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INTRODUCTION
A database is a collection of information (Data) that is organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed, Stored and updated.
They do so through the use of tables. If you’re familiar with spreadsheets like Microsoft Excel, you’re probably already accustomed to
storing data in tabular form. It’s not much of a stretch to make the leap from spreadsheets to databases. Let’s take a look.

Database Tables
Just like Excel tables, database tables consist of columns and rows. Each column contains a different type of attribute and each row
corresponds to a single record. For example, imagine that we were building a database table that contained names and telephone
numbers. We’d probably set up columns named “FirstName”, “LastName” and “TelephoneNumber.” Then we’d simply start adding rows
underneath those columns that contained the data we’re planning to store.

If we were building a table of contact information for our business that has 50 employees, we’d wind up with a table that contains 50 rows.

Databases
 Retrieve all records that match certain criteria
 Update records in bulk
 Cross-reference records in different tables
 Perform complex aggregate calculations

You can correlate information from multiple tables in a database by creating foreign key relationships between the tables.
So this is why we use Data base.
To store the data we need a ‘TABLE’
‘Table is a basic element to store the data/object or information’

To create a table we need a ‘USER’. In Database we call the user as “Schema” also. User is a collection of “USERS”.
SQL PLUS is the environment to connect to the backend database

 Structured Query Language is a database sub-language.

 It is used to interact with database in order to store, manipulate or retrieve data
 It is also pronounced as SQL or Sequel
 It is a standard language for RDBMS
 It is a non-procedural language

First and foremost create a DATA BASE in Sql server and select.
CREATE DATABASE SampleDemoDB

GO
USE SampleDemoDB
GO

SQL is divided into the following

 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Data Retrieval Language (DRL)
 Transaction Control Language (TCL)
 Data Control Language (DCL)

 DDL -- create, alter, drop, truncate, rename

 DML -- insert, update, delete
 DRL -- select
 TCL -- commit, rollback, savepoint
 DCL -- grant, revoke

Data Definition Language (DDL)

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CREATE TABLE
Create table <table_name> (col1 datatype1, col2 datatype2 …coln datatypen);
Ex: SQL> create table student (no number (2), name varchar (10), marks number (3));
create table Table_1 (Id int, Name varchar(50), Dept varchar (50), Mob int , Address
varchar (50), DeptId int)

ALTER
This can be used to add or remove columns and to modify the precision of the datatype.
1) ADDING COLUMN
Syntax: alter table <table_name> add <col datatype>;
Ex: SQL> alter table student add sdob date;

alter table Table_1 add Salary int

*** Below will be work in Oracle SQL

2) REMOVING COLUMN
Syntax: alter table <table_name> drop <col datatype>;
Ex: SQL> alter table student drop column sdob;
3) DROPPING UNUSED COLUMNS
Syntax: alter table <table_name> drop unused columns;
4) INCREASING OR DECREASING PRECISION OF A COLUMN
Syntax: alter table <table_name> modify <col datatype>;
Ex: SQL> alter table student modify marks number(5);
* To decrease precision the column should be empty.
5) MAKING COLUMN UNUSED
Syntax: alter table <table_name> set unused column <col>;
Ex: SQL> alter table student set unused column marks;
Even though the column is unused still it will occupy memory.
Ex: SQL> alter table student drop unused columns;
* You can not drop individual unused columns of a table.
6) RENAMING COLUMN
Syntax: alter table <table_name> rename column <old_col_name> to <new_col_name>;
Ex: SQL> alter table student rename column marks to smarks;
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ALTER TABLE name 'name' TO Name
execute sp_rename 'Old Name','New N'
TRUNCATE
This can be used to delete the entire table data permanently.
Syntax: truncate table <table_name>;
Ex: SQL> truncate table A_CUSTOMERS
DROP
This will be used to drop the database object;
Syntax: Drop table <table_name>;
drop table A_CUSTOMERS
RENAME
This will be used to rename the database object;
Syntax: rename <old_table_name> to <new_table_name>;
SQL> rename student to stud;

execute sp_renamedb 'sapmple1','sample'

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)

INSERT
This will be used to insert the records into table.
We have two methods to insert.
 By value method
 By address method

1) VALUE METHOD
Syntax: insert into <table_name) values (value1, value2, value3 …. Valuen);
SQL> insert into student values (1, ’sudha’, 100);

insert into Table_1 (id , name,dept,mob,) values (1 , 'Balu', 'RD' , 1892626341)

To insert a new record again you have to type entire insert command, if there are lot of records this will be difficult.
2) USING ADDRESS METHOD
Syntax: insert into <(table_name) values (&col1, &col2, &col3 …. &coln);
This will prompt you for the values but for every insert you have to use forward slash.
SQL> insert into student values (&no, '&name', &marks);

3) INSERTING DATA INTO SPECIFIED COLUMNS USING VALUE METHOD

Syntax: insert into <table_name)(col1, col2, col3 … Coln) values (value1, value2, value3 ….Valuen);
insert into Table_1 (id , name,dept,mob,address,DeptId) values (1 , 'Balu', 'RD' ,
1892626341, 181, 201)
4) INSERTING DATA INTO SPECIFIED COLUMNS USING ADDRESS METHOD
Syntax: insert into <table_name)(col1, col2, col3 … coln) values (&col1, &col2 ….&coln);
This will prompt you for the values but for every insert you have to use forward slash.
SQL> insert into student (no, name) values (&no, '&name');

Enter value for no: 5

Enter value for name: Visu
old 1: insert into student (no, name) values(&no, '&name')
new 1: insert into student (no, name) values(5, 'Visu')
SQL> /

Enter value for no: 6

Enter value for name: Rattu
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old 1: insert into student (no, name) values(&no, '&name')
new 1: insert into student (no, name) values(6, 'Rattu')
Insert into table stud values(‘p’, 100,5000)
Insert into table stud values(‘p’, 100, NULL)
UPDATE
This can be used to modify the table data.
Syntax: Update <table_name> set <col1> = value1, <col2> = value2 where <condition>;
SQL> update student set marks = 500;

If you are not specifying any condition this will update entire table.
SQL> update student set marks = 500 where no = 2;

SQL> update Table_1 set Id = 9 , name = 'Venu' where DeptId = 200;

Ex: update Table_1 set DeptId = 11 where Name = 'Robo'

DELETE
This can be used to delete the table data temporarily.
Syntax: Delete <table_name> where <condition>;
Ex: SQL> delete student;

If you are not specifying any condition this will delete entire table.
SQL> delete student where no = 2;

DELETE FROM Table_1 WHERE DeptID = 4

Data Retrieval Language (DRL)

SELECT
Syntax: Select * from <table_name>; here * indicates all columns
or
Select col1, col2, … coln from <table_name>;
SQL> select * from student;

Transaction Control Language (TCL)

COMMIT
This will be used to save the work.
Commit is of two types.
 Implicit
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 Explicit
a) IMPLICIT
This will be issued by oracle internally in two situations.
 When any DDL operation is performed.
 When you are exiting from SQL * PLUS.
b) EXPLICIT
This will be issued by the user.
Syntax:
begin tran t1
insert into a_Customers values (4, 'Basu' , 30, 'SRIKA', 1500)
commit tran t1;
* When ever you committed then the transaction was completed.

ROLLBACK
This will undo the operation.
This will be applied in two methods.
 Upto previous command
 Upto previous rollback
Syntax: rollback tran t1
* once Commit executed you con’t roll back the data.

SAVEPOINT
You can use savepoints to rollback portions of your current set of transactions.
Syntax: Save <save_name>;
Ex:
begin tran t1
save tran t1
insert into a_Customers values (5, 'Basu' , 30, 'SRIKA', 1500)
save tran t2
delete from a_Customers where ID= 5
rollback tran t2
commit tran t1;
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
begin tran t1
insert into a_Customers values (6, 'Basu' , 30, 'SRIKA', 1500)
save tran t2
insert into a_Customers values (7, 'Basu' , 30, 'SRIKA', 1500)
save tran t3
insert into a_Customers values (8, 'Basu' , 30, 'SRIKA', 1500)
save tran t4
insert into a_Customers values (9, 'Basu' , 30, 'SRIKA', 1500)
commit tran t1;
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Data Control Language (DCL)

DCL commands are used to granting and revoking the permissions.

GRANT

This is used to grant the privileges to other users.

Syntax:
GRANT privilege_name ON object_name TO {user_name |PUBLIC |role_name} [WITH GRANT OPTION];
Grant <privileges> on <object_name> to <user_name> [with grant option];
Ex:
SQL> grant select on student to sudha; -- you can give individual privilege
SQL> grant select, insert on student to sudha; -- you can give set of privileges
SQL> grant all on student to sudha; -- you can give all privileges

The sudha user has to use dot method to access the object.
SQL> select * from saketh.student;

The sudha user can not grant permission on student table to other users. To get this type of option use the following.
SQL> grant all on student to sudha with grant option;

Now sudha user also grant permissions on student table.

REVOKE
This is used to revoke the privileges from the users to which you granted the privileges.
Syntax:
REVOKE privilege_name ON object_name FROM {user_name |PUBLIC |role_name}
Revoke <privileges> on <object_name> from <user_name>;
Ex:
SQL> revoke select on student form sudha; -- you can revoke individual privilege
SQL> revoke select, insert on student from sudha; -- you can revoke set of privileges
SQL> revoke all on student from sudha; -- you can revoke all privileges

CONDITIONAL SELECTIONS AND OPERATORS

We have two clauses used in this
 Where
 Order by
WHERE
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <condition>;
The following are the different types of operators used in where clause.
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 Arithmetic operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Arithmetic operators -- highest precedence
 +, -, *, /
 Comparison operators
 =, !=, >, <, >=, <=, <>
 between, not between
 in, not in
 null, not null
 like
 Logical operators -- lowest precedence
 And
 Or
 not
1) USING =, >, <, >=, <=, !=, <>
Ex: SQL> select* from Table_1 where Address =181;

select* from Table_1 where Address =181

select* from Table_1 where Address >181
select* from Table_1 where Address <185
select* from Table_1 where Address =>181
select* from Table_1 where Address =<185
SQL> select * from student where no != 2;

SQL> select * from student where no <> 2;

2) AND
This will gives the output when all the conditions become true.
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <condition1> and <condition2> and ..<conditionn>;
Ex:
select* from Table_1 where Id =5 and Address >181
select* from Table_1 where Id =1 or Address <=185
3) OR
This will gives the output when either of the conditions become true.
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <condition1> and <condition2> or .. <conditionn>;
select* from Table_1 where Id =1 or Address <185
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4) BETWEEN
This will gives the output based on the column and its lower bound, upperbound.
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <col> between <lower bound> and <upper bound>;
Ex: SQL> select * from student where marks between 200 and 400;

select* from Table_1 where Address between 181 and 186

5) NOT BETWEEN
This will gives the output based on the column which values are not in its lower bound, upperbound.
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <col> not between <lower bound> and <upper bound>;
select* from Table_1 where Address not between 184 and 186
6) IN
This will gives the output based on the column and its list of values specified.
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <col> in ( value1, value2, value3 … valuen);
select* from Table_1 where id in (1,2,3,4,5)

7) NOT IN
This will gives the output based on the column which values are not in the list of values specified.
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <col> not in ( value1, value2, value3 … valuen);
select* from Table_1 where id not in (1,2,4,5)s

8) NULL
This will gives the output based on the null values in the specified column.
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <col> is null;
Ex: SQL> select * from student where marks is null;
select * from Table_5 where FirstName is null;
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9) NOT NULL
This will gives the output based on the not null values in the specified column.
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <col> is not null;
Ex: SQL> select * from student where marks is not null;

select * from Table_5 where FirstName is not null;

10) LIKE
This will be used to search through the rows of database column based on the pattern you specify.
Syntax: select * from <table_name> where <col> like <pattern>;
i) This will give the rows whose marks are 100.
SQL> select * from A_CUSTOMERS where ID like 1;

ii) This will give the rows whose name start with ‘S’.
SQL> select * from student where name like 'S%';

select * from A_CUSTOMERS where name like 'B%';

iii) This will give the rows whose name ends with ‘R’.
SQL> select * from student where name like '%R';

select * from A_CUSTOMERS where name like 'R%';

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iV) This will give the rows whose name’s second letter start with ‘a’.
SQL> select * from student where name like '_a%';

select * from A_CUSTOMERS where name like 'B%';

V) This will give the rows whose name’s third letter start with ‘d’.
select * from A_CUSTOMERS where name like '_a%';

Vi) This will give the rows whose name’s second letter start with ‘t’ from ending.
SQL> select * from student where name like '%t_%';

Select * from student where Lname like ‘’

select * from A_CUSTOMERS where name like '%l_a%';

Vii) This will give the rows whose name’s third letter start with ‘e’ from ending.
SQL> select * from student where name like '%e__%';

Viii) This will give the rows whose name cotains 2 a’s.
SQL> select * from student where name like '%a% a %';

select * from A_CUSTOMERS where name like '%a%a%';

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* You have to specify the patterns in like using underscore ( _ )

11) ORDER BY
This will be used to ordering the columns data (ascending or descending).
Syntax: Select * from <table_name> order by <col> desc;
By default oracle will use ascending order. If you want output in descending order you have to use desc keyword after the
column.
Ex: SQL> select * from student order by no;
SELECT * FROM Table_6 ORDER BY Id
SELECT * FROM Table_6 ORDER BY Id DESC

SQL> select * from student order by no desc;

SELECT * FROM Table_6 ORDER BY NAME DESC

SELECT Name FROM Table_6 WHERE id > 1 ORDER BY name ASC;
SELECT Name FROM Table_6 WHERE id > 1 ORDER BY name DESC;

ALIASES
CREATE WITH SELECT
Aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name. We can create a table using existing
table [along with data].
Syntax: Create table <new_table_name> [col1, col2, col3 ... coln] as select * from <old_table_name>;
SELECT column_name AS alias_name FROM table_name;
INSERT WITH SELECT
Using this we can insert existing table data to a another table in a single trip. But the table structure should be same.
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Syntax: Insert into <table1> select * from <table2>;
COLUMN ALIASES
Syntax: Select <orginal_col> <alias_name> from <table_name>;
SELECT column_name AS alias_name FROM table_name;
SELECT Marks AS Rank FROM Student;
Ex:
SQL> select no sno from student; <or> SQL> select no “sno” from student;

TABLE ALIASES
If you are using table aliases you can use dot method to the columns.
Syntax:
Select <alias_name>.<col1>, <alias_name>.<col2> … <alias_name>.<coln> from <table_name> <alias_name>;
SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_name AS alias_name;
SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_name AS alias_name;
Ex:
SQL> select s.no, s.name from student s;

MERGE
You can use merge command to perform insert and update in a single command.

Ex:
CREATE TABLE SourceProducts( ProductID INT, ProductName VARCHAR(50), Price
DECIMAL(9,2))
INSERT INTO SourceProducts(ProductID,ProductName, Price) VALUES(1,'Table',100)

CREATE TABLE TargetProducts( ProductID INT, ProductName VARCHAR(50), Price

DECIMAL(9,2))
INSERT INTO TargetProducts(ProductID,ProductName, Price) VALUES(1,'Table',100)

In the above the two tables are with the same structure but we can merge different structured tables also but the datatype
of the columns should match.

MERGE TargetProducts AS Target

USING SourceProducts AS Source
ON Source.ProductID = Target.ProductID
WHEN NOT MATCHED BY Target THEN
INSERT (ProductID,ProductName, Price)
VALUES (Source.ProductID,Source.ProductName, Source.Price);

MULTIBLE INSERTS (Oracle )

a) CREATE STUDENT TABLE
Create table student (Id int ,Name varchar(2),Marks int );
b) MULTI INSERT WITH ALL FIELDS (insert multiple rows with a single INSERT statement).
INSERT ALL
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Into student values(1,'a',100)
Into student values(2,'b',200)
Into student values(3,'c',300)
SELECT * FROM dual;

c) MULTI INSERT WITH SPECIFIED FIELDS (multiple records in one table)

SQL> insert all

Into student (no,name) values(4,’d’)

Into student(name,marks) values(’e’,400)
Into student values(3,’c’,300)
Select *from dept where deptno=10;

d) MULTI INSERT WITH DUPLICATE ROWS

SQL> insert all

Into student values(1,’a’,100)

Into student values(2,’b’,200)
Into student values(3,’c’,300)
Select *from dept where deptno > 10;
-- This inserts 9 rows because in the select statement retrieves 3 records (3 inserts for
each row retrieved)

e) MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED

SQL> Insert all

When deptno > 10 then

Into student1 values(1,’a’,100)
When dname = ‘SALES’ then
Into student2 values(2,’b’,200)
When loc = ‘NEW YORK’ then
Into student3 values(3,’c’,300)
Select *from dept where deptno>10;
-- This inserts 4 rows because the first condition satisfied 3 times, second condition
satisfied once and the last none.

f) MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED AND ELSE

SQL> Insert all

When deptno > 100 then

Into student1 values(1,’a’,100)
When dname = ‘S’ then
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Into student2 values(2,’b’,200)
When loc = ‘NEW YORK’ then
Into student3 values(3,’c’,300)
Else
Into student values(4,’d’,400)
Select *from dept where deptno>10;
-- This inserts 3 records because the else satisfied 3 times

g) MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED AND FIRST

SQL> Insert first

When deptno = 20 then

Into student1 values(1,’a’,100)
When dname = ‘RESEARCH’ then
Into student2 values(2,’b’,200)
When loc = ‘NEW YORK’ then
Into student3 values(3,’c’,300)
Select *from dept where deptno=20;
-- This inserts 1 record because the first clause avoid to check the remaining
conditions once the condition is satisfied.

h) MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED, FIRST AND ELSE

SQL> Insert first

When deptno = 30 then

Into student1 values(1,’a’,100)
When dname = ‘R’ then
Into student2 values(2,’b’,200)
When loc = ‘NEW YORK’ then
Into student3 values(3,’c’,300)
Else
Into student values(4,’d’,400)
Select *from dept where deptno=20;
-- This inserts 1 record because the else clause satisfied once
i) MULTI INSERT WITH MULTIBLE TABLES
SQL> Insert all

Into student1 values(1,’a’,100)

Into student2 values(2,’b’,200)
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Into student3 values(3,’c’,300)
Select *from dept where deptno=10;
-- This inserts 3 rows
** You can use multi tables with specified fields, with duplicate rows, with conditions, with first and else clauses.

FUNCTIONS
Functions can be categorized as follows.

1. Single row functions

2. Group functions
1-SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS
Single row functions can be categorized into five. These will be applied for each row and produces individual output for each
row.
A. Numeric functions
B. String functions
C. Date functions
D. Miscellaneous functions
E. Conversion functions

A. NUMERIC FUNCTIONS
 Abs
 Sign
 Sqrt
 Mod
 Nvl
 Power
 Exp
 Ln
 Log
 Ceil
 Floor
 Round
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 Trunk
 Bitand
 Greatest
 Least
 Coalesce
A) ABS
Absolute value is the measure of the magnitude of value. Absolute value is always a positive number.
Syntax: abs (value)
Ex: select abs(5), abs(-5), abs(0), abs(null) from dual;

B) SIGN
Sign gives the sign of a value.
Syntax: sign (value)
Ex: select sign(5), sign(-5), sign(0), sign(null) from dual;

C) SQRT
This will give the square root of the given value.
Syntax: sqrt (value) -- here value must be positive.
Ex: select sqrt(4), sqrt(0), sqrt(null), sqrt(1) from dual;

D) MOD
This will give the remainder.
Syntax: mod (value, divisor)
Ex: select mod(7,4), mod(1,5), mod(null,null), mod(0,0), mod(-7,4) from dual;

E) NVL
This will substitutes the specified value in the place of null values.
Syntax: nvl (null_col, replacement_value)
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Ex: select * from student; -- here for 3rd row marks value is null
select id, Name, nvl(marks,400) from student;

select nvl(1,2), nvl(2,3), nvl(4,3), nvl(5,4) from dual;

select nvl(0,0), nvl(1,1), nvl(null,null), nvl(4,4) from dual;

F) POWER
Power is the ability to raise a value to a given exponent.
Syntax: power (value, exponent)
Ex: select power(2,5), power(0,0), power(1,1), power(null,null), power(2,-5) from dual;

G) EXP

This will raise e value to the give power.

Syntax: exp (value)
Ex: select exp(1), exp(2), exp(0), exp(null), exp(-2) from dual;

H) LN
This is based on natural or base e logarithm.
Syntax: ln (value) -- here value must be greater than zero which is positive only.
Ex: select ln(1), ln(2), ln(null) from dual;

Ln and Exp are reciprocal to each other.

EXP (3) = 20.0855369

LN (20.0855369) = 3
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I) LOG
This is based on 10 based logarithm.
Syntax: log (10, value) -- here value must be greater than zero which is positive only.
Ex: select log(10,100), log(10,2), log(10,1), log(10,null) from dual;

LN (value) = LOG (EXP(1), value)

select ln(3), log(exp(1),3) from dual;

J) CEIL
This will produce a whole number that is greater than or equal to the specified value.
Syntax: ceil (value)
Ex: select ceil(5), ceil(5.1), ceil(-5), ceil( -5.1), ceil(0), ceil(null) from dual;

K) FLOOR
This will produce a whole number that is less than or equal to the specified value.
Syntax: floor (value)

Ex: select floor(5), floor(5.1), floor(-5), floor( -5.1), floor(0), floor(null) from dual;

L) ROUND
This will rounds numbers to a given number of digits of precision.
Syntax: round (value, precision)
Ex: select round(123.2345), round(123.2345,2), round(123.2354,2) from dual;

select round(123.2345,-1), round(123.2345,-2), round(123.2345,-3), round(123.2345,-4) from dual;

select round(123,0), round(123,1), round(123,2) from dual;

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select round(-123,0), round(-123,1), round(-123,2) from dual;

select round(123,-1), round(123,-2), round(123,-3), round(-123,-1), round(-123,-2), round(-123,-3) from dual;

select round(null,null), round(0,0), round(1,1), round(-1,-1), round(-2,-2) from dual;

M) TRUNC
This will truncates or chops off digits of precision from a number.
Syntax: trunc (value, precision)
Ex: select trunc(123.2345), trunc(123.2345,2), trunc(123.2354,2) from dual;

select trunc(123.2345,-1), trunc(123.2345,-2), trunc(123.2345,-3), trunc(123.2345,-4) from dual;

select trunc(123,0), trunc(123,1), trunc(123,2) from dual;

select trunc(-123,0), trunc(-123,1), trunc(-123,2) from dual;

select trunc(123,-1), trunc(123,-2), trunc(123,-3), trunc(-123,-1), trunc(-123,2), trunc(-123,-3) from dual;

select trunc(null,null), trunc(0,0), trunc(1,1), trunc(-1,-1), trunc(-2,-2) from dual;

N) BITAND
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This will perform bitwise and operation.
Syntax: bitand (value1, value2)
Ex: select bitand(2,3), bitand(0,0), bitand(1,1), bitand(null,null), bitand(-2,-3) from dual;

O) GREATEST
This will give the greatest number.
Syntax: greatest (value1, value2, value3 … valuen)
Ex: select greatest(1, 2, 3), greatest(-1, -2, -3) from dual;

 If all the values are zeros then it will display zero.

 If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.
 If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.
P) LEAST
This will give the least number.
Syntax: least (value1, value2, value3 … valuen)

Ex: select least(1, 2, 3), least(-1, -2, -3) from dual;

 If all the values are zeros then it will display zero.

 If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.
 If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.
Q) COALESCE
This will return first non-null value.
Syntax: coalesce (value1, value2, value3 … valuen)
Ex: select coalesce(1,2,3), coalesce(null,2,null,5) from dual;

B. STRING FUNCTIONS
 Initcap
 Upper
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 Lower
 Length
 Rpad
 Lpad
 Ltrim
 Rtrim
 Trim
 Translate
 Replace
 Soundex
 Concat ( ‘ || ‘ Concatenation operator)
 Ascii
 Chr
 Substr
 Instr
 Decode
 Greatest
 Least
 Coalesce
A) INITCAP
This will capitalize the initial letter of the string.
Syntax: initcap (string)
Ex: select initcap('computer') from dual;

B) UPPER
This will convert the string into uppercase.
Syntax: upper (string)
Ex: select upper('computer') from dual;

C) LOWER
This will convert the string into lowercase.
Syntax: lower (string)
Ex: select lower('COMPUTER') from dual;
 23

D) LENGTH
This will give length of the string.
Syntax: length (string)
Ex: select length('computer') from dual;

E) RPAD
This will allows you to pad the right side of a column with any set of characters.
Syntax: rpad (string, length [, padding_char])
Ex: select rpad('computer',15,'*'), rpad('computer',15,'*#') from dual;

-- Default padding character was blank space.

F) LPAD
This will allows you to pad the left side of a column with any set of characters.
Syntax: lpad (string, length [, padding_char])
Ex: select lpad('computer',15,'*'), lpad('computer',15,'*#') from dual;

-- Default padding character was blank space.

G) LTRIM
This will trim off unwanted characters from the left end of string.
Syntax: ltrim (string [,unwanted_chars])
Ex: select ltrim('computer','co'), ltrim('computer','com') from dual;

select ltrim('computer','puter'), ltrim('computer','omputer') from dual;

-- If you haven’t specify any unwanted characters it will display entire string.
H) RTRIM
 24
This will trim off unwanted characters from the right end of string.
Syntax: rtrim (string [, unwanted_chars])
Ex: select rtrim('computer','er'), rtrim('computer','ter') from dual;

select rtrim('computer','comput'), rtrim('computer','compute') from dual;RTRIM('C RTRIM('C

-- If you haven’t specify any unwanted characters it will display entire string.
I) TRIM
This will trim off unwanted characters from the both sides of string.
Syntax: trim (unwanted_chars from string)
Ex: select trim( 'i' from 'indian') from dual;

select trim( leading'i' from 'indiani') from dual;

-- this will work as LTRIM

select trim( trailing'i' from 'indiani') from dual;

-- this will work as RTRIM

J) TRANSLATE
This will replace the set of characters, character by character.
Syntax: translate (string, old_chars, new_chars)
Ex: select translate('india','in','xy') from dual;

K) REPLACE
This will replace the set of characters, string by string.
Syntax: replace (string, old_chars [, new_chars])
Ex: select replace('india','in','xy'), replace('india','in', 'ab') from dual;
 25

l) SOUNDEX
This will be used to find words that sound like other words, exclusively used in where clause.
Syntax: soundex (string)
Ex: select * from emp where soundex(ename) = soundex('SMIT');
select * from Table_5 where soundex(FirstName) = soundex('PetName');

M) CONCAT
This will be used to combine two strings only.
Syntax: concat (string1, string2)
Ex: select concat('computer',' operator') from dual;

If you want to combine more than two strings you have to use concatenation operator(||).
SQL> select 'how' || ' are' || ' you' from dual;

N) ASCII
This will return the decimal representation in the database character set of the first character of the string.
Syntax: ascii (string)
Ex: select ascii('a'), ascii('apple') from dual;

O) CHR
This will return the character having the binary equivalent to the string in either the database character set or the national
character set.
Syntax: chr (number)
Ex: select chr(97) from dual;

P) SUBSTR
This will be used to extract substrings.
Syntax: substr (string, start_chr_count [, no_of_chars])
 26
Ex: select substr('computer',2), substr('computer',2,5), substr('computer',3,7) from dual;

 If no_of_chars parameter is negative then it will display nothing.

 If both parameters except string are null or zeros then it will display nothing.
 If no_of_chars parameter is greater than the length of the string then it ignores and calculates based on the orginal
string length.
 If start_chr_count is negative then it will extract the substring from right end.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C O M P U T E R

-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

Q) INSTR
This will allows you for searching through a string for set of characters.
Syntax: instr (string, search_str [, start_chr_count [, occurrence] ])
Ex: select instr('information','o',4,1), instr('information','o',4,2) from dual;

If you are not specifying start_chr_count and occurrence then it will start search from the beginning and finds first
occurrence only.
 If both parameters start_chr_count and occurrence are null, it will display nothing.
R) DECODE
Decode will act as value by value substitution. For every value of field, it will checks for a match in a series of if/then tests.
Syntax: decode (value, if1, then1, if2, then2, ……. else);
Ex:
select sal, decode(sal,500,'Low',5000,’Medium','HIGH') from emp;
Select decode(sal, sal<=500,’low’,sal>500 and sal<=5000,’medium’,’high’) fom emp;

SAL DECODE
----- ---------
500 Low
2500 Medium
2000 Medium
3500 Medium
 27
3000 Medium
5000 High
4000 Medium
5000 High
1800 Medium
1200 Medium
2000 Medium
2700 Medium
2200 Medium
3200 Medium

SQL> select decode(1,1,3), decode(1,2,3,4,4,6) from dual;

 If the number of parameters are odd and different then decode will display nothing.
 If the number of parameters are even and different then decode will display last value.
 If all the parameters are null then decode will display nothing.
 If all the parameters are zeros then decode will display zero.

S) GREATEST
This will give the greatest string.
Syntax: greatest (strng1, string2, string3 … stringn)
Ex: select greatest('a', 'b', 'c'), greatest('Ramu','Raju','Roja') from dual;

 If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.

 If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.

T) LEAST
This will give the least string.
Syntax: greatest (strng1, string2, string3 … stringn)
Ex: select least('a', 'b', 'c'), least('Ramu','Raju','Roja') from dual;

 If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.

 28
 If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.

U) COALESCE
This will gives the first non-null string.
Syntax: coalesce (strng1, string2, string3 … stringn)
Ex: select coalesce('a','b','c'), coalesce(null,'a',null,'b') from dual;

C. DATE FUNCTIONS
 Sysdate
 Current_date
 Current_timestamp
 Systimestamp
 Localtimestamp
 Dbtimezone
 Sessiontimezone
 To_char
 To_date
 Add_months
 Months_between
 Next_day
 Last_day
 Extract
 Greatest
 Least
 Round
 Trunc
 New_time
 Coalesce
Oracle default date format is DD-MON-YY. We can change the default format to our desired format by using the following
command.
SQL> alter session set nls_date_format = ‘DD-MONTH-YYYY’;

But this will expire once the session was closed.

a) SYSDATE: This will give the current date and time.
Ex: SQL-syntax> select sysdate from dual;
 29

(it will be in DD-MM-YY formate)

b) CURRENT_DATE: This will returns the current date in the session’s timezone.
Ex: SQL-syntax> select current_date from dual;

(it will be in DD-MM-YY formate)

c) CURRENT_TIMESTAMP: This will returns the current timestamp with the active time zone information.
Ex: SQL> select current_timestamp from dual;

d) SYSTIMESTAMP: This will returns the system date, including fractional seconds and time zone of the database.
Ex: SQL> select systimestamp from dual;

e) LOCALTIMESTAMP: This will returns local timestamp in the active time zone information, with no time zone information
shown.
Ex: SQL> select localtimestamp from dual;

f) DBTIMEZONE: This will returns the current database time zone in UTC format. (Coordinated Universal Time)
Ex: SQL> select dbtimezone from dual;

g) SESSIONTIMEZONE: This will return the value of the current session’s time zone.
Ex: SQL> select sessiontimezone from dual;

h) TO_CHAR: This will be used to extract various date formats. The available date formats as follows.
Syntax: to_char (date, format)

DATE FORMATS
D -- No of days in week
DD -- No of days in month
DDD -- No of days in year
MM -- No of month
 30
MON -- Three letter abbreviation of month
MONTH -- Fully spelled out month
RM -- Roman numeral month
DY -- Three letter abbreviated day
DAY -- Fully spelled out day
Y -- Last one digit of the year
YY -- Last two digits of the year
YYY -- Last three digits of the year
YYYY -- Full four digit year
SYYYY -- Signed year
I -- One digit year from ISO standard
IY -- Two digit year from ISO standard
IYY -- Three digit year from ISO standard
IYYY -- Four digit year from ISO standard
Y, YYY -- Year with comma
YEAR -- Fully spelled out year
CC -- Century
Q -- No of quarters
W -- No of weeks in month
WW -- No of weeks in year
IW -- No of weeks in year from ISO standard
HH -- Hours
MI -- Minutes
SS -- Seconds
FF -- Fractional seconds
AM or PM -- Displays AM or PM depending upon time of day
A.M or P.M -- Displays A.M or P.M depending upon time of day
AD or BC -- Displays AD or BC depending upon the date
A.D or B.C -- Displays AD or BC depending upon the date
FM -- Prefix to month or day, suppresses padding of month or day
TH -- Suffix to a number
SP -- suffix to a number to be spelled out
SPTH -- Suffix combination of TH and SP to be both spelled out
THSP -- same as SPTH

Ex: SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd month yyyy hh:mi:ss am dy') from dual;
 31
select to_char(sysdate,'dd month yyyy hh:mi:ss am day') from dual;

` SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd month year') from dual;

06october twenty twenty-two

SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd fmmonth year') from dual; TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD FMMONTH YEAR')
06 october twenty twenty-two
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddth DDTH') from dual;

SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddth yyyy') from dual;

06th 2022
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddspth DDSPTH') from dual;

sixth
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddsp Ddsp DDSP ') from dual;

six
i) TO_DATE: This will be used to convert the string into data format.
Syntax: to_date (date)
SQL> select to_char(to_date('24/dec/2006','dd/mon/yyyy'), 'dd * month * day') from dual;

select to_char(to_date('24/Dec/2006','dd/mon/yyyy'), 'Dd * Month * Day') from dual

24 * December * Sunday
If you are not using to_char oracle will display output in default date format.
SQL> select to_date('24/Dec/2006','dd/mon/yyyy'), 'Dd - Month - Day' from dual
24-DEC-06 Dd * Month * Day
j) ADD_MONTHS: This will add the specified months to the given date.
Syntax: add_months (date, no_of_months)
SQL> select add_months(to_date('01-Jan-2022','Dd-Mon-yyyy'), 12) from dual;

01-JAN-23 (The 01-Jan-2022 will get added 12 months so date will be 01-Jan-2023)
SQL> select add_months(to_date('01-Jan-2022','dd-mon-yyyy'), -12) from dual;

01-JAN-21 (The 01-Jan-2022 will do -12 months so date will be 01-Jan-2021)

 If no_of_months is zero then it will display the same date.
SQL> select add_months(to_date('01-Jan-2022','dd-mon-yyyy'), 0) from dual;

 If no_of_months is null then it will display nothing.

SQL> select add_months(to_date('01-Jan-2022','Dd-Mon-yyyy'), Null) from dual;

k) MONTHS_BETWEEN: This will give difference of months between two dates.

Syntax: months_between (date1, date2)
select months_between(to_date('01-Oct-2022','dd-mon-yyyy'), to_date('01-Jan-2022','dd-mon-yyyy')) from dual;
+3
 32
select months_between(to_date('01-Oct-2022','dd-mon-yyyy'), to_date('01-Jan-2023','dd-mon-yyyy')) from dual;
-3
l) NEXT_DAY: This will produce next day of the given day from the specified date.
Syntax: next_day (date, day)
SQL> select next_day(to_date('24-dec-2006','dd-mon-yyyy'),'sun') from dual;

07-OCT-22
 If the day parameter is null then it will display nothing.
SQL> select next_day(to_date('06-Oct-2022','dd-mon-yyyy'),'Null') from dual;
m) LAST_DAY: This will produce last day date in the given Month.
Syntax: last_day (date)
SQL> select last_day(to_date('06-Sep-2022','Dd-Mon-yyyy')) from dual;

select last_day(to_date('Feb-2022','Mon-yyyy')) from dual;

select last_day(to_date('Feb','Mon')) from dual;
28-FEB-22
n) EXTRACT: This is used to extract a portion of the date value. * You can extract only one value at a time.
Syntax: extract ((year | month | day | hour | minute | second), date)
SQL> select extract (year from sysdate) from dual;

SQL> select extract (month from sysdate) from dual;

SQL> select extract(day from sysdate) from dual;

o) GREATEST: This will give the greatest date.

Syntax: greatest (date1, date2, date3 … daten)
SQL> select greatest(to_date('11-Jan-22','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('11-Oct-23','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('11-Dec-90','dd-mon-yy'))

from dual;
01-DEC-90
p) LEAST: This will give the least date.
Syntax: least (date1, date2, date3 … daten)
SQL> select least (to_date ('01-Jan-22','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('01-Oct-22','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('01-Dec-22','dd-mon-yy'))

from dual;
01-JAN-22
q) ROUND: Round will rounds the date to which it was equal to or greater than the given date.
Syntax: round (date, (day | month | year))
If the second parameter was year then round will checks the month of the given date in the following ranges.
JAN -- JUN
JUL -- DEC

If the month falls between JAN and JUN then it returns the first day of the current year.
If the month falls between JUL and DEC then it returns the first day of the next year.
 33
If the second parameter was months then round will checks the day of the given date in the following ranges.
1 -- 15
16 -- 31
If the day falls between 1 and 15 then it returns the first day of the current month.
If the day falls between 16 and 31 then it returns the first day of the next month.
If the second parameter was day then round will checks the week day of the given date
in the following ranges.
SUN -- WED
THU -- SUN

If the week day falls between SUN and WED then it returns the previous sunday.
If the weekday falls between THU and SUN then it returns the next sunday.
 If the second parameter was null then it returns nothing.
 If the you are not specifying the second parameter then round will resets the time to the begining of the current day
in case of user specified date.
 If the you are not specifying the second parameter then round will resets the time to the begining of the next day in
case of sysdate.
SQL> select round(to_date('01-dec-2022','dd-mon-yy'),'year'), round(to_date('01-June- 2022','dd-mon-yy'),'year') from

dual;
01-JAN-23 01-JAN-22
SQL> select round (to_date('01-Jan-2022','dd-mon-yy'),'month'), round(to_date('01-Jun-2022','dd-mon-yy'),'month') from

dual;
01-JAN-22 01-JUN-22
SQL> select round (to_date('15-Jan-2022','dd-mon-yy'),'day'), round(to_date('15-Jun- 2022','dd-mon-yy'),'day') from dual;

16-JAN-22 12-JUN-22
SQL> select to_char(round (to_date('15-Dec-2022','dd-Mon-yy')), 'dd Mon yyyy hh:mi:ss Am') from dual;

r) TRUNC: Trunc will chops off the date to which it was equal to or less than the given date.
Syntax: trunc (date, (day | month | year))
 If the second parameter was year then it always returns the first day of the current year.
 If the second parameter was month then it always returns the first day of the current month.
 If the second parameter was day then it always returns the previous Sunday.
 If the second parameter was null then it returns nothing.
 If the you are not specifying the second parameter then trunk will resets the time to the begining of the current day.
SQL> select trunc(to_date('15-dec-2022','dd-mon-yy'),'year'), trunc(to_date('15-June- 2022','dd-mon-yy'),'year') from dual;

01-JAN-22
SQL> select trunc(to_date('15-Jan-2022','dd-mon-yy'),'month'), trunc(to_date('15-June-2022','dd-mon- yy'),'month') from

dual;
 34
01-JAN-22 01-JUN-22
SQL> select trunc(to_date('15-Dec-2022','dd-mon-yy'),'day'), trunc(to_date('30-Dec-2022','dd-mon-yy'),'day') from dual;
11-DEC-22 25-DEC-22
SQL> select to_char(trunc(to_date('24-Dec-2022','dd-mon-yy')), 'dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss am') from dual;
24 dec 2022 12:00:00 am
s) NEW_TIME: This will give the desired timezone’s date and time.
Syntax: new_time (date, current_timezone, desired_timezone)
Available timezones are as follows.
TIMEZONES

AST/ADT -- Atlantic standard/day light time

BST/BDT -- Bering standard/day light time
CST/CDT -- Central standard/day light time
EST/EDT -- Eastern standard/day light time
GMT -- Greenwich mean time
HST/HDT -- Alaska-Hawaii standard/day light time
MST/MDT -- Mountain standard/day light time
NST -- Newfoundland standard time
PST/PDT -- Pacific standard/day light time
YST/YDT -- Yukon standard/day light time

SQL> select to_char(new_time(sysdate,'gmt','yst'),'dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss am') from dual;

06 oct 2022 02:57:02 pm

SQL> select to_char(new_time(sysdate,'gmt','est'),'dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss am') from dual;

06 oct 2022 06:58:26 pm

MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS
1. Uid
2. User
3. Vsize
4. Rank
5. Dense_rank
1) UID: This will give the integer value corresponding to the user currently logged in.
Ex: SQL> select uid from dual;

2) USER: This will give the login’s user name.

SQL> select user from dual;
 35

3) VSIZE: This will give the number of bytes in the expression.

Ex: SQL> select vsize(123), vsize('computer'), vsize('18-Oct-22') from dual;

4) RANK: This will give the non-sequential ranking.

Ex: SQL> select rownum, sal from (select sal from emp order by sal desc) from dual;
ROWNUM SAL
1 5000
2 3000
3 3000
4 2975
5 2850
select rank(1700) within group(order by salary desc) from A_SALARY;

5) DENSE_RANK : This will give the sequential ranking.

Ex: SQL> select dense_rank(1600) within group(order by salary desc) from A_SALARY;

CONVERSION FUNCTIONS
 Bin_to_num
 Chartorowid
 Rowidtochar
 To_number
 To_char
 To_date
1) BIN_TO_NUM: This will convert the binary value to its numerical equivalent.
Syntax: bin_to_num( binary_bits)
SQL> select bin_to_num(1,1,0) from dual;

 If all the bits are zero then it produces zero.

 If all the bits are null then it produces an error.
 36
2) CHARTOROWID
This will convert a character string to act like an internal oracle row identifier or rowid.
3) ROWIDTOCHAR
This will convert an internal oracle row identifier or rowid to character string.
4) TO_NUMBER
This will convert a char or varchar to number.
5) TO_CHAR
This will convert a number or date to character string.
6) TO_DATE
This will convert a number, char or varchar to a date.

GROUP FUNCTIONS
 Sum
 Avg
 Max
 Min
 Count
Group functions will be applied on all the rows but produces single output.
1) SUM: This will give the sum of the values of the specified column.
Syntax: sum (column)
SQL> select sum(sal) from emp;

2) AVG: This will give the average of the values of the specified column.
Syntax: avg (column)
SQL> select avg(sal) from emp;

3) MAX: This will give the maximum of the values of the specified column.
Syntax: max (column)
Ex: select max (salary) from A_SALARY;

4) MIN: This will give the minimum of the values of the specified column.
Syntax: min (column)
Ex: select min(salary) from A_SALARY;

5) COUNT: This will give the count of the values of the specified column.
 37
Syntax: count (column)
Ex: select count (salary),count(*) from A_SALARY;

CONSTRAINTS
Constraints are categorized as follows.
Domain integrity constraints
 Not null
 Check
Entity integrity constraints
 Unique
 Primary key
Referential integrity constraints
 Foreign key
Constraints are always attached to a column not a table.
We can add constraints in three ways.
 Column level -- along with the column definition
 Table level -- after the table definition
 Alter level -- using alter command
While adding constraints you need not specify the name but the type only, oracle will internally name the constraint. If you
want to give a name to the constraint, you have to use the constraint clause.
NOT NULL
This is used to avoid null values. We can add this constraint in column level only.
SQL> create table student(no number(2) not null, name varchar(10), marks number(3));
 38
CREATE TABLE A_CUSTOMERS( ID INT NOT NULL, NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL, AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) , SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2));

SQL> create table student (no number(2) constraint nn not null, name varchar(10), marks number(3));

CHECK
This is used to insert the values based on specified condition.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.
COLUMN LEVEL

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3) check (marks > 300));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3) constraint ch check(marks > 300));
TABLE LEVEL

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), check (marks > 300));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint ch check(marks > 300));

ALTER LEVEL

SQL> alter table student add check (marks>300);

SQL> alter table student add constraint ch check (marks>300);

UNIQUE
This is used to avoid duplicates but it allow nulls.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.
COLUMN LEVEL

SQL> create table student (no number(2) unique, name varchar(10), marks number(3));

SQL> create table student (no number(2) constraint un unique, name varchar(10), marks number(3));
TABLE LEVEL

SQL> create table student (no number (2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), unique(no));
SQL> create table student (no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint un unique(no));
ALTER LEVEL

SQL> alter table student add unique(no);

SQL> alter table student add constraint un unique(no);

PRIMARY KEY
 This is used to avoid duplicates and nulls. This will work as combination of unique and not null.
 Primary key always attached to the parent table.
 We can add this constraint in all three levels.
COLUMN LEVEL

SQL> create table student(no number(2) primary key, name varchar(10), marks number(3));
 39
SQL> create table student(no number(2) constraint pk primary key, name varchar(10), marks number(3));
TABLE LEVEL

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), primary key(no));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint pk primary key(no));

ALTER LEVEL

SQL> alter table student add primary key(no);

SQL> alter table student add constraint pk primary key(no);

FOREIGN KEY
 This is used to reference the parent table primary key column which allows duplicates.
 Foreign key always attached to the child table.
 We can add this constraint in table and alter levels only.
TABLE LEVEL

SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2), primary key(empno), foreign key(deptno)

references dept(deptno));
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2), constraint pk primary key(empno),

constraint fk foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno));

ALTER LEVEL

SQL> alter table emp add foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno);

SQL> alter table emp add constraint fk foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno);

Once the primary key and foreign key relationship has been created then you cannot remove any parent record if the
dependent Childs exist.

USING ON DELTE CASCADE

By using this clause you can remove the parent record even it Childs exists. Because whenever you remove parent record
oracle automatically removes all its dependent records from child table, if this clause is present while creating foreign key
constraint.
TABLE LEVEL

SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2), primary key(empno), foreign key(deptno)

references dept(deptno) on delete cascade);

SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2), constraint pk primary key(empno),

constraint fk foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno) on delete cascade);

ALTER LEVEL

SQL> alter table emp add foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno) on delete cascade;

SQL> alter table emp add constraint fk foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno) on delete cascade;

COMPOSITE KEYS
 40
A composite key can be defined on a combination of columns. We can define composite keys on entity integrity and
referential integrity constraints. Composite key can be defined in table and alter levels only.
UNIQUE (TABLE LEVEL)

SQL> create table student (no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), unique(no,name));

SQL> create table student (no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint un unique(no,name));

UNIQUE (ALTER LEVEL)

SQL> alter table student add unique(no,name);

SQL> alter table student add constraint un unique(no,name);

PRIMARY KEY (TABLE LEVEL)

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), primary key(no,name));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint pk primary key(no,name));

PRIMARY KEY (ALTER LEVEL)

SQL> alter table student add primary key(no,anme);

SQL> alter table student add constraint pk primary key(no,name);

FOREIGN KEY (TABLE LEVEL)

SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2), dname varchar(10), primary
key(empno), foreign key(deptno,dname) references dept(deptno,dname));
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2), dname varchar(10), constraint pk
primary key(empno), constraint fk foreign key(deptno,dname) references dept(deptno,dname));
FOREIGN KEY (ALTER LEVEL)

SQL> alter table emp add foreign key(deptno,dname) references dept(deptno,dname);

SQL> alter table emp add constraint fk foreign key(deptno,dname) references dept(deptno,dname);

DEFERRABLE CONSTRAINTS
Each constraint has two additional attributes to support deferred checking of constraints.
 Deferred initially immediate
 Deferred initially deferred
Deferred initially immediate checks for constraint violation at the time of insert.
Deferred initially deferred checks for constraint violation at the time of commit.
SQL> create table student(no number(2), name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint un unique(no) deferred initially
immediate);
SQL> create table student(no number(2), name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint un unique(no) deferred initially

deferred);
SQL> alter table student add constraint un unique(no) deferrable initially deferred;

SQL> set constraints all immediate;

This will enable all the constraints violations at the time of inserting.
 41
SQL> set constraints all deferred;

This will enable all the constraints violations at the time of commit.

OPERATIONS WITH CONSTRAINTS

Possible operations with constraints as follows.
 Enable
 Disable
 Enforce
 Drop
ENABLE

This will enable the constraint. Before enable, the constraint will check the existing data.
SQL> alter table student enable constraint un;

DISABLE

This will disable the constraint.

SQL> alter table student enable constraint un;

ENFORCE

This will enforce the constraint rather than enable for future inserts or updates.
This will not check for existing data while enforcing data.
SQL> alter table student enforce constraint un;

DROP

This will remove the constraint.

SQL> alter table student drop constraint un;

Once the table is dropped, constraints automatically will drop.

CASE AND DEFAULT

CASE: Case is similar to decode but easier to understand while going through coding
Select salary , Case salary When 1000 then 'low' When 1500 then 'high' Else 'medium' End
'case' From Employee;

Case
 42

DEFAULT
Default can be considered as a substitute behavior of not null constraint when applied to new rows being entered into the
table. When you define a column with the default keyword followed by a value, you are actually telling the database that, on
insert if a row was not assigned a value for this column, use the default value that you have specified.
Default is applied only during insertion of new rows.
create table students (No int default 11,Name varchar(2));
insert into students values(1,'Dedeepya');
insert into students(Name) values('Chinnu');
select * from students

SQL> insert into students values(null, 'chinna');

-- Default can not override nulls.

ABSTRACT DATA TYPES (ORACLE)

Some times you may want type which holds all types of data including numbers, chars and special characters.
You can not achieve this using pre-defined types. You can define custom types which holds your desired data.
Ex:
Suppose in a table we have address column which holds hno and city information. We will define a custom type which holds
both numeric as well as char data.

CREATING ADT

CREATE TYPE person AS object (name varchar2(30), phone varchar2(20));

CREATING TABLE BASED ON ADT

create table student123(Id int , name varchar(8), address varchar(8));

INSERTING DATA INTO ADT TABLES

insert into student values(1,'a',addr(111,'hyd'));

insert into student values(2,'b',addr(222,'bang'));
insert into student values(3,'c',addr(333,'delhi'));
 43
SELECTING DATA FROM ADT TABLES

SQL> select * from student;

NO NAME ADDRESS(HNO, CITY)

--- ------- -------------------------
1 a ADDR(111, 'hyd')
2 b ADDR(222, 'bang')
3 c ADDR(333, 'delhi')

SQL> select no,name,s.address.hno,s.address.city from student s;

NO NAME ADDRESS.HNO ADDRESS.CITY

---- ------- ----------------- ----------------
1 a 111 hyd
2 b 222 bang
3 c 333 delhi

UPDATE WITH ADT TABLES

SQL> update student s set s.address.city = 'bombay' where s.address.hno = 333;

SQL> select no,name,s.address.hno,s.address.city from student s;

NO NAME ADDRESS.HNO ADDRESS.CITY

---- ------- ----------------- ----------------
1 a 111 hyd
2 b 222 bang
3 c 333 bombay

DELETE WITH ADT TABLES

SQL> delete student s where s.address.hno = 111;

SQL> select no,name,s.address.hno,s.address.city from student s;

NO NAME ADDRESS.HNO ADDRESS.CITY

---- ------- ----------------- ----------------
2 b 222 bang
3 c 333 bombay
 44
DROPPING ADT

SQL> drop type addr;

OBJECT VIEWS AND METHODS

OBJECT VIEWS

If you want to implement objects with the existing table, object views come into picture.
You define the object and create a view which relates this object to the existing table nothing but object view.

Object views are used to relate the user defined objects to the existing table.

Ex:
1) Assume that the table student has already been created with the following columns
SQL> create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10),hno number(3),city

varchar(10));
2) Create the following types
SQL> create type addr as object(hno number(2),city varchar(10));/

SQL> create type stud as object(name varchar(10),address addr);/

3) Relate the objects to the student table by creating the object view
SQL> create view student_ov(no,stud_info) as select no,stud(name,addr(hno,city))

from student;
4) Now you can insert data into student table in two ways
a) By regular insert
SQL> Insert into student values(1,’sudha’,111,’hyd’);

b) By using object view

SQL> Insert into student_ov values(1,stud(‘sudha’,addr(111,’hyd’)));

METHODS

You can define methods which are nothing but functions in types and apply in the tables which holds the types;

Ex:
1) Defining methods in types
SQL> Create type stud as object(name varchar(10),marks number(3),
 45
Member function makrs_f(marks in number) return number,
Pragma restrict_references(marks_f,wnds,rnds,wnps,fnps));/
2) Defining type body
SQL> Create type body stud as

Member function marks_f(marks in number) return number is

Begin
Return (marks+100);
End marks_f;
End;/
3) Create a table using stud type
SQL> Create table student(no number(2),info stud);

4) Insert some data into student table

SQL> Insert into student values(1,stud(‘sudha’,100));

5) Using method in select

SQL> Select s.info.marks_f(s.info.marks) from student s;

-- Here we are using the pragma restrict_references to avoid the writes to the
Database.

VARRAYS AND NESTED TABLES

VARRAYS

A varying array allows you to store repeating attributes of a record in a single row but with limit.

Ex:
1) We can create varrays using oracle types as well as user defined types.
a) Varray using pre-defined types
SQL> Create type va as varray(5) of varchar(10);/

b) Varrays using user defined types

SQL> Create type addr as object(hno number(3),city varchar(10));/

SQL> Create type va as varray(5) of addr;/

2) Using varray in table

SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10),address va);

3) Inserting values into varray table

SQL> Insert into student values(1,’sudha’,va(addr(111,’hyd’)));

SQL> Insert into student values(2,’jagan’,va(addr(111,’hyd’),addr(222,’bang’)));

 46
4) Selecting data from varray table
SQL> Select * from student;

-- This will display varray column data along with varray and adt;
SQL> Select no,name, s.* from student s1, table(s1.address) s;

-- This will display in general format

5) Instead of s.* you can specify the columns in varray
SQL> Select no,name, s.hno,s.city from student s1,table(s1.address) s;

-- Update and delete not possible in varrays.

-- Here we used table function which will take the varray column as input for producing
output excluding varray and types.

NESTED TABLES

A nested table is, as its name implies, a table within a table. In this case it is a table that is represented as a column within
another table.
Nested table has the same effect of varrays but has no limit.

Ex:
1) We can create nested tables using oracle types and user defined types which has no
limit.
a) Nested tables using pre-defined types
SQL> Create type nt as table of varchar(10);/

b) Nested tables using user defined types

SQL> Create type addr as object(hno number(3),city varchar(10));/

SQL> Create type nt as table of addr;/

2) Using nested table in table

SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10),address nt) nested table

address store as student_temp;

3) Inserting values into table which has nested table
SQL> Insert into student values (1,’sudha’,nt(addr(111,’hyd’)));

SQL> Insert into student values (2,’jagan’,nt(addr(111,’hyd’),addr(222,’bang’)));

4) Selecting data from table which has nested table

 47
SQL> Select * from student;

-- This will display nested table column data along with nested table and adt;
SQL> Select no,name, s.* from student s1, table(s1.address) s;

-- This will display in general format

5) Instead of s.* you can specify the columns in nested table
SQL> Select no,name, s.hno,s.city from student s1,table(s1.address) s;

6) Inserting nested table data to the existing row

SQL> Insert into table(select address from student where no=1)

values(addr(555,’chennai’));
7) Update in nested tables
SQL> Update table(select address from student where no=2) s set s.city=’bombay’

where s.hno = 222;

8) Delete in nested table
SQL> Delete table(select address from student where no=3) s where s.hno=333;

DATA MODEL

 ALL_COLL_TYPES
 ALL_TYPES
 DBA_COLL_TYPES
 DBA_TYPES
 USER_COLL_TYPES
 USER_TYPES

FLASHBACK QUERY

Used to retrieve the data which has been already committed with out going for recovery.

Flashbacks are of two types

 Time base flashback
 SCN based flashback (SCN stands for System Change Number)

Ex:

1) Using time based flashback

a) SQL> Select *from student;
 48
-- This will display all the rows
b) SQL> Delete student;
c) SQL> Commit; -- this will commit the work.
d) SQL> Select *from student;
-- Here it will display nothing
e) Then execute the following procedures
SQL> Exec dbms_flashback.enable_at_time(sysdate-2/1440)

f) SQL> Select *from student;

-- Here it will display the lost data
-- The lost data will come but the current system time was used
g) SQL> Exec dbms_flashback.disable
-- Here we have to disable the flashback to enable it again

2) Using SCN based flashback

a) Declare a variable to store SCN
SQL> Variable s number

b) Get the SCN

SQL> Exec :s := exec dbms_flashback.get_system_change_number

c) To see the SCN

SQL> Print s

d) Then execute the following procedures

SQL> Exec dbms_flashback.enable_at_system_change_number(:s)

SQL> Exec dbms_flashback.disable

EXTERNAL TABLES

You can user external table feature to access external files as if they are tables inside the database.
When you create an external table, you define its structure and location with in oracle.
When you query the table, oracle reads the external table and returns the results just as if the data had been stored with in
the database.

ACCESSING EXTERNAL TABLE DATA

To access external files from within oracle, you must first use the create directory command to define a directory object
pointing to the external file location
Users who will access the external files must have the read and write privilege on the directory.
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Ex:

CREATING DIRECTORY AND OS LEVEL FILE

SQL> Sqlplus system/manager

SQL> Create directory saketh_dir as ‘/Visdb/visdb/9.2.0/external’;

SQL> Grant all on directory saketh_dir to saketh;

SQL> Conn saketh/saketh

SQL> Spool dept.lst

SQL> Select deptno || ‘,’ || dname || ‘,’ || loc from dept;

SQL> Spool off

CREATING EXTERNAL TABLE

SQL> Create table dept_ext

(deptno number(2),
Dname varchar(14),
Loc varchar(13))
Organization external ( type oracle_loader
Default directory saketh_dir
Access parameters
( records delimited by newline
Fields terminated by “,”
( deptno number(2),
Dname varchar(14),
Loc varchar(13)))
Location (‘/Visdb/visdb/9.2.0/dept.lst’));

SELECTING DATA FROM EXTERNAL TABLE

SQL> select * from dept_ext;

This will read from dept.lst which is a operating system level file.

LIMITATIONS ON EXTERNAL TABLES

a) You can not perform insert, update, and delete operations

a) Indexing not possible
b) Constraints not possible
 50

BENEFITS OF EXTERNAL TABLES

a) Queries of external tables complete very quickly even though a full table scan id required with each access
b) You can join external tables to each other or to standard tables

REF DEREF VALUE

REF

 The ref function allows referencing of existing row objects.

 Each of the row objects has an object id value assigned to it.
 The object id assigned can be seen by using ref function.

DEREF

 The deref function performs opposite action.

 It takes a reference value of object id and returns the value of the row objects.

VALUE

 Even though the primary table is object table, still it displays the rows in general format.
 To display the entire structure of the object, this will be used.

Ex:
1) create vendot_adt type
SQL> Create type vendor_adt as object (vendor_code number(2), vendor_name

varchar(2), vendor_address varchar(10));/

2) create object tables vendors and vendors1
SQL> Create table vendors of vendor_adt;

SQL> Create table vendors1 of vendor_adt;

3) insert the data into object tables

SQL> insert into vendors values(1, ‘a’, ‘hyd’);

SQL> insert into vendors values(2, ‘b’, ‘bang’);

SQL> insert into vendors1 values(3, ‘c’, ‘delhi’);

 51
SQL> insert into vendors1 values(4, ‘d’, ‘chennai’);

4) create another table orders which holds the vendor_adt type also.
SQL> Create table orders (order_no number(2), vendor_info ref vendor_adt);

Or

SQL> Create table orders (order_no number(2), vendor_info ref vendor_adt with

rowid);
5) insert the data into orders table
The vendor_info column in the following syntaxes will store object id of any table
which is referenced by vendor_adt object ( both vendors and vendors1).
SQL> insert into orders values(11,(select ref(v) from vendors v where vendor_code

= 1));
SQL> insert into orders values(12,(select ref(v) from vendors v where vendor_code

= 2));
SQL> insert into orders values(13,(select ref(v1) from vendors1 v1 where

vendor_code = 1));
SQL> insert into orders values(14,(select ref(v1) from vendors1 v1 where

vendor_code = 1));
6) To see the object ids of vendor table
SQL> Select ref(V) from vendors v;

7) If you see the vendor_info of orders it will show only the object ids not the values,
to see the values
SQL> Select deref(o.vendor_info) from orders o;

8) Even though the vendors table is object table it will not show the adt along with
data, to see the data along with the adt
SQL>Select * from vendors;

This will give the data without adt.

SQL>Select value(v) from vendors v;

This will give the columns data along wih the type.

REF CONSTRAINTS

 Ref can also acts as constraint.

 Even though vendors1 also holding vendor_adt, the orders table will store the object ids of vendors only
because it is constrained to that table only.
 The vendor_info column in the following syntaxes will store object ids of vendors only.
 52

SQL> Create table orders (order_no number(2), vendor_info ref vendor_adt scope is

vendors);
Or
SQL> Create table orders (order_no number(2), vendor_info ref vendor_adt constraint fk

references vendors);

OBJECT VIEWS WITH REFERENCES

To implement the objects and the ref constraints to the existing tables, what we can do? Simply drop the both tables and
recreate with objects and ref constrains.

But you can achieve this with out dropping the tables and without losing the data by creating object views with references.

Ex:
a) Create the following tables
SQL> Create table student1(no number(2) primary key,name varchar(2),marks

number(3));
SQL> Create table student2(no number(2) primary key,hno number(3),city

varchar(10),id number(2),foreign Key(id) references student1(no));

b) Insert the records into both tables
SQL> insert into student1(1,’a’,100);

SQL> insert into student1(2,’b’,200);

SQL> insert into student2(11,111,’hyd’,1);

SQL> insert into student2(12,222,’bang’,2);

SQL> insert into student2(13,333,’bombay’,1);

c) Create the type

SQL> create or replace type stud as object(no number(2),name varchar(2),marks

number(3));/
d) Generating OIDs
SQL> Create or replace view student1_ov of stud with object identifier(or id) (no) as

Select * from Student1;

e) Generating references
SQL> Create or replace view student2_ov as select no,hno,city,
 53
make_ref(student1_ov,id) id from Student2;
d) Query the following
SQL> select *from student1_ov;

SQL> select ref(s) from student1_ov s;

SQL> select values(s) from student1_ov;

SQ> select *from student2_ov;

SQL> select deref(s.id) from student2_ov s;

PARTITIONS

A single logical table can be split into a number of physically separate pieces based on ranges of key values. Each of the parts
of the table is called a partition.
A non-partitioned table can not be partitioned later.

TYPES

 Range partitions
 List partitions
 Hash partitions
 Sub partitions

ADVANTAGES

 Reducing downtime for scheduled maintenance, which allows maintenance operations to be carried out on selected
partitions while other partitions are available to users.
 Reducing downtime due to data failure, failure of a particular partition will no way affect other partitions.
 Partition independence allows for concurrent use of the various partitions for various purposes.

ADVANTAGES OF PARTITIONS BY STORING THEM IN DIFFERENT TABLESPACES

 Reduces the possibility of data corruption in multiple partitions.

 Back up and recovery of each partition can be done independently.

DISADVANTAGES

 Partitioned tables cannot contain any columns with long or long raw datatypes, LOB types or object types.
 54

RANGE PARTITIONS

a) Creating range partitioned table

SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2)) partition by range(no)

(partition p1 values less than(10), partition p2 values less than(20), partition p3

values less than(30),partition p4 values less than(maxvalue));

** if you are using maxvalue for the last partition, you can not add a partition.
b) Inserting records into range partitioned table
SQL> Insert into student values(1,’a’); -- this will go to p1
SQL> Insert into student values(11,’b’); -- this will go to p2
SQL> Insert into student values(21,’c’); -- this will go to p3
SQL> Insert into student values(31,’d’); -- this will go to p4
c) Retrieving records from range partitioned table
SQL> Select *from student;

SQL> Select *from student partition(p1);

d) Possible operations with range partitions

 Add
 Drop
 Truncate
 Rename
 Split
 Move
 Exchange
e) Adding a partition
SQL> Alter table student add partition p5 values less than(40);

f) Dropping a partition
SQL> Alter table student drop partition p4;

g) Renaming a partition
SQL> Alter table student rename partition p3 to p6;

h) Truncate a partition
SQL> Alter table student truncate partition p6;

i) Splitting a partition
SQL> Alter table student split partition p2 at(15) into (partition p21,partition p22);
 55

j) Exchanging a partition
SQL> Alter table student exchange partition p1 with table student2;

k) Moving a partition
SQL> Alter table student move partition p21 tablespace saketh_ts;

LIST PARTITIONS

a) Creating list partitioned table

SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2)) partition by list(no)

(partition p1 values(1,2,3,4,5), partition p2 values(6,7,8,9,10),partition p3

values(11,12,13,14,15), partition p4 values(16,17,18,19,20));
b) Inserting records into list partitioned table
SQL> Insert into student values(1,’a’); -- this will go to p1
SQL> Insert into student values(6,’b’); -- this will go to p2
SQL> Insert into student values(11,’c’); -- this will go to p3
SQL> Insert into student values(16,’d’); -- this will go to p4
c) Retrieving records from list partitioned table
SQL> Select *from student;

SQL> Select *from student partition(p1);

d) Possible operations with list partitions

 Add
 Drop
 Truncate
 Rename
 Move
 Exchange
e) Adding a partition
SQL> Alter table student add partition p5 values(21,22,23,24,25);

f) Dropping a partition
SQL> Alter table student drop partition p4;

g) Renaming a partition
SQL> Alter table student rename partition p3 to p6;

h) Truncate a partition
SQL> Alter table student truncate partition p6;
 56
i) Exchanging a partition
SQL> Alter table student exchange partition p1 with table student2;

j) Moving a partition
SQL> Alter table student move partition p2 tablespace saketh_ts;

HASH PARTITIONS

a) Creating hash partitioned table

SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2)) partition by hash(no)

partitions 5;
Here oracle automatically gives partition names like
SYS_P1
SYS_P2
SYS_P3
SYS_P4
SYS_P5
b) Inserting records into hash partitioned table
it will insert the records based on hash function calculated by taking the partition key
SQL> Insert into student values(1,’a’);

SQL> Insert into student values(6,’b’);

SQL> Insert into student values(11,’c’);

SQL> Insert into student values(16,’d’);

c) Retrieving records from hash partitioned table

SQL> Select *from student;

SQL> Select *from student partition(sys_p1);

d) Possible operations with hash partitions

 Add
 Truncate
 Rename
 Move
 Exchange
e) Adding a partition
SQL> Alter table student add partition p6 ;

f) Renaming a partition
SQL> Alter table student rename partition p6 to p7;

g) Truncate a partition
 57
SQL> Alter table student truncate partition p7;

h) Exchanging a partition
SQL> Alter table student exchange partition sys_p1 with table student2;

i) Moving a partition
SQL> Alter table student move partition sys_p2 tablespace saketh_ts;

SUB-PARTITIONS WITH RANGE AND HASH

Subpartitions clause is used by hash only. We can not create subpartitions with list and hash partitions.

a) Creating subpartitioned table

SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2),marks number(3))

Partition by range(no) subpartition by hash(name) subpartitions 3

(Partition p1 values less than(10),partition p2 values less than(20));

This will create two partitions p1 and p2 with three subpartitions for each partition
P1 – SYS_SUBP1
SYS_SUBP2
SYS_SUBP3
P2 – SYS_SUBP4
SYS_SUBP5
SYS_SUBP6
** if you are using maxvalue for the last partition, you can not add a partition.
b) Inserting records into subpartitioned table
SQL> Insert into student values(1,’a’); -- this will go to p1
SQL> Insert into student values(11,’b’); -- this will go to p2
c) Retrieving records from subpartitioned table
SQL> Select *from student;

SQL> Select *from student partition(p1);

SQL> Select *from student subpartition(sys_subp1);

d) Possible operations with subpartitions

 Add
 Drop
 Truncate
 Rename
 Split
 58
e) Adding a partition
SQL> Alter table student add partition p3 values less than(30);

f) Dropping a partition
SQL> Alter table student drop partition p3;

g) Renaming a partition
SQL> Alter table student rename partition p2 to p3;

h) Truncate a partition
SQL> Alter table student truncate partition p1;

i) Splitting a partition
SQL> Alter table student split partition p3 at(15) into (partition p31,partition p32);

DATA MODEL

 ALL_IND_PARTITIONS
 ALL_IND_SUBPARTITIONS
 ALL_TAB_PARTITIONS
 ALL_TAB_SUBPARTITIONS
 DBA_IND_PARTITIONS
 DBA_IND_SUBPARTITIONS
 DBA_TAB_PARTITIONS
 DBA_TAB_SUBPARTITIONS
 USER_IND_PARTITIONS
 USER_IND_SUBPARTITIONS
 USER_TAB_PARTITIONS
 USER_TAB_SUBPARTITIONS

GROUP BY AND HAVING

GROUP BY
Using group by, we can create groups of related information.
Columns used in select must be used with group by, otherwise it was not a group by expression.
Ex:
SQL> select deptno, sum(sal) from emp group by deptno;

DEPTNO SUM(SAL)
---------- ----------
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10 8750
20 10875
30 9400

SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) from emp group by deptno,job;

DEPTNO JOB SUM(SAL)

---------- --------- ----------
10 CLERK 1300
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
20 ANALYST 6000
20 CLERK 1900
20 MANAGER 2975
30 CLERK 950
30 MANAGER 2850
30 SALESMAN 5600

HAVING

This will work as where clause which can be used only with group by because of absence of where clause in group by.
Ex:
SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) tsal from emp group by deptno,job having sum(sal) >

3000;

DEPTNO JOB TSAL

---------- --------- ----------
10 PRESIDENT 5000
20 ANALYST 6000
30 SALESMAN 5600

SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) tsal from emp group by deptno,job having sum(sal) >

3000 order by job;

DEPTNO JOB TSAL

---------- --------- ----------
 60
20 ANALYST 6000
10 PRESIDENT 5000
30 SALESMAN 5600

ORDER OF EXECUTION

 Group the rows together based on group by clause.

 Calculate the group functions for each group.
 Choose and eliminate the groups based on the having clause.
 Order the groups based on the specified column.

ROLLUP GROUPING CUBE

These are the enhancements to the group by feature.

USING ROLLUP

This will give the salaries in each department in each job category along wih the total salary for individual departments and
the total salary of all the departments.

SQL> Select deptno,job,sum(sal) from emp group by rollup(deptno,job);

DEPTNO JOB SUM(SAL)

---------- --------- ----------
10 CLERK 1300
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
10 8750
20 ANALYST 6000
20 CLERK 1900
20 MANAGER 2975
20 10875
30 CLERK 950
30 MANAGER 2850
30 SALESMAN 5600
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30 9400
29025

USING GROUPING

In the above query it will give the total salary of the individual departments but with a
blank in the job column and gives the total salary of all the departments with blanks in
deptno and job columns.

To replace these blanks with your desired string grouping will be used

SQL> select decode(grouping(deptno),1,'All Depts',deptno),decode(grouping(job),1,'All

jobs',job),sum(sal) from emp group by rollup(deptno,job);

DECODE(GROUPING(DEPTNO),1,'ALLDEPTS',DEP DECODE(GR SUM(SAL)

----------------------------------- ---------------------------------- --------------
10 CLERK 1300
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
10 All jobs 8750
20 ANALYST 6000
20 CLERK 1900
20 MANAGER 2975
20 All jobs 10875
30 CLERK 950
30 MANAGER 2850
30 SALESMAN 5600
30 All jobs 9400
All Depts All jobs 29025

Grouping will return 1 if the column which is specified in the grouping function has been
used in rollup.
Grouping will be used in association with decode.

USING CUBE
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This will give the salaries in each department in each job category, the total salary for individual departments, the total salary
of all the departments and the salaries in each job category.

SQL> select decode(grouping(deptno),1,’All Depts’,deptno),decode(grouping(job),1,’All

Jobs’,job),sum(sal) from emp group by cube(deptno,job);

DECODE(GROUPING(DEPTNO),1,'ALLDEPTS',DEP DECODE(GR SUM(SAL)

----------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ------------
10 CLERK 1300
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
10 All Jobs 8750
20 ANALYST 6000
20 CLERK 1900
20 MANAGER 2975
20 All Jobs 10875
30 CLERK 950
30 MANAGER 2850
30 SALESMAN 5600
30 All Jobs 9400
All Depts ANALYST 6000
All Depts CLERK 4150
All Depts MANAGER 8275
All Depts PRESIDENT 5000
All Depts SALESMAN 5600
All Depts All Jobs 29025

SET OPERATORS

TYPES

 Union
 Union all
 Intersect
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 Minus

UNION

This will combine the records of multiple tables having the same structure.

Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 union select * from student2;

Select ename,eno,dno,sal from emp1

Union
Select name,eno,null as Dno,sal from emp2;

UNION ALL

This will combine the records of multiple tables having the same structure but including duplicates.

Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 union all select * from student2;

INTERSECT

This will give the common records of multiple tables having the same structure.

Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 intersect select * from student2;

MINUS

This will give the records of a table whose records are not in other tables having the same structure.

Ex:
SQL> select count(*) from student1
 64
minus
select count(*) from student2;

eno ename esal

100 p 5000
200 q 6000
300 r 7000
400 s 7500

Eno ename esal

300 a 6000
400 b 7000
100 p 5000
200 q 6000

Eno ename ename

300 r 7000
400 s 7500
300 a 6000

VIEWS

A view is a database object that is a logical representation of a table. It is delivered from a table but has no storage of its own
and often may be used in the same manner as a table.

A view takes the output of the query and treats it as a table, therefore a view can be thought of as a stored query or a virtual
table.

TYPES
 Simple view
 Complex view

Simple view can be created from one table where as complex view can be created from multiple tables.

WHY VIEWS?

 Provides additional level of security by restricting access to a predetermined set of rows and/or columns of a table.
 Hide the data complexity.
 65
 Simplify commands for the user.

VIEWS WITHOUT DML

 Read only view

 View with group by
 View with aggregate functions
 View with rownum
 Partition view
 View with distinct

Ex:
SQL> Create view dept_v as select *from dept with read only;

SQL> Create view dept_v as select deptno, sum(sal) t_sal from emp group by deptno;

SQL> Create view stud as select rownum no, name, marks from student;

SQL> Create view student as select *from student1 union select *from student2;

SQL> Create view stud as select distinct no,name from student;

VIEWS WITH DML

 View with not null column -- insert with out not null column not possible
-- update not null column to null is not possible
-- delete possible
 View with out not null column which was in base table -- insert not possible
-- update, delete possible
 View with expression -- insert , update not possible
-- delete possible
 View with functions (except aggregate) -- insert, update not possible
-- delete possible
 View was created but the underlying table was dropped then we will get the message like “ view has errors ”.
 View was created but the base table has been altered but still the view was with the initial definition, we have to
replace the view to affect the changes.
 Complex view (view with more than one table) -- insert not possible
-- update, delete possible (not always)

CREATING VIEW WITHOUT HAVING THE BASE TABLE

 66

SQL> Create force view stud as select *From student;

-- Once the base table was created then the view is validated.

VIEW WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT

SQL> Create view stud as select *from student where marks = 500 with check option

constraint Ck;
- Insert possible with marks value as 500
- Update possible excluding marks column
- Delete possible

DROPPING VIEWS

SQL> drop view dept_v;

DATA MODEL

ALL_VIEW
DBA_VIEW
USER_VIEWS

SYNONYM AND SEQUENCE

SYNONYM

A synonym is a database object, which is used as an alias for a table, view or sequence.

TYPES

 Private
 Public
Private synonym is available to the particular user who creates.
Public synonym is created by DBA which is available to all the users.

ADVANTAGES

 Hide the name and owner of the object.

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 Provides location transparency for remote objects of a distributed database.

CREATE AND DROP

SQL> create synonym s1 for emp;

SQL> create public synonym s2 for emp;

SQL> drop synonym s1;

SEQUENCE

A sequence is a database object, which can generate unique, sequential integer values.
It can be used to automatically generate primary key or unique key values.
A sequence can be either in an ascending or descending order.

Syntax:
Create sequence <seq_name> [increment bty n] [start with n] [maxvalue n]
[minvalue n] [cycle/nocycle] [cache/nocache];

By defalult the sequence starts with 1, increments by 1 with minvalue of 1 and with nocycle, nocache.
Cache option pre-alloocates a set of sequence numbers and retains them in memory for faster access.

Ex:
SQL> create sequence s;

SQL> create sequence s increment by 10 start with 100 minvalue 5 maxvalue 200 cycle

cache 20;

USING SEQUENCE

SQL> create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10));

SQL> insert into student values(s.nextval, ‘saketh’);

 Initially currval is not defined and nextval is starting value.

 After that nextval and currval are always equal.

CREATING ALPHA-NUMERIC SEQUENCE

SQL> create sequence s start with 111234;

 68
SQL> Insert into student values (s.nextval || translate

(s.nextval,’1234567890’,’abcdefghij’));

ALTERING SEQUENCE

We can alter the sequence to perform the following.

 Set or eliminate minvalue or maxvalue.
 Change the increment value.
 Change the number of cached sequence numbers.

Ex:
SQL> alter sequence s minvalue 5;

SQL> alter sequence s increment by 2;

SQL> alter sequence s cache 10;

DROPPING SEQUENCE

SQL> drop sequence s;

JOINS
 The purpose of a join is to combine the data across tables.
 A join is actually performed by the where clause which combines the specified rows of tables.
 If a join involves in more than two tables then oracle joins first two tables based on the joins condition and then
compares the result with the next table and so on.

TYPES
Equi join
Non-equi join
Self join
Natural join
Cross join
Outer join
 Left outer
 Right outer
 Full outer
Inner join
Using clause
 69
On clause

Assume that we have the following tables.

SQL> select * from dept;

DEPTNO DNAME LOC

------ ---------- ----------
10 mkt hyd
20 fin bang
30 hr bombay
SQL> select * from emp;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 saketh analyst 444 10
222 sudha clerk 333 20
333 jagan manager 111 10
444 madhu engineer 222 40

EQUI JOIN

A join which contains an ‘=’ operator in the joins condition.

Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where e.deptno=d.deptno;

EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin bang

USING CLAUSE

SQL> select empno,ename,job ,dname,loc from emp e join dept d using(deptno);

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EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin bang

ON CLAUSE

SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e join dept d on(e.deptno=d.deptno);

EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin bang

NON-EQUI JOIN

A join which contains an operator other than ‘=’ in the joins condition.

Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where e.deptno >

d.deptno;

EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
222 sudha clerk mkt hyd
444 madhu engineer mkt hyd
444 madhu engineer fin bang
444 madhu engineer hr bombay

SELF JOIN

Joining the table itself is called self join.

Ex:
 71
SQL> select e1.empno,e2.ename,e1.job,e2.deptno from emp e1,emp e2 where

e1.empno=e2.mgr;

EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 jagan analyst 10
222 madhu clerk 40
333 sudha manager 20
444 saketh engineer 10
NATURAL JOIN

Natural join compares all the common columns.

Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp natural join dept;

EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin bang

CROSS JOIN

This will gives the cross product.

Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp cross join dept;

EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk mkt hyd
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
444 madhu engineer mkt hyd
111 saketh analyst fin bang
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222 sudha clerk fin bang
333 jagan manager fin bang
444 madhu engineer fin bang
111 saketh analyst hr bombay
222 sudha clerk hr bombay
333 jagan manager hr bombay
444 madhu engineer hr bombay

OUTER JOIN

Outer join gives the non-matching records along with matching records.

LEFT OUTER JOIN

This will display the all matching records and the records which are in left hand side table those that are not in right hand
side table.

Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e left outer join dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where

e.deptno=d.deptno(+);

EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin bang
444 madhu engineer

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

This will display the all matching records and the records which are in right hand side table those that are not in left hand
side table.

Ex:
 73
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e right outer join dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where e.deptno(+) =

d.deptno;

EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin bang
hr bombay

FULL OUTER JOIN

This will display the all matching records and the non-matching records from both tables.

Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e full outer join dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno);

EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin bang
444 madhu engineer
hr bombay

INNER JOIN

This will display all the records that have matched.

Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp inner join dept using(deptno);
 74
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin bang

SUBQUERIES AND EXISTS

SUBQUERIES

 Nesting of queries, one within the other is termed as a subquery.

 A statement containing a subquery is called a parent query.
 Subqueries are used to retrieve data from tables that depend on the values in the table itself.

TYPES

 Single row subqueries

 Multi row subqueries
 Multiple subqueries
 Correlated subqueries

SINGLE ROW SUBQUERIES

In single row subquery, it will return one value.

Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal > (select sal from emp where empno = 7566);

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ------------ ------- ---------- ----------
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20

MULTI ROW SUBQUERIES

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In multi row subquery, it will return more than one value. In such cases we should include operators like any, all, in or not in
between the comparision operator and the subquery.

Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal > any (select sal from emp where sal between 2500

and 4000);

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------- -------- ---------- ----------
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20

SQL> select * from emp where sal > all (select sal from emp where sal between 2500

and 4000);

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ------------- ------ ---------- ----------
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10

MULTIPLE SUBQUERIES

There is no limit on the number of subqueries included in a where clause. It allows nesting of a query within a subquery.

Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal = (select max(sal) from emp where sal < (select

max(sal) from emp));

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ------------ ------- ---------- ----------
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 3000 20
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20

CORRELATED SUBQUERIES
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A subquery is evaluated once for the entire parent statement where as a correlated subquery is evaluated once for every
row processed by the parent statement.
Ex:
SQL> select distinct deptno from emp e where 5 <= (select count(ename) from emp

where e.deptno = deptno);

DEPTNO
----------
20
30

EXISTS

Exists function is a test for existence. This is a logical test for the return of rows from a query.

Ex:
Suppose we want to display the department numbers which has more than 4
employees.

SQL> select deptno,count(*) from emp group by deptno having count(*) > 4;

DEPTNO COUNT(*)
--------- ----------
20 5
30 6

From the above query can you want to display the names of employees?
SQL> select deptno,ename, count(*) from emp group by deptno,ename having count(*) > 4;

no rows selected

The above query returns nothing because combination of deptno and ename never
return more than one count.

The solution is to use exists which follows.

 77
SQL> select deptno,ename from emp e1 where exists (select * from emp e2 where e1.deptno=e2.deptno group by
e2.deptno having count(e2.ename) > 4) order by deptno,ename;

DEPTNO ENAME
---------- ----------
20 ADAMS
20 FORD
20 JONES
20 SCOTT
20 SMITH
30 ALLEN
30 BLAKE
30 JAMES
30 MARTIN
30 TURNER
30 WARD

NOT EXISTS
SQL> select deptno,ename from emp e1 where not exists (select * from emp e2

where e1.deptno=e2.deptno group by e2.deptno having count(e2.ename) > 4) order

by deptno,ename;
DEPTNO ENAME
--------- ----------
10 CLARK
10 KING
10 MILLER

WALKUP TREES AND INLINE VIEW

WALKUP TREES
Using hierarchical queries, you can retrieve data based on a natural hierarchical relationship between rows in a table.
However, where a hierarchical relationship exists between the rows of a table, a process called tree walking enables the
hierarchy to be constructed.
Ex:
SQL> select ename || '==>' || prior ename, level from emp start with ename = 'KING'
connect by prior empno=mgr;

ENAME||'==>'||PRIORENAM LEVEL
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------------------------------------ --------
KING==> 1
JONES==>KING 2
SCOTT==>JONES 3
ADAMS==>SCOTT 4
FORD==>JONES 3
SMITH==>FORD 4
BLAKE==>KING 2
ALLEN==>BLAKE 3
WARD==>BLAKE 3
MARTIN==>BLAKE 3
TURNER==>BLAKE 3
JAMES==>BLAKE 3
CLARK==>KING 2
MILLER==>CLARK 3

In the above
Start with clause specifies the root row of the table.
Level pseudo column gives the 1 for root , 2 for child and so on.
Connect by prior clause specifies the columns which has parent-child relationship.

INLINE VIEW OR TOP-N ANALYSIS

In the select statement instead of table name, replacing the select statement is known as inline view.

Ex:
SQL> Select ename, sal, rownum rank from (select *from emp order by sal);

ENAME SAL RANK

---------- ---------- ----------
SMITH 800 1
JAMES 950 2
ADAMS 1100 3
WARD 1250 4
MARTIN 1250 5
MILLER 1300 6
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TURNER 1500 7
ALLEN 1600 8
CLARK 2450 9
BLAKE 2850 10
JONES 2975 11
SCOTT 3000 12
FORD 3000 13
KING 5000 14

LOCKS

Locks are the mechanisms used to prevent destructive interaction between users accessing same resource simultaneously.
Locks provides high degree of data concurrency.

TYPES
 Row level locks
 Table level locks

ROW LEVEL LOCKS

In the row level lock a row is locked exclusively so that other cannot modify the row until the transaction holding the lock is
committed or rolled back. This can be done by using select..for update clause.

Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal > 3000 for update of comm.;

TABLE LEVEL LOCKS

A table level lock will protect table data thereby guaranteeing data integrity when data is being accessed concurrently by
multiple users. A table lock can be held in several modes.

 Share lock
 Share update lock
 Exclusive lock

SHARE LOCK
 80

A share lock locks the table allowing other users to only query but not insert, update or delete rows in a table. Multiple users
can place share locks on the same resource at the same time.

Ex:
SQL> lock table emp in share mode;

SHARE UPDATE LOCK

It locks rows that are to be updated in a table. It permits other users to concurrently query, insert , update or even lock other
rows in the same table. It prevents the other users from updating the row that has been locked.

Ex:
SQL> lock table emp in share update mode;

EXCLUSIVE LOCK

Exclusive lock is the most restrictive of tables locks. When issued by any user, it allows the other user to only query. It is
similar to share lock but only one user can place exclusive lock on a table at a time.

Ex:
SQL> lock table emp in share exclusive mode;

NOWAIT

If one user locked the table without nowait then another user trying to lock the same table then he has to wait until the user
who has initially locked the table issues a commit or rollback statement. This delay could be avoided by appending a nowait
clause in the lock table command.

Ex:
SQL> lock table emp in exclusive mode nowait.

DEADLOCK

A deadlock occurs when tow users have a lock each on separate object, and they want to acquire a lock on the each other’s
object. When this happens, the first user has to wait for the second user to release the lock, but the second user will not
release it until the lock on the first user’s object is freed. In such a case, oracle detects the deadlock automatically and solves
the problem by aborting one of the two transactions.
 81

INDEXES

Index is typically a listing of keywords accompanied by the location of information on a subject. We can create indexes
explicitly to speed up SQL statement execution on a table. The index points directly to the location of the rows containing the
value.

WHY INDEXES?

Indexes are most useful on larger tables, on columns that are likely to appear in where clauses as simple equality.

TYPES

 Unique index
 Non-unique index
 Btree index
 Bitmap index
 Composite index
 Reverse key index
 Function-based index
 Descending index
 Domain index
 Object index
 Cluster index
 Text index
 Index organized table
 Partition index
 Local index
 Local prefixed
 Local non-prefixed
 Global index
 Global prefixed
 Global non-prefixed

UNIQUE INDEX
 82
Unique indexes guarantee that no two rows of a table have duplicate values in the columns that define the index. Unique
index is automatically created when primary key or unique constraint is created.

Ex:
SQL> create unique index stud_ind on student(sno);

NON-UNIQUE INDEX

Non-Unique indexes do not impose the above restriction on the column values.

Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno);

BTREE INDEX or ASCENDING INDEX

The default type of index used in an oracle database is the btree index. A btree index is designed to provide both rapid access
to individual rows and quick access to groups of rows within a range. The btree index does this by performing a succession of
value comparisons. Each comparison eliminates many of the rows.

Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno);

BITMAP INDEX
This can be used for low cardinality columns: that is columns in which the number of distinct values is snall when compared
to the number of the rows in the table.
Ex:
SQL> create bitmap index stud_ind on student(sex);

COMPOSITE INDEX
A composite index also called a concatenated index is an index created on multiple columns of a table. Columns in a
composite index can appear in any order and need not be adjacent columns of the table.
Ex:
SQL> create bitmap index stud_ind on student(sno, sname);

REVERSE KEY INDEX

A reverse key index when compared to standard index, reverses each byte of the column being indexed while keeping the
column order. When the column is indexed in reverse mode then the column values will be stored in an index in different
blocks as the starting value differs. Such an arrangement can help avoid performance degradations in indexes where
modifications to the index are concentrated on a small set of blocks.
 83
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno, reverse);

We can rebuild a reverse key index into normal index using the noreverse keyword.
Ex:
SQL> alter index stud_ind rebuild noreverse;

FUNCTION BASED INDEX

This will use result of the function as key instead of using column as the value for the key.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(upper(sname));

DESCENDING INDEX
The order used by B-tree indexes has been ascending order. You can categorize data in B-tree index in descending order as
well. This feature can be useful in applications where sorting operations are required.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno desc);

TEXT INDEX
Querying text is different from querying data because words have shades of meaning, relationships to other words, and
opposites. You may want to search for words that are near each other, or words that are related to thers. These queries
would be extremely difficult if all you had available was the standard relational operators. By extending SQL to include text
indexes, oracle text permits you to ask very complex questions about the text.
To use oracle text, you need to create a text index on the column in which the text is stored. Text index is a collection of
tables and indexes that store information about the text stored in the column.
TYPES

There are several different types of indexes available in oracle 9i. The first, CONTEXT is supported in oracle 8i as well as oracle
9i. As of oracle 9i, you can use the CTXCAT text index fo further enhance your text index management and query capabilities.
 CONTEXT
 CTXCAT
 CTXRULE

The CTXCAT index type supports the transactional synchronization of data between the base table and its text index. With
CONTEXT indexes, you need to manually tell oracle to update the values in the text index after data changes in base table.
CTXCAT index types do not generate score values during the text queries.

HOW TO CREATE TEXT INDEX?

You can create a text index via a special version of the create index comman. For context index, specify the ctxsys.context
index type and for ctxcat index, specify the ctxsys.ctxcat index type.
Ex:
Suppose you have a table called BOOKS with the following columns
Title, Author, Info.
 84
SQL> create index book_index on books(info) indextype is ctxsys.context;

SQL> create index book_index on books(info) indextype is ctxsys.ctxcat;

TEXT QUERIES

Once a text index is created on the info column of BOOKS table, text-searching capabilities increase dynamically.
CONTAINS & CATSEARCH

CONTAINS function takes two parameters – the column name and the search string.

Syntax:
Contains(indexed_column, search_str);
If you create a CTXCAT index, use the CATSEARCH function in place of CONTAINS. CATSEARCH takes three parameters – the column
name, the search string and the index set.
Syntax:
Contains(indexed_column, search_str, index_set);
HOW A TEXT QEURY WORKS?

When a function such as CONTAINS or CATSEARCH is used in query, the text portion of the query is processed by oracle text. The
remainder of the query is processed just like a regular query within the database. The result of the text query processing and
the regular query processing are merged to return a single set of records to the user.
SEARCHING FOR AN EXACT MATCH OF A WORD

The following queries will search for a word called ‘prperty’ whose score is greater than zero.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘property’, null) > 0;

Suppose if you want to know the score of the ‘property’ in each book, if score values for individual searches range from 0 to
10 for each occurrence of the string within the text then use the score function.
SQL> select title, score(10) from books where contains(info, ‘property’, 10) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR AN EXACT MATCH OF MULTIPLE WORDS

The following queries will search for two words.

SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property AND harvests’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘property AND harvests’, null) > 0;

Instead of using AND you could hae used an ampersand(&). Before using this method, set define off so the & character will
not be seen as part of a variable name.
SQL> set define off

SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property & harvests’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘property harvests’, null) > 0;
The following queries will search for more than two words.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property AND harvests AND workers’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘property harvests workers’, null) > 0;

The following queries will search for either of the two words.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property OR harvests’) > 0;
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Instead of OR you can use a vertical line (|).
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property | harvests’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘property | harvests’, null) > 0;

In the following queries the ACCUM(accumulate) operator adds together the scores of the individual searches and compares
the accumulated score to the threshold value.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property ACCUM harvests’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘property ACCUM harvests’, null) > 0;

Instead of OR you can use a comma(,).

SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property , harvests’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘property , harvests’, null) > 0;

In the following queries the MINUS operator subtracts the score of the second term’s search from the score of the first term’s
search.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property MINUS harvests’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘property NOT harvests’, null) > 0;

Instead of MINUS you can use – and instead of NOT you can use ~.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘property - harvests’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘property ~ harvests’, null) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR AN EXACT MATCH OF A PHRASE

The following queries will search for the phrase. If the search phrase includes a reserved word within oracle text, the you
must use curly braces ({}) to enclose text.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘transactions {and} finances’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘transactions {and} finances’, null) > 0;

You can enclose the entire phrase within curly braces, in which case any reserved words within the phrase will be treated as
part of the search criteria.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘{transactions and finances}’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, ‘{transactions and finances}’, null) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR WORDS THAT ARE NEAR EACH OTHER

The following queries will search for the words that are in between the search terms.

SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘workers NEAR harvests’) > 0;

Instead of NEAR you can use ;.

SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘workers ; harvests’) > 0;

In CONTEXT index queries, you can specify the maximum number of words between the search terms.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘NEAR((workers, harvests),10)’ > 0;

USING WILDCARDS DURING SEARCHES

You can use wildcards to expand the list of valid search terms used during your query. Just as in regular text-string wildcard
processing, two wildcards are available.
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% - percent sign; multiple-character wildcard
_ - underscore; single-character wildcard
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘worker%’) > 0;

SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘work___’) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR WORDS THAT SHARE THE SAME STEM

Rather than using wildcards, you can use stem-expansion capabilities to expand the list of text strings. Given the ‘stem’ of a
word, oracle will expand the list of words to search for to include all words having the same stem. Sample expansions are
show here.
Play - plays playing played playful
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘$manage’) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR FUZZY MATCHES

A fuzzy match expands the specified search term to include words that are spelled similarly but that do not necessarily have
the same word stem. Fuzzy matches are most helpful when the text contains misspellings. The misspellings can be either in
the searched text or in the search string specified by the user during the query.

The following queries will not return anything because its search does not contain the word ‘hardest’.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘hardest’) > 0;

It does, however, contains the word ‘harvest’. A fuzzy match will return the books containing the word ‘harvest’ even though
‘harvest’ has a different word stem thant the word used as the search term.
To use a fuzzy match, precede the search term with a question mark, with no space between the question mark and the
beginning of the search term.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘?hardest’) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR WORDS THAT SOUND LIKE OTHER WORDS

SOUNDEX, expands search terms based on how the word sounds. The SOUNDEX expansion method uses the same text-
matching logic available via the SOUNDEX function in SQL.
To use the SOUNDEX option, you must precede the search term with an exclamation mark(!).
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, ‘!grate’) > 0;

INDEX SYNCHRONIZATION

When using CONTEXT indexes, you need to manage the text index contents; the text indexes are not updated when the base
table is updated. When the table was updated, its text index is out of sync with the base table. To sync of the index, execute
the SYNC_INDEX procedure of the CTX_DDL package.
SQL> exec CTX_DDL.SYNC_INDEX(‘book_index’);

INDEX SETS

Historically, problems with queries of text indexes have occurred when other criteria are used alongside text searches as part
of the where clause. To improve the mixed query capability, oracle features index sets. The indexes within the index set may
be structured relational columns or on text columns.
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To create an index set, use the CTX_DDL package to create the index set and add indexes to it. When you create a text index,
you can then specify the index set it belongs to.
SQL> exec CTX_DDL.CREATE_INDEX_SET(‘books_index_set’);

The add non-text indexes.

SQL> exec CTX_DDL.ADD_INDEX(‘books_index_set’, ‘title_index’);

Now create a CTXCAT text index. Specify ctxsys.ctxcat as the index type, and list the index set in the parameters clause.
SQL> create index book_index on books(info) indextype is ctxsys.ctxcat parameters(‘index set books_index_set’);

INDEX-ORGANIZED TABLE
An index-organized table keeps its data sorted according to the primary key column values for the table. Index-organized
tables store their data as if the entire table was stored in an index.
An index-organized table allows you to store the entire table’s data in an index.
Ex:
create table student (sno number(2),sname varchar(10),smarks number(3) constraint pk primary key(sno) organization
index;
PARTITION INDEX
Similar to partitioning tables, oracle allows you to partition indexes too. Like table partitions, index partitions could be in
different tablespaces.
LOCAL INDEXES

 Local keyword tells oracle to create a separte index for each partition.
 In the local prefixed index the partition key is specified on the left prefix. When the underlying table is partitioned
baes on, say two columns then the index can be prefixed on the first column specified.
 Local prefixed indexes can be unique or non unique.
 Local indexes may be easier to manage than global indexes.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_index on student(sno) local;

GLOBAL INDEXES

 A global index may contain values from multiple partitions.

 An index is global prefixed if it is partitioned on the left prefix of the index columns.
 The global clause allows you to create a non-partitioned index.
 Global indexes may perform uniqueness checks faster than local (partitioned) indexes.
 You cannot create global indexes for hash partitions or subpartitions.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_index on student(sno) global;

Similar to table partitions, it is possible to move them from one device to another. But unlike table partitions, movement of
index partitions requires individual reconstruction of the index or each partition (only in the case of global index).
Ex:
SQL> alter index stud_ind rebuild partition p2
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 Index partitions cannot be dropped manually.
 They are dropped implicitly when the data they refer to is dropped from the partitioned table.

MONITORING USE OF INDEXES

Once you turned on the monitoring the use of indexes, then we can check whether the table is hitting the index or not.
To monitor the use of index use the follwing syntax.
Syntax:
alter index index_name monitoring usage;
then check for the details in V$OBJECT_USAGE view.
If you want to stop monitoring use the following.
Syntax:
alter index index_name nomonitoring usage;
DATA MODEL
 ALL_INDEXES
 DBA_INDEXES
 USER_INDEXES
 ALL_IND-COLUMNS
 DBA-IND_COLUMNS
 USER_IND_COLUMNS
 ALL_PART_INDEXES
 DBA_PART_INDEXES
 USER_PART_INDEXES
 V$OBJECT_USAGE

SQL*PLUS COMMNANDS
These commands does not require statement terminator and applicable to the sessions , those will be automatically cleared
when session was closed.
BREAK
This will be used to breakup the data depending on the grouping.
Syntax:
Break or bre [on <column_name> on report]
COMPUTE
This will be used to perform group functions on the data.
Syntax:
Compute or comp [group_function of column_name on breaking_column_name or report]

TTITLE
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This will give the top title for your report. You can on or off the ttitle.
Syntax:
Ttitle or ttit [left | center | right] title_name skip n other_characters Ttitle or ttit [on or off]

BTITLE
This will give the bottom title for your report. You can on or off the btitle.
Syntax:
Btitle or btit [left | center | right] title_name skip n other_characters Btitle or btit [on or off]
Ex:
SQL> bre on deptno skip 1 on report

SQL> comp sum of sal on deptno

SQL> comp sum of sal on report

SQL> ttitle center 'EMPLOYEE DETAILS' skip1 center '----------------'

SQL> btitle center '** THANKQ **'

SQL> select * from emp order by deptno;

Output:
EMPLOYEE DETAILS
-----------------------

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ------- -------------- -------- ---------- ----------
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300
---------- **********
8750 sum

7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20

7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 3000
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975
---------- **********
10875 sum
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7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500
---------- **********
9400 sum
----------
sum 29025

IMPORTANT QUERIES
1) `To find the nth row of a table
.SQL> Select *from emp where rowid = (select max(rowid) from emp where rownum <= 4);
Or
Select *from emp where rownum <= 4 minus select *from emp where rownum <= 3;
2) To find duplicate rows
SQL> Select *from emp where rowid in (select max(rowid) from emp group by empno, ename, mgr, job, hiredate,

comm, deptno, sal);

Or
Select empno,ename,sal,job,hiredate,comm , count(*) from emp group by empno,ename,sal,job,hiredate,comm
having count(*) >=1;
3) To delete duplicate rows
Delete emp where rowid in (select max(rowid) from emp group by empno,ename,mgr,job,hiredate,sal,comm,deptno);
4) To find the count of duplicate rows
Select ename, count(*) from emp group by ename having count(*) >= 1;
5) How to display alternative rows in a table?
select *from emp where (rowid,0) in (select rowid,mod(rownum,2) from emp);
6) Getting employee details of each department who is drawing maximum sal?
select *from emp where (deptno,sal) in ( select deptno,max(sal) from emp group by deptno);
7) How to get number of employees in each department , in which department is having more than 2500 employees?
Select deptno,count(*) from emp group by deptno having count(*) >2500;
8) To reset the time to the beginning of the day

Select to_char(trunc(sysdate),’dd-mon-yyyy hh:mi:ss am’) from dual;

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9) To find nth maximum sal
Select *from emp where sal in (select max(sal) from (select *from emp order by sal) where rownum <= 5);

** THANKYOU **