triangles
Right triangles can be solved using trigonometric ratios, while oblique triangles are solved using the Law of
Sines or the Law of Cosines.
Example:
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric identities are equations that are true for all variable values within the function domain.
Example:
Applications of Trigonometry in Real-life Problems
Trigonometry is used in navigation, physics, engineering, and architecture.
Example:
Calculating the height of a building using the angle of elevation and a known distance from the base.
4. Basic Statistics
Understanding Mean, Median, and Mode
These are measures of central tendency in a data set.
Probability and Simple Probabilistic Concepts
Explanation: Probability measures the likelihood of an event happening.
Example:
1
The probability of flipping a coin and getting heads: 2
Introduction to Data Interpretation and Graphs (Bar Graphs, Pie Charts)
Data interpretation involves analyzing data presented visually.
Example:
A bar graph showing the number of students in different grades.
Basic Measures of Dispersion: Range and Standard Deviation
Measures of dispersion describe how spread out data is.
Example:
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest value in a data set.
5. Problem Solving and Test-Taking Strategies
Practice solving LET-style questions, focusing on time management and accuracy.
Example:
Practice solving algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and statistics problems in timed settings.
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