M odule 1

Railway Engineering [5Hour]

BTCVC 702 INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING

SEVENTH SEMESTER-FOURTH YEAR
CIVIL ENGINEERING
 Outcome of module
• Know about the various component parts and its functions of
railway track
• Know the design of various components of railway track.
 Outcome of lecture-01
• Know about the Permanent Way and Gauge of Railway
Track
 INTRODUCTION
Amongst the different modes of transport, Railways have
their greatest utilization in the transport of large volumes of
heavy and bulk commodities and passengers over long
distances with safety, comfort and convenience.
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
 PERMANENT WAY
The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers with the help of fixtures
and fastenings and resting on ballast and subgrade is called the railway
track or permanent way.
 REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL
PERMANENT WAY
•The following are the principal requirements of an ideal permanent
way or of a good railway track :-

1. The gauge of the Railway track should be correct and uniform.

2. The rail should be in proper level in straight portion. Proper amount of
super elevation should be provided to the outer rail above the inner rail on
curved portion of the track.
3. The permanent way should be sufficiently strong against lateral forces.
4. The curves, provided in the track, should be properly designed
 Continue…..
5. An even and uniform gradient should be provided through out the length of the
track.

6. The tractive resistance of the track should be minimum.

7. The design of the permanent way should be such that the load of the train is uniformly
distributed on both the rails so as to prevent unequal settlement of the track.

8. All the components parts such as rails, sleepers, ballast, fixtures and fastenings, etc.
should satisfy the design requirements.

9. There should be adequate provision for easy renewal and replacement.

10. Alignment should be correct.

11. Drainage system should be proper to enhance safety and durability of track.
 GAUGES IN THE RAILWAY TRACK
Definition: Gauge is defined as the minimum distance between inner
face two rails. Indian Railways follows this standard practice and the
gauge is measured as the clear minimum distance between the running
faces of the two track rails as shown in Fig.
 DIFFERENT GAUGES IN INDIA
The different gauges in India are as following :-
1. Broad gauge or Standard Gauge(1.676 m),
2. Meter gauge (1.0 m),
3. Narrow gauge (0.762 m & 0.610 m).

In India, efforts are being made to convert all N.G. and

M.G. lines to B.G. lines on important sections as and when
funds are available.
IN INDIA FOLLOWING GAUGES ARE USED

Track Of Gauages Gauages Width

 Standard gauge (B.G) 1.676 m
 Metre Gauge (M.G) 1.000 m
 Narrow gauge (N.G) 0.762 m
 Feeder track-gauge (L.G)
 ( or Light gauge) 0.610 m
 BROAD GAUGE
a. When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of
two parallel rails forming a track is 1676mm the gauge is
called Broad Gauge (B.G)

b. This gauge is also known as standard gauge of India and is the

broadest gauge of the world.

c. The Other countries using the Broad Gauge are Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Argentine. 50% India‟s railway
tracks have been laid to this gauge.
 Suitability
• Broad gauge is suitable under the following Conditions

1. When sufficient funds are available for the railway project.

2. When the prospects of revenue are very bright.
3. This gauge is used for tracks in plain areas which are densely
populated.
4. For routes of maximum traffic, intensities and at places which
are centers of industry and commerce.
5. Suitable for high speed
 METER GAUGE
a. When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
parallel rails forming a track is 1000mm, the gauge is known as Metre
Gauge (M.G)
b. The other countries using Metre gauge are France, Switzerland,
Argentine, etc. 40% of India‟s railway tracks have been laid to this
gauge.
• Suitability
1. When the funds available for the railway project are inadequate.
2. When traffic efficiency is moderate.
3. When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
4. This gauge is used for tracks in under-developed areas and in interior
areas.
 NARROW GAUGE
a. When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel
rails forming a track is either 762mm or 610mm, the gauge is known as
Narrow gauge (N.G)
b. The other countries using narrow gauge are Britain, South Africa, etc. 10%
of India‟s railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.
• Suitability
1. For low speed movement
2. When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to the
provision of sharp curves, steep gradients, narrow bridges and tunnels etc.
3. When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
4. This gauge is used in hilly and very thinly populated areas.
 SELECTION OF GAUGE
Following are the factors affecting the choice of a gauge:
• Traffic Condition: If the intensity of traffic on the track is likely
to be more, a gauge wider than the standard gauge is suitable.
• Development of Poor Areas: The narrow gauges are laid in
certain parts of the world to develop a poor area and thus link the
poor area with the outside developed world.
• Cost of Construction:
– The cost of railway track is directly proportional to the width of its
gauge.
– If the fund available is not sufficient to construct a standard gauge, a
metre gauge or a narrow gauge is preferred rather than to have no
railways at all.
 Continue…..
• Speed of Movement:
– The speed of a train is a function of the diameter of wheel which in turn
is limited by the gauge.
– The wheel diameter is usually about 0.75 times the gauge width and
thus, the speed of a train is almost proportional to the gauge.
– If higher speeds are to be attained, the broad gauge track is preferred to
the metre gauge or narrow gauge track.
• Nature of Country:
– In mountainous country, it is advisable to have a narrow gauge of the
track since it is more flexible and can be laid to a smaller radius on the
curves.
– This is the main reason why some important railways, covering
thousands of kilometers, are laid with a gauge as narrow as 610 mm.
 Advantages of Uniformity of Gauge
• Delay and cost of transporting men and materials can be
reduced.
• No breakage of goods.
• To avoid difficulties in loading and unloading of goods.
• Possibility of theft and misplacement of goods can be
avoided.
• Large sheds to store goods are not required.
• Time delay can be avoided.
 Outcome of lecture-02
• Coning of wheels and rail sections
CONING OF WHEELS
1. The flanges of wheel is never made flat, but they are
in the shape of cone with a slope of 1 in 20. (Sloping
of the wheel from the vertical axis)
2. The coning of wheels is mainly done to maintain the
vehicle in the central position with respect to the
track.
• Advantages of Coning Wheels
a. Reduce the wear and tear of wheel flanges and rails.
b. To provide possibility of lateral movement of the axle
with its wheels.
c. To prevent the slipping of wheels.
 Outcome of lecture-03
• Rail- Functions, Requirements, Types and Joints.
 RAILS
General
• Rail is similar to steel girders. These
are placed end to end to provide continuous
and level surface for the trains to move

• On Indian Railways the standard

lengths are the following:
• Length = 12.80 meter for BG (say 13 m)
• Length = 11.89 meter for MG (say 12 m)
 FUNCTIONS OF RAIL
1. To provide hard, continuous and level surface for movement of train.
2. To provide a smooth pathway so that friction between rail and wheel
become less.
3. Serve as a lateral guide for the running of wheels.
4. Transferring the load onto the sleeper.
5. To bear the stresses developed in the track due to temperature changes
and loading patterns.
6. To resist breaking forces caused due to stoppage of trains.
 REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL RAIL
• The main requirements of an ideal rail section are as under
1. The section of the rail should be such that the load of the wheels is
transferred to the sleepers without exceeding the permissible stresses.
2. The section of the rail should be able to withstand the lateral forces
caused due to fast moving trains.
3. The underside of the head and top of the foot of the rail section
should be of such a slope that the fishplates fit properly.
4. The center of gravity of the rail section must lie at mid-height of the
rail so that maximum tensile and compressive stresses are nearly
equal.
5. The web of the rail section should be such that it can safely bear the
vertical load without buckling.
6. The head of the rail should be sufficiently thick for adequate margin of
vertical wear.
7. The foot of rail should be sufficient wide enough so that rail sections are
stable against overturning especially on curves.
8. The section of the rails should be such that the ends of two adjacent rails
can be efficiently joined with a pair of fish plates.
9. The surfaces for rail table and gauge face should be sufficiently hard to
resist the wear.
10.The tensile strength of the rail section should not be less than 72 Kg/m2
11. They should be proper composition of steel in head, web and foot of the rail
sections.
 TYPES OF RAIL SECTIONS

1. Double headed rails

2.Bull headed rails

3. Flat footed rails

 DOUBLE HEADED RAILS
a. These were the rails which were used in
the beginning, which were double
headed and consisting of a dumb-bell
section.
b. The idea behind using these rails was
that when the head was worn out in
course of time, the rail can be inverted
and reused.
c. But as time passed indentations were
formed in the lower table due to which
smooth running over the surface at the
top was impossible.
 BULL HEADED RAILS
In this type of rail the head was made a little thicker and stronger
than the lower part by adding more metal to it, so that it can withstand
the stresses
B.H. rails
 Merits
• They keep better alignment & give more solid & smoother track.

• The rails are easily disconnected from sleepers as they have no direct
connection with the later.

• The heavy chairs with larger bearing on sleeper give longer life to
wooden sleepers & greater stability to the track.
 De-merits
• The additional cost of iron chairs.
• They have less strength & stiffness.
• They require heavy maintenance cost.
 FLAT FOOTED RAILS
a. These rails are also called as Vignole's rails.
b. Initially the flat footed rails were fixed to the sleepers directly and no chairs
and keys were required.
c. Later on due to heavy train loads problems arise which lead to steel bearing
plates between the sleeper and the rail at rail joints and other important places
these are the rails which are most commonly used in India.
F. F. rails
 Merits
• Easy to fix
• More economical
•Greater strength & stiffness
•More Lateral stability
• No keys & chairs are required
•Simple arrangements at points & crossings
 De-merits
• Loosening of fittings.
•Problems in straightening of bent rails,
replacing of rails & dehogging of battered
rails.
 Comparison of rail types...
Sl. Point of Comparison Flat –footed rails Bull-headed rails
No
1 Strength & Stiffness More strength & stiffness for Less strength & stiffness
the same weight, both laterally
& vertically
2 Laying & Relaying Easily laid & re-laid, no Difficult laid & re-laid,
chairs are required chairs are required
3 Initial cost Cost is less, rails require lesser Cost is more, rails require
& cheaper fastenings more & costly fastenings
4 Arrangements at points, crossings Simpler & easy Complicated & difficult
& at sharp curves
5 Inspection Daily inspection is not Daily inspection of wooden
necessary as no special risk keys is necessary
is involved
6
th economically to 25.6
Maintenance cost
0 m or 19.20 m for B.
Cost is less
G. track. In
Requires heavy
maintenance cost
7 Rigidity More rigid Less rigid
 Selection of rail section
• Rail is designated by its weight per unit length
 Speed of train
 Gauge of track
 The axle load and nature of traffic
 Type of rail sections used (DH,BH and FF)
 Spacing of sleepers
 Max permissible wear on top of rail (5% of wt of rail is allowed)
Rail section
52kg/m (Upto 130Kmph)
60kg/m (Upto 160Kmph)
 Rails –Joints
 Rail joints are necessary to hold together the adjoining ends of the rails in the
correct position, both in the horizontal & vertical planes.
 It is the weakest part of the track.
 Rails –joints Problems
• Weakest link in track

• Break of continuity (horizontal & vertical)

• Blow of wheels–loosening of fish plate, ballast, fastenings etc.

• Wear & tear of track components

• Impact at rail joints – reduce life span of rails, sleepers & fastenings

• Noise is created

• Increases fuel consumption and reduce speed of train

Rails –joints: Requirement
• Holding rail ends for continuity.

• Sufficient strength & stiffness.

• Adequate expansion gap.

• Easy removal or replacement, flexibility.

• Provision for wear at rail ends. It should not allow the rail ends to get battered in any
case.

• Adequate elasticity.
• The joint should fulfill the above requirements with the minimum of initial &
maintenance cost. (i.e. it should be economical)
 RAIL JOINTS
a. Supported Rail Joint
b. Suspended Rail Joint
c. Bridge Joint
d. Base Joint
e. Welded Rail Joint
f. Staggered or Broken Joint
g. Square or Even Joint
h. Compromise Joint
i. Insulated Joint
j. Expansion Joint
 Rails –joints: Types
Supported rail joints Suspended rail joints
• When the rail ends rest on a single • When the rail ends are projected beyond
sleeper called a “ Joint Sleeper” it is sleepers called “Shoulder Sleeper” and
termed as “ Supported joint”. the joint is termed as “ Suspended rail joint”.
• This type of joint is generally
used with timber & steel through sleepers on
Indian & foreign railways.
Bridge joint
• When the rail ends are projected beyond sleepers as in case of
suspended joint & they are connected by a flat or corrugated plates
called a “ Bridge plate” it is termed as a bridge joint.
• This type of joint is not used on Indian railways.

Shoulder Sleepers
 Staggered or Broken joint
 The joints on railway track are not directly opposite to the joints of the rail
track.
These joints are generally provided on curves, where the length of outer
curved track is greater than the length of inner curved track.
Square or Even joint
The joint of the one railway track are directly opposite to the joints of other rail
track. This type is generally used on straight track.
 Insulated joints: When insulating medium is inserted in a rail joint to stop the flow
of current beyond the track- circuited part, it is called insulated joint.
 Expansion joints: In bridges , provision for expansion and
contraction is kept for girders and rails both
 Outcome of lecture-05
• To know about creep and welding of rail sections
 CREEP OF RAILS
Creep is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rail
with respect to the sleepers in a track.
 THEORIES OF CREEP
Wave action or wave theory:
• Wave motion is set up by
moving loads of wheels.

• The vertical reverse curve ABC

is formed in the rail ahead of
wheels, resulting from the rail
deflection under the load.
 Drag or Dragging Theory
✓ Backward thrust on driving wheels of locomotive of train push the rail off track
backward.
✓ Mean while other wheel of locomotive and vehicles push the rail in the direction
of travel.
✓ Since drag effect is more as explained in Wave Action Theory
resultant creep of rails in forward direction.
Percussion Theory
This theory states that the creep is due to impact of wheels at the rail end ahead at
joints. Hence as and when wheel leave the trailing rail and strike the facing rail end
at each joint it pushes the rail in forward direction resulting in creep

32
 Factors effecting the magnitude & direction of creep.

• Alignment of track: Creep is more on curves than on tangent tracks.

• Grade of track: More in case of steeper gradient, particularly

while train moving downward with heavy loads.
• Type of rails: older rail have more tendency than new one.

• Direction of heaviest traffic: In heavier load moving

direction occurs more creep.
 EFFECTS OF CREEP

• Most serious effect of creep is being buckling of track.

• Sleepers move out of square and out of position, affects the gauge and alignment of
track. As sleepers move surface is disturbed results uncomfortable riding.

• When joints are opened out beyond the permissible stress in bolts and fish plates
tendency to occurrence of failure in them.

• Its difficult to fix the removed rail at proper position during repair works since the
time gap becomes too short or too long due to creep.

• Smashing of fish plates, bolts, bending of bars, kinks at joints of rails and forging
of ballast ahead, common effects of creep.
Contd..
• Points and crossings get distorted, its too difficult to set them to correct
gauge and alignment. Movement of switches is made difficult and
interlocking is thrown out of gear.
 REMEDIES OF CREEP
1. Pulling back the rails
✓ Pull back the rail to its original position. By means of crow bars
and hooks provided through the fish bolts wholes of rails
✓ By considering the position of joints relative to sleepers and
both rails should be in respective position.
2. Provision of anchors :
✓ By use of anchors and sufficient crib ballast.
✓ For creep 7.5 cm-15 cm 4 anchors per rail
✓ For creep 22.5 to 25 cm 6 anchors per rail.
3. Use of steel sleepers:
✓ Sleepers should be made up of good material with proper
fitting. Sleepers should provide good grip with ballast to resist
the movement of sleepers. Increase in no. of sleepers.
Provision of Anchors
 Welding of Rails
The number of joints can be reduced by the process of welding of
rails. Welded joints are considered as the most perfect & strongest type of
joints.
 Purpose of welding:-
To increase the length of the rails
 To repair the worn out or damaged rails
 To build up worn out points and rails on the sharp curves
 Advantages of welding rails
 Reduction in maintenance cost (20 to 40%)
Saving in fuel due to reduction in tractive effort.
 Reduction in creep (due to higher friction)
Increase in stability and stiffness
 Reduces intensity of high frequency vibration
 Increases the life of the rail
The cost of track construction by welding decreases due to
less number of rail joints of rails
Reduction in theft and damage.
 Methods of welding of rails:
1) Electric Arc welding or Metal Arc welding
2) Gas pressure welding or Oxy – acetylene welding
3) Flash butt welding
4) Chemical or Thermit welding
 1) Electric Arc welding or Metal Arc welding:
In this method, the current passed through the rail and at the same
time through a thin rod known as electrode. As the electrode
approaches the rail an electric arc is formed & with its heat the
electrode gets melted, & finally the molten metal of the electrode gets
deposited on the rail, providing a firm bond.
This method used for building up worn out points & crossings,
damaged rails & for other small welding operations.
1) Electric Arc welding or Metal Arc welding
2) Oxy – acetetylene welding or Gas Pressure welding:
In this method, intense heat produced by combining the oxygen &
acetylene gas, which melts the electrode & deposited the molten
metal on the rail.
This plant consist of two cylinders (one for oxygen & the other for
acetylene ).
This is best from mobility in nature.
This is specially useful for cutting of steel.
 3) Flash butt welding:
In this method, powerful current is passed
through two rails, the ends of which are to be
joined together.
The width of the gap between two rails is varied till both the ends
get heated up to a required temperature. They are brought in contact
with each other resulting in flash.
Finally current is stopped & rails are pressed together under a
pressure of 20 tonnes.
 Best economical method -for large jobs at site
4) Chemical or Thermit welding
 Use of chemicals like- aluminium & iron oxide.
In this method, aluminium & iron oxide are mixed in powder form
& ignited. On ignition, the chemical reaction takes place and
produces intense heat because this reaction is exothermic in nature.
(Fe2O3+2Al=Al2O3+2Fe+Heat)
After the reaction, Fe gets separated & is deposited in the gap of the rail
ends which are preheated.
The gap are entrappedin a mouldto prevent the flow of mixture.
 SLEEPERS
Sleepers are transverse members of the track placed below the
rails to support and fix rail sections in position.
 FUNCTIONS OF SLEEPERS
Sleepers serve the following functions:
(i) To hold the rails to proper gauge.
(ii) To transfer the loads from rails to the ballast.
(iii) To support and fix the rails in proper position.
(iv) To keep the rails at a proper level in straight tracks and at
proper super elevation on curves.
(v) To provide elastic medium between the rails and the ballast.
(vi) To provide stability to the permanent way on the whole.
 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD SLEEPERS
The following are the requirements of good sleepers:
I. The sleepers should be sufficiently strong to act as a beam under loads.
II. The sleepers should be economical.
III. They should maintain correct Gauages.

IV. They should provide sufficient bearing area for the rail.

V. The sleepers should have sufficient weight for stability

VI. Sleepers should facilitate easy fixing and taking out of rails without disturbing them.

VII. They should facilitate easy removal and replacement of ballast. maximum forces of
the moving trains.
VIII.They should be able to resist impact and vibrations of moving trains.
IX. They should be suitable to each type of ballast.
X. If track-circuiting is done, it should be possible to insulate them from the rails.
 TYPES OF SLEEPERS
Sleepers are of the following types:
1.Wooden sleepers.
2. Steel sleepers.
3. Cast iron sleepers.
4. R.C.C. sleepers.
5. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers.
 1. WOODEN SLEEPERS
• These sleepers are regarded to be the best as they satisfy all the requirements of
good sleepers and are the only sleeper suitable for track circuiting.
• The life of wooden sleepers depends upon their ability to resist wear, attack by
white ants and quality of timber used.
• Timbers commonly used in India for sleepers are sal, Teak, Deodar and chair
wood.

The standard sizes of wooden sleepers for different gauges are as follows:
1. For B.G. – 2740 mm X 250 mm X 130 mm
2. For M.G.– 1830 mm X 203 mm X 114 mm
3. For N.G. – 1520 mm X 150 mm X 100 mm
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

) Timber is easily available in all parts of

(i (i) The life of wooden sleeper is less as
India. compared to other types of sleepers.
(ii) Wooden sleepers are suitable for all
types of ballast. (ii) It is difficult to maintain Gauage of
(iii) Wooden sleepers require less fastening the track in case of wooden sleepers.
and simple in design. (iii) These sleepers are subjected to wear,
(iv) These sleepers give less noisy track. decay, and attack by white ants etc.
(v) These sleepers absorb shocks and (iv) Track laid over wooden sleepers is
vibrations more than any other sleepers.
easily disturbed.
(vi) These sleepers are best suited for track
(v) Maintenance cost is more as compared
circuiting.
to other sleepers.
 2. STEEL SLEEPERS

These sleepers consist of steel throughs made of 6 mm thick

sheets, with its both ends bend down to check the running out of ballast.
At the time of pressing of sleepers, an inward slope of 1 in 20 on either
side is provided to achieve required tilt of rails. The standard length of
these is 2680 mm
 STEEL SLEEPERS ARE OF TWO TYPES

Key Type Steel Sleepers Clip And Bolt Type Steel Sleepers
In this type of sleepers lugs or jaws are
Pressed out of metal and keys are used In this type of sleeper, clips and
for holding the rails. bolts are used for holding. Cracks are
These are of two types:
(i) Lug type not developed in the sleepers as the
(ii) Loose jaw type holes for the bolts are small and circular.
 Lugs are formed by pressing out the
metal of the channel section. It requires four clips and four bolts for
 Loose jaw type is an improvement on holding each rail
pressed lug type
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

(i) Steel sleepers are light in weight and can (i) Initial cost of these sleepers is more than
be handled easily. wooden sleepers.
(ii) These require less fastenings.
(ii) Cracks are developed at rail seat of these
(iii) He life of steel sleepers is more than
the wooden sleepers. sleepers.
(iv) The gauge can be easily maintained and (iii) Steel sleepers are not suitable for track
adjusted. circuiting.
(v) The scrap value is more than the (iv) These are not suitable for all types of
wooden sleepers.
ballast.
(vi) The track laid on steel sleepers has good
lateral and longitudinal rigidity. (v) These are liable to corrosion.
(vii) Creep of rails can be checked by using
steel sleepers
 3. CASTE IRON SLEEPERS
The sleepers made of cast iron, known as cast iron sleepers, have
been extensively used in India as compared to other countries in the
world.
Cast iron sleepers are of the following types:
(i) Pot or bowl sleeper
(ii) Plate sleeper
(iii) Box sleeper
(iv) CST-9 sleeper
(v) Duplex sleeper
 (I) POT OR BOWL SLEEPER
Pot sleeper consist of two bowls placed under each rail
and connected together by a tie-bar(D=5cm, w=2cm and
wt=13.6kg). The total effective area of both the pots is 0.464 sq.
m and wt=114kg.
• Each pot is provided with two holes for
inspection and packing of ballast.
• On the top of each pot, a rail seat is provided
to hold rails at an inward slope of 1 in 20
Gibbs and cotters are so casted that by interchanging them gauge
is slackened by 3 mm.
 (II) PLATE SLEEPER
Plate sleepers consists of two rectangular plates of 864 mm X 305 mm
in size with short side parallel to rail.

• The plates are provided with projecting ribs in the bottom to provide a grip in the
ballast for lateral stability.
• The plates are held in position by tie-bar.
• Stiffeners are provided at the top of the plate to increase the strength. It provides
the effective bearing area of 0.464sq. m per sleeper.
 (III)BOX SLEEPER

These sleepers are not in use these days. Box sleepers are
similar to plate sleepers. In this type of sleeper, a box is
provided at the top of each plate to hold the rails.
 (IV) CST-9 SLEEPER: CENTRAL STANDARD
TRIAL 9 SLEEPER
CST-9 sleeper is more satisfactory than other C.I. Sleepers and
is extensively used in Indian Railways since last thirty years.

 It is a combination of pot, plate, and box sleeper.

 CST-9s sleeper consists of a triangular inverted pot one on
each side of rail seat.
 Rail seat is provided at the top to hold rails at 1 in 20 inward
slope.
 The pots are connected across the track by means of a tie- bar.
 (V) DUPLEX SLEEPERS
Duplex sleepers are also known as rail free duplex
sleepers and have been used at rail joints in conjunction with
CST-9 sleepers.

 These sleepers are used at rail joints to prevent cantilever action between two
supports of the CST-9 sleepers.

 These consists of two plates, each of size 850 mm X 750 mm.

 The plates are placed with the longer side parallel to the rails and are connected
with a tie-bar.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

(i) The life of C.I sleepers is more. (i) More ballast is required than any other
(ii)The maintenance cost of these sleepers type of sleepers.
is low. (ii) The number of fittings required is
(iii) Gauage can be easily maintained and more.
adjusted with these sleepers. (iii) These sleepers are liable to break.
(iv) These sleepers are more durable. (iv) C.I. Sleepers are liable to break.
(v) Creep rails can be checked by using (v) These are not suitable for all types of
these sleepers. ballast.
 4. R.C.C. SLEEPERS
Reinforced cement concrete sleepers are of
two types:

(i) Through type

(ii) Block and tie type
 (I)THROUGH TYPE R.C.C. SLEEPER
This is also known as one piece or mono-block sleeper.
 In this type of sleeper cracks develop on the tension side when stressed.
 These cracks are very small and almost invisible but tend to enlarge with the
repetition of impact loading, causing failure.
 (II)BLOCK AND TIE TYPE R.C.C. SLEEPER
This type of sleeper consists of two R.C.C. blocks connected by a
metal tie of inverted T section. These sleepers are not subjected to any
degree of tensile stress as in through type.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

(i) Concrete sleepers have long life, generally 40 (i) Due to heavy weight, handling and
to 60 years. transportation of these sleepers are
(ii) These are free from natural decay and attack Difficult.
by insects etc.
(iv) These sleepers require less fittings. (ii) If not handled properly, the chance
(v) Track circuiting is possible in these sleepers. of breaking is more.
(vi) These sleepers provide more lateral and (iii) The renewal of track laid with these
longitudinal rigidity as compared to other sleepers is difficult.
sleepers.
(vii) The maintenance cost is low. (iv) The scrap value is nil
(viii) Due to higher elastic modulus, these can
withstand the stresses due to fast moving trains.
 5. PRE STRESSED CONCRETE SLEEPERS
Pre stressed concrete sleepers are now-a-days extensively
used in Indian Railways.

 These sleepers have high initial cost but are very cheap in long run due to their long life.

 In these sleepers, high tension steel wires are used.

 These wires are stretched by hydraulic jack to give necessary tension in the wires.

 The concrete is then put under a very high initial compression.

 These sleepers are heavily damaged in case of derailment or accidents of trains

 The concrete is put under a very high initial compression.

All the disadvantages of RC sleepers have been eliminated by

pre stressing sleepers
Two types of pre stressed sleepers
(i) Pre-tensioned sleeper
(ii) Post tensioned sleeper
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Greater durability: Concrete is a durable and
homogeneous material that resists the action of
• Prestressed concrete requires high-
atmospheric, climatic, and organic agents. quality dense concrete of high strength.
Low maintenance cost: Concrete sleepers require Perfect quality concrete in production,
practically no maintenance, meaning substantial savings placement and compaction is required.
in labor, equipment, and machinery. • It requires high tensile steel, which is 2.5
High security: Due to its design, concrete sleepers to 3.5 times costlier than mild steel.
simultaneously confer rigidity to ensure road stability
and flexibility to absorb repeated shocks caused by the • Prestressing process requires complicated
passage of trains, reducing the risk of derailment. tensioning equipment and anchoring
Resistance: Resist different types of traffic (pedestrian, devices.
light and heavy vehicular, industrial). • Construction requires perfect supervision
Easy Installation and reinstallation: Concrete Sleepers at all stages of construction.
can be uninstalled and installed in another place easily,
without losing their original features. It does not need • Prestressed concrete needs skilled labors.
qualified labor for its installation.
Safety and guarantee: Paving has a non-slip surface, even
when wet. They also have a quality certificate.
 SLEEPER DENSITY
Sleeper density= Number of sleepers per unit rail length (per unit track length
for welded rail)
 Number of sleepers per rail varies from N+3 to N+6 for main tracks,
N-Length of the rail
 Minimum Density MKS: Minimum sleeper density= M+7 (BG)FPS:
Minimum sleeper density= N+3 (MG)
Factors affecting spacing/density
1. Axle load and speed
2. Type and section of rails
3. Type and strength of sleepers
4. Type of ballast and ballast cushion
5. Nature of formation
 RAIL WEAR
• Due to the passage of moving loads and friction between the rail and
the wheel, the rail head gets worn out is known as wear

Causes
• Excessive loading and Fast moving of train
• The effect of the forces of acceleration, deceleration, and braking of
wheels
• Abrasion due to rail–wheel interaction
• Slipping, Skidding and Striking of Wheel Flanges on curves
• More Gap at joints
 TYPE OF WEAR ON RAILS
On the basis position of wear
1) on top of the rail head (vertical wear)
2) on the sides of the rail head (lateral wear)
3) on the ends of the rail (battering of rail ends)

On the basis of location

1) On sharp curves- due to centrifugal force
2) On gradients- due to extra effort
3) On approach to stations-due to breaking and
acceleration
4) On weak foundation – due to heavy loads
Top of rail head.
• Flow of metal
• Recurring impact of heavy axle load
•Abrasive/corrosive condition
•Skidding/burning of head
• Improper super elevation / centrifugal force
• Slipping of wheels on curves
Side of rail head.
•Rigidity of wheel base
• Slipping/skidding of wheels on curves
• Greater thrust on inner rail
(speed lesser than equilibrium speed)
End of rail head.
•Lose fish plate, fish bolts
• Heavy loads at high speed
• Wide joint opening
• Difference in rail height at joint
•Bad condition of vehicle spring
•Poor maintenance of track
 Methods to reduce wear
•Using special alloy steel
• Regular maintenance of rail joints
•Welding or dehogging of battered ends
•Maintenance of correct gauge
• Application of heavy mineral oil, in case of corrosion of rail metal under adverse
atmospheric conditions.
• Better maintenance of track
• Reducing number of joints
• Use of heavier & higher rail sections
• Use of bearing plates (Adzing of sleepers)
• Lubricating gauge face
• Using check rails on sharp curves
 BALLAST
Ballast is the granular material usually broken stone or
any other suitable material which is spread on the top of
railway formation and around the sleepers.
 FUNCTIONS OF BALLAST

i. To distribute the axle load uniform from sleepers to a large area of formation.
ii. To hold the sleepers in position and preventing the lateral and longitudinal
movement.
iii. It acts as elastic medium between subgrade and sleepers.
iv. To provide easy means of maintaining the correct levels of the two rails in a
track.
v. To provide good drainage to the railway track.
REQUIREMENTS OF THE GOOD BALLAST
i. It should have sufficient strength to resist crushing under heavy loads of
moving trains.
ii. It should be durable enough to resist abrasion and weathering action.
iii. It should have rough and angular surface so as to provide good lateral and
longitudinal stability to the sleepers.
iv. It should have good workability so that it can be easily spread of formation.
v. It should be cheaply available in sufficient quantity near and along the track.
vi. It should not make the track dusty or muddy due to its crushing to powder
under wheel loads.
vii. It should allow for easy and quick drainage of the track.
viii. It should not have any chemical action on metal sleepers and rails.
TYPES OF BALLAST
 BROKEN STONE
i. This is the best type of ballast as it possesses all the characteristics of a
good ballast.
ii. It holds the track to correct alignment and gradient due to its high
interlocking action.
iii. The stones which are non porous, hard and do not flake on breaking
should be used.
iv. Igneous rocks such as granite, quartzite and trap make excellent
ballast.
v. This type of ballast is used for high speed tracks.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
i. It is hard and resist crushing i. It is expensive.
under heavy loads. ii. It is not so easily available.
ii. It has angular and rough surface
and hence gives more stability
to the sleepers.
iii. Its drainage property is
excellent.
 GRAVEL
i. Gravel is the second best material for ballast. This is obtained either
from river beds or from gravel pits and has smooth rounded fragments.
ii. Gravel obtained from pits usually contains earth which should be
removed by washing.
iii. Gravel obtained from river beds is screened and required size gravel is
used.
iv. Larger size gravels are broken into required size. Round edges gravels
are broken to increase their interlocking action.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
i. Gravel is cheaper than stone i. It requires screening before use
ballast. due to large variation in size.
ii. The drainage property of gravel ii. Gravel obtained from pits
excellent. requires washing.
iii. It holds the track to correct iii. Due to round faces the packing
alignment and gradient. under sleepers is loose.
iv. It is beast to use gravel ballast iv. Gravel easily roll down due to
than stone ballast at certain vibrations.
places where formation is
unstable.
 ASHES OR CINDERS
These are waste products obtained from steam locomotives.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
i. It is a cheaper ballast material. i. It is very soft and gets crumbled
ii. It has very good drainage to powder under heavy loads.
quality. ii. It has got corrosive quality and
iii. It is available in large quantities corrode steel sleepers and foot
and hence can be used in of the rails.
emergency.
iv. The handling and transportation
are easy.
 SAND
Sand is reasonably a good material for the ballast. Coarse sand is
generally preferred to fine sand for ballast. This type of ballast is suitable
for packing pot sleepers. It is used only on unimportant tracks.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
i. It is a cheap material. i. It has no stability and gets disturbed by

ii. It is available in large quantities. the vibrations caused by moving train.

iii. It has good drainage properties. ii. It causes wear of rail, seats and keys.

iv. Sand ballast produces a silent track.

 MOORUM
It is a soft aggregate and is obtained by the decomposition of laterite. It has
red or yellow colour. It is used in unimportant lines and sidings.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

i. It is easily available in most parts of i. It is soft and easily crumbles to powder

India. under heavy loads.
ii. It has good drainage properties. ii. Maintenance of track laid on Moorum
iii. It is used as blanket for new ballast is very difficult.
embankment.
 KANKAR
It is natural material in the form of nodules from which lime is prepared.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

i. It is cheaper. i. It is soft and crumbles to powder under

ii. It has good drainage property. traffic load.

ii. The track laid on kankar ballast are

difficult to maintain.

iii. It has corrosive quality.

 BRICK BALLAST
At places where good ballast material is not available over-burnt bricks are
broken into suitable size to be used as ballast.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

i. It is a cheap material. i. It is soft and easily crumbles to powder

ii. It prevents growth of vegetation. under heavy loads.

iii. It has good drainage properties. ii. The rails laid over such ballast get
corrugated.
 SELECTED EARTH

i. Hardened clay and decomposed rock are suitable for use as ballast.
ii. When tracks are laid on new formation, then sleepers are packed with
earth for a few months.
iii. When the formation is consolidated and surface becomes hard, good
type of ballast is laid.
iv. The use of earth ballast in the beginning is to prevent the loss of good
ballast by sinking into soft formation.
 ADVANTAGES
i. It prevents loss of good ballast
on new formation
ii. It may be used on sidings and
tracks.
iii. Brick has excellent drainage
properties.
 SIZE AND SECTION OF BALLAST
The size of ballast used in railway track varies from 19 mm to 51
mm. The size of ballast mainly depends upon the type of sleeper used and
location of the track. The following sizes of ballast are used in Indian
Railway.

• For wooden sleeper – 51 mm

• For steel sleeper – 38 mm

• For point and crossing – 25.4 mm

 SECTION OF BALLAST
• Consists of Two Dimensions
– Width of Ballast Section at the foot level of Rails
– Depth of Ballast Section below the sleeper
• The width of Ballast varies from 38 cm to 43 cm.
• Minimum depth of Ballast (Db) =
𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑆) − 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)
2
 QUANTITY OF BALLAST
• Ballast Required per meter length
• Depends upon Various factors
– Type of Gauge
– Type of Sleepers
– Alignment of the Track (on Curves quantity of ballast is slightly more).

Gauge Type of Sleepers Recommended Quantity of

Ballast
B.G. Wooden & Metal Sleeper 1.036 cubic meter per meter run

M.G. Wooden & Metal Sleeper 0.71 cubic meter per meter run

N.G. Wooden Sleeper 0.53 cubic meter per meter run

 FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS
Fixtures and fastenings are
fittings requires for joining of rails end
to end and also for fixing the rails to
sleepers in a track.