PERMANENT WAY

 Alignment survey  Selection for rails

 Requirement  Test on rail wear and defects
 Gauges  Corrugation and creep of rails
 Track section  Rail joints
 Coning of wheels  Welding of panels
 Stresses in railway track  Rails types and functions

July 22, 2017 3

 Permanent Way
The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers with the help of
fixtures and fastenings and resting on ballast and subgrade
is called the railway track or permanent way.

July 22, 2017 4

 REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL PERMANENT WAY
The following are the principal requirements of an ideal
permanent way or of a good railway track :-

1. The gauge of the permanent way should be correct and uniform.

2. The rail should be in proper level in straight portion. Proper
amount of super elevation should be provided to the outer rail
above the inner rail on curved portion of the track.
3. The permanent way should be sufficiently strong against lateral
forces.
4. The curves, provided in the track, should be properly designed.
July 22, 2017 5
5. An even and uniform gradient should be provided through out
the length of the track.

6. The tractive resistance of the track should be minimum.

7. The design of the permanent way should be such that the load of
the train is uniformly distributed on both the rails so as to
prevent unequal settlement of the track.
8. All the components parts such as rails, sleepers, ballast, fixtures
and fastenings, etc. should satisfy the design requirements.
July 22, 2017 6
9. All the points and crossings, laid in the permanent way,
should be properly designed and carefully constructed.
10. It should be provided with proper drainage facilities so as to
drain off the rain water quickly away from the track.
11. It should be provided with safe and strong bridges coming in
the alignment of the track.
12. It should be so constructed that repairs and renewals of any
of its portion can be carried out without any difficulty.

July 22, 2017 7

July 22, 2017 8
 Track Cross-section

July 22, 2017 9

 Rail Gauges
1. Rail gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the two
parallel rails that make up a single railway line
2. Rail gauge is the distance between two rails of a railroad.
3. Sixty percent of the world's railways use a 4 feet 8½ inch (1435
mm) gauge, which is known as standard gauge or international
gauge.
4. Rail gauges larger than standard gauge are called broad gauge,
and rail gauges smaller than standard are called narrow gauge.
5. A dual gauge railway has three or four rails positioned so that
trains of two different gauges can use it.
6. A place where different gauges meet is called a break of gauge.
July 22, 2017 10
 Types of Rail Gauges

The different gauges prevalent in India are of the following these types

• Broad gauge (1676 mm)

• Metre gauge (1000 mm)

• Narrow gauge (762 mm & 610 mm).

July 22, 2017 11

 Broad Gauge
a. When the clear horizontal distance between the inner
faces of two parallel rails forming a track is 1676mm the
gauge is called Broad Gauge (B.G)

b. This gauge is also known as standard gauge of India and is

the broadest gauge of the world.

c. The Other countries using the Broad Gauge are Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Argentine,etc.50% India’s
railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.
July 22, 2017 12
 Suitability
Broad gauge is suitable under the following Conditions

1. When sufficient funds are available for the railway project.

2. When the prospects of revenue are very bright.
3. This gauge is used for tracks in plain areas which are densely
populated.
4. For routes of maximum traffic, intensities and at places which
are centers of industry and commerce.
5. Suitable for high speed
July 22, 2017 13
 Meter Gauge
a. When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
parallel rails forming a track is 1000mm, the gauge is known as
Metre Gauge (M.G)
b. The other countries using Metre gauge are France, Switzerland,
Argentine, etc. 40% of India’s railway tracks have been laid to this
gauge.
Suitability
1. When the funds available for the railway project are inadequate.
2. When traffic efficiency is moderate.
3. When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
4. This gauge is used for tracks in under-developed areas and in
interior areas
July 22, 2017 13
 Narrow Gauge
a. When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
parallel rails forming a track is either 762mm or 610mm, the gauge is
known as Narrow gauge (N.G)
b. The other countries using narrow gauge are Britain, South Africa, etc.
10% of India’s railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.
Suitability
1. For low speed movement
2. When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due
to the provision of sharp curves, steep gradients, narrow bridges and
tunnels etc.
3. When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
4. This gauge is used in hilly and very thinly populated areas.
July 22, 2017 15
 CONING OF WHEELS

July 22, 2017 16

 Coning of Wheels

To keep the train in its central position of the rails, coning does not
allow any sidewise movement on a straight track. to allow
the wheels to move different distances on a curved track and thereby
reduce wear and tear.
July 22, 2017 17
1. The flanges of wheel is never made flat, but they are in the
shape of cone with a slope of 1 in 20. (Sloping of the wheel
from the vertical axis)
2. The coning of wheels is mainly done to maintain the vehicle
in the central position with respect to the track.
3. It is done to maintain the vehicle in the central position with
respect to the track.

Advantages of coning
a. Reduce the wear and tear of wheel flanges and rails.
b. To provide possibility of lateral movement of the axle with its
wheels.
c. To prevent the slipping of wheels.
July 22, 2017 18
Theory of
coning
If the tread dia. on both the rails is same then
amount of slip is:
Slip=θ (R₂-R₁)
Where, outer radius, R₂= R+(G/2)
R₁= R- (G/2)
G=Gauge
θ= angle at centre in radians.
Slip= θ×G
G=1.676 meters for B.G
Slip= (2πθ˚/360) ×1.676
θ˚=angle at centre (degree)
Therefore, Slip = 0.029 m per degree of central angle
 RAILS
• General
Rail is similar to steel girders. These are placed
end to end to provide continuous and level
surface for the trains to move

On Indian Railways the standard lengths are

the following:
• Length = 12.80 meter for BG (say 13 m)
• Length = 11.89 meter for MG (say 12 m)

July 22, 2017 21

 Functions of Rail
1. To provide continuous and level surface for movement of train.
2. To provide a smooth pathway so that friction between rail and wheel
become less.

3. Serve as a lateral guide for the running of wheels.

4. Transferring the load into the sleeper.

5. To bear the stresses developed in the track due to temperature changes
and loading patterns.

6. To resist breaking forces caused due to stoppage of trains.

July 22, 2017 22

 Requirements of an ideal rail
The main requirements of an ideal rail section are as under
1. The section of the rail should be such that the load of the wheels
is transferred to the sleepers without exceeding the permissible
stresses.
2. The section of the rail should be able to withstand the lateral forces
caused due to fast moving trains.
3. The center of gravity of the rail section should preferably coincide
the center of the height of the rail so that maximum tensile and
compressive stresses are nearly equal.

July 22, 2017 23

5. The web of the rail section should be such that it can
safely bear the vertical load without buckling.

6. The head of the rail should be sufficiently thick for

adequate margin of vertical wear.

7. The foot of rail should provide sufficient bearing area on

the underlying sleepers so that the compressive stresses
on the timber sleeper remain within permissible limits.

8. The section of the rails should be such that the ends of

two adjacent rails can be efficiently jointed with a pair of
fish plates.

9. The surfaces for rail table and gauge face should be

sufficiently
July 22, 2017
hard to resist the wear. 24
 Types of rail sections

1. Double headed rails

2. Bull headed rails
3. Flat footed rails

July 22, 2017 25

 Double headed rails

a. These were the rails which were

used in the beginning, which were
double headed and consisting of a
dumb-bell section.
b. The idea behind using these rails
was that when the head was worn
out in course of time, the rail can
be inverted and reused.
c. But as time passed indentations
were formed in the lower table due
to which smooth running over the
surface at the top was impossible.

July 22, 2017 26

 Bull headed rails

• In this type of rail the head was made a little thicker and stronger
than the lower part by adding more metal to it, so that it can
withstand the stresses

July 22, 2017 27

 MERITS
• (i) B.H. Rails keep better alignment and provide
more smoother and stronger track.
• (ii) These rails provide longer life to wooden sleepers and
greater stability to the track.
• (iii) These rails are easily removed from sleepers and
hence renewal of track is easy.
 DEMERITS
• (i) B.H. rails require additional cost of iron chairs.
• (ii) These rails require heavy maintenance cost.
• (iii) B.H. rails are of less strength and stiffness.
 Flat footed rails
a. These rails are also called as vignole's rails.
b. Initially the flat footed rails were fixed to the sleepers directly and
no chairs and keys were required.
c. Later on due to heavy train loads problems arise which lead to steel
bearing plates between the sleeper and the rail. at rail joints and
other important places these are the rails which are most
commonly used in India.

July 22, 2017 30

 MERITS
• (i) F.F. rails have more strength and stiffness.
• (ii) No chairs are required for holding them in position.
• (iii) These rails require less number of fastenings.
• (iv) The maintenance cost of track formed with
F.F. rails is less.
 DEMERITS
• (i) The fittings get loosened more frequently.
• (ii) These rails are not easily removed and
hence renewal of track becomes difficult.
• (iii) It is difficult to manufacture points and
crossings by using these rails.
 Advantages of
Railways
Political Advantages
• Railway have joined people of different castes,
religions customs and traditions.
• With adequate network of railway central
administration has become easy and effective
• Role of railway during emergencies in mobilising
troops and war equipment has been very significant.
• Railway have helped in mass migration of people.
Social Advantages
• Feeling of isolation has been removed from the
inhabitants of Indian villages.
• The social outlook of the masses has been
broadened through railway journeys.
• Railway has made it easier to reach religious
importance
• Provide safe and convenient mode of transport for
the country
Economic advantages
• Mobility of people has increased.
• Transport food and clothes during famines.
• Transport raw material to the industries
• Provide employment to millions of people.
• Land values increased due to industrial
development.
• Price stabilisation is possible.
Techno-economic advantages
Cost saving in transportation of long haul bulk traffic.
Energy efficient (1/7 fuel used as compared to road
sector)
Environment friendliness
Higher Safety (fatal accidents 1/10 of road sector in
India)
 Features Rail Transport Road Transport
Tractive resistance The movement of steel wheels on steel rails has The tractive resistance of a pneumatic tyre
basic advantage of low rolling resistance. This on metalled roads is almost five times
reduces haulage costs because of low tractive compared to that of wheel on rails.
resistance.

Right of entry A railway track is defined on two rails and is Roads, though having well-defined limits,
within protected limits. Trains work as per a can be used by any vehicular traffic and even
prescribed schedule and no other vehicle has the by pedestrians they are open to all.
right of entry except at specified level crossings.

Cost analysis Owing to the heavy infrastructure, the initial as The cost of construction and maintenance of
well as maintenance cost of a railway line is high. roads is comparatively cheaper.

Gradients and The gradients of railway tracks are flatter Roads are constructed normally with steeper
(normally not more than 1 in 100) and curves are gradients of up to 1 in 30 and relatively
curves limited up to only 100 on broad gauge. much sharper curves.

Flexibility of Due to the defined routes and facilities required Roads transports have much more flexibility
for the reception and dispatch of trains, railway in movement and can provide door to door
movement can be used only between fixed points. sevices.
Environmental Railway has minimum adverse effects on the Road transport creates comparatively
environment. greater pollution than the railways.
pollution
Organization and Railways are government undertakings, with their Barring member state government
own organization. transport, road transport is managed by
control private sector.
Suitability Railways are best suited for carrying heavy goods Road transport is best suited for carrying
and large number of passengers over long lighter goods and smaller number of
distances. passengers over short distances.
 Development of Indian Railway(IR)
• In 19 century before the introduction of railways, India
was a country with extremely poor means of
communications.
• In1844 the first proposals for the construction of
railway on India was submitted to East India Company
• In 1853 first railway line between Bombay to Thana was
opened.
• In 1905 Railway Board was established with one
president and two members.
• In 1939 total route kilometrage of India was 65,850
kms.
 Organization of Indian Railway (IR)
• Biggest public undertaking
• Capital-at-charge of about Rs 560,000 million.
• The executive authority in connection with
the administration of railway vests with
Central Government and the same has been
delegated to Railway Board as per Indian
Railway Act 1890 and Indian Tramway act of
1816.
 Selection of Guages
1.Cost of construction
• There is marginal increase in the cost of
earthwork, rails, sleepers, ballast, and other track
items with gauge.
• The cost of station buildings, platforms, signals,
bridges, tunnels and culverts etc., is same more or
less for all gauges.
• There is little proportional in the acquisition of
land.
• The cost of rolling stock is independent of the
guage used for same volume of traffic.
2.Volume and nature of traffic.
• For heavier loads and high speed, the wider
guage are required because subsequently the
operating cost per tonne-km is less for higher
carrying capacity.
3.Speed of movement
• Speed is a function of dia. of wheel, which in
turn limited by the guage. (wheel diameter =
0.75 x Gauge).
4.Development of areas
• Narrow guages can be used for thinly
populated area by joining under developed
area with developed or urbanised area.
5.Physical features of the country
• Use of narrow guage is warranted in hilly
regions where broad and meter guage are not
possible due steep gradients and sharp
curves.
Defects in rails:
• Hogged rails: due to battering action of wheels over the end of rails,
the rail get bent down and deflected at the ends, this hogging is due
to loose packing under the joint and/or loose fish plate. Can be
removed by
Cropping, replacing, welding and dehogging.
• Kinks in rails: when the ends of adjoining rails move slightly out of
position , “shoulders” or “kinks” are formed. Kinks formed due to loose
packing at joints, defects in guage, and alignment, defects in cross level
at joints, uneven wear of rail head, where kinks are formed at joints .
• Buckling of rails: buckling means track has gone out
of its original position or alignment due to
prevention of expansion of rails in hot weather on
account of temperature variations. Causes are
following
I. When expansion gap is not sufficient
II. The fish plate are bolted so tight that no slip is
allowed.
III. Due to presence of longer welded rail on weak
tracks.
 Wear on rails
• Wear is one of the prominent defects of rails.
Due to heavy loads concentrated stresses
exceeds the elastic limit resulting in metal
flow; on the gap or joints the ends are
battered and at the curves the occurrence of
skidding, slipping and striking of wheel flanges
with rails results in wear and tear on rails.
Classification of wear
• On the basis of location
I. On sharp curves
II. On gradients
III. On approach to stations
IV. In coastal area etc.
• On the basis position of wear
I. On the top of rail
II. At the end of rail
III. on the sides of the head
 Methods to reduce wear
• When wear exceeds the permissible limit (5 %
of the total weight section) the rail must be
replaced.
• Use of special alloy steel at the location where
wear is more.
• Reduction in number of joints by welding
• Regular tightening of fish bolts and packing of
ballasts.
• Welding and dehogging of battered ends in
time also the wear.
• Maintenance of correct gauge will reduce the
side wear in particular.
• Lubricating of the gauge face of outer rail on
curve, will also reduce the wear.
• Interchanging of inner and outer rails and
changing face at curve will reduce the wear.
• Application of heavy mineral oil, in case of
corrosion of rail metal under adverse
atmospheric conditions, reduce the wear of
rail.
 Creep of rails
• Longitudinal movement of rail with respect to sleepers in a
track is called creep.
Indication of creep
• Closing of expansion spaces at joints
• Marks on flanges and web of rails made by spike head, by
scraping or scratching at rail slide.
 Theories of creep
1. Wave action or wave theory:
Wave motion is set up by moving loads of wheels.
The vertical reverse curve ABC is formed in the
rail ahead of wheels, resulting from the rail
deflection under the load.
2. Drag (or) Dragging theory:
✓ Backward thrust on driving wheels of locomotive of train
push the rail off track backward.
✓ Mean while other wheel of locomotive and vehicles push
the rail in the direction of travel.
✓ Since drag effect is more as explained in Wave Action Theory
resultant creep of rails in forward direction.
3.. Percussion Theory:
This theory states that the creep is due to impact of wheels at
the rail end ahead at joints. Hence as and when wheel leave
the trailing rail and strike the facing rail end at each joint it
pushes the rail in forward direction resulting in creep.
4. Starting, accelerating, Slowing down (or)
stopping of a train:
✓ Backward thrust of the engine driving wheels
push the rails backward when a train is
starting and accelerating.
✓When slowing down or stop the vehicle
braking forces are push the rail forward.
5. Unbalanced Traffic:
a) Single line:
✓ Heavy equal loads pass in both direction, the
creep is balanced. If not creep takes place in
the heavy load direction.
b) Double line:
✓ Since loads are in unidirectional creep occurs
in both directions.
Factors effecting the magnitude & direction of
creep.
• Alignment of track: Creep is more on curves than
on tangent tracks.
• Grade of track: More in case of steep curves,
particularly while train moving downward with
heavy loads.
• Type of rails: older rail have more tendency than
new one.
• Direction of heaviest traffic: In heavier load
moving direction occurs more creep.
Effects of creep
• Most serious effect of creep is being buckling of track.
• Common effects of creep:
• Sleepers move out of square and out of position, affects
the gauge and alignment of track. As sleepers move
surface is disturbed results uncomfortable riding.
• When joints are opened out beyond the permissible
stress in bolts and fish plates tendency to occurrence of
failure in them.
• Rails ends also battered due to occurrence of excessive
gaps at joints. While at other places , joints are jammed
and prevent required expansion due to thermal
stresses.
Contd.
. • Points and crossings get distorted, its too
difficult to set them to correct gauge and
alignment. Movement of switches is made
difficult and interlocking is thrown out of gear.
• Its difficult to fix the removed rail at proper
position during repair works since the time gap
becomes too short or too long due to creep.
• Smashing of fish plates, bolts, bending of bars,
kinks at joints of rails and forging of ballast
ahead, common effects of creep.
• If creep is not prevented in time it will results
derailment.
Remedies of creep:
1. Pulling back the rails:
✓ pull back the rail to its original position. By means of
crow bars and hooks provided through the fish bolts
wholes of rails
✓ By considering the position of joints relative to sleepers
and both rails should be in respective position.
2. Provision of anchors :
✓ By use of anchors and sufficient crib ballast.
✓ For creep 7.5 cm-15 cm 4 anchors per rail
✓ For creep 22.5 to 25 cm 6 anchors.
3. Use of steel sleepers:
✓ Sleepers should be made up of good material with
proper fitting. Sleepers should provide good grip with
ballast to resist the movement of sleepers. Increase in
no. of sleepers.
 SLEEPERS
Sleepers: these are members laid transverse to the rails on
which rails are supported and fixed to transfer the loads
from rail to ballast and subgrade below.
Functions of sleepers:
▪ To hold the rails to correct gauge.
▪ To act an elastic medium between the ballast and rail to absorb the
blows and vibrations due to moving loads.
▪ To distribute load from the rail to the index area of ballast or to the
girders in case of bridges.
▪ To support rails - at proper level in straight tracks
- at proper super elevation on curves
• Sleepers also provide longitudinal and lateral
stability of the permanent track on the whole.
Requirements of sleepers: an ideal sleeper
should possess the following characteristics.
• Sleeper should be economical i.e, minimum
initial and maintenance cost.
• Fitting of the sleepers should be easily
adjustable during maintenance operations.
Such as
✓ Lifting
✓ Packing,
✓ Removal and replacements.
✓The weight of the sleeper should not be too
heavy or excessively light i.e. with moderate
weight they should be for ease of handling.
✓Design of sleepers should be such a way that the
gauge and alignment of track and levels of the
rails can easily adjusted and maintained.
✓ The bearing area of sleepers below the rail seat
and over the ballast should be enough to resist
the crushing due to rail seat and crushing of
ballast under sleepers.
✓ Design and spacing such a way to facilitate easy
removal and replacement of ballast.
• Sleepers should be capable of resisting shocks
and vibrations due to passage of heavy loads of
high speed trains.
• Sleepers design should be such a way they are
not damaged during packing process.
• Design should be strong enough so that they are
not pushed out easily due to the moving trains
especially in case of steel sleepers with rounded
ends.
• An ideal sleeper should be anti-sabotage and
anti-theft qualities.
• Classification of sleepers.
1. Wooden sleepers:
✓ Wooden sleepers regarded to be best as they are fulfill all
the requirements of ideal sleeper.
✓ Life of timber sleepers depends on their ability to resist
wear, decay, attack by vermin, and quality of timber.
✓ Easily available ( Sal, teak, chir and deodar).
✓ Fittings to the wooden sleepers are few and simple in
design.
✓ Resist shock and vibrations.
✓ But it is difficult to maintain gauge in case of wooden
sleepers.
✓ Service life is minimum (12 to 15 years) and maintenance
cost is also high as compared to other sleepers.
Composite sleeper index (C.S.I):
▪ It is an index to determine the suitability of
timber for use as a sleeper.
▪ This is measure the mechanical strength of
timber, derived from its composite properties of
strength and hardness.
C.S.I = (S+10H)/20

min value of CSI are 783,1352 and 1455 for track,

crossing and bridge sleeper respectively.
S= strength index both for green and dry timber at
12% of moisture content.
H=hardness index both for green and dry timber at
12% of moisture content.
Treatment of wooden sleepers:
✓ To improve the life of timber up to 30 to 50%.
✓ Timber has minute cells filled with juices, therefore
by replacing these juices by means of preserving
solutions is known as treatment.
Preserving solutions are:
i. Creosote: Creosoting is done at temp. 49˚C and 21
kg/cm²
ii. Salt- solution: Chloride of zink (ZnCl2)-process is
called Burnettising.
iii. Bichloride of mercury- salt solution (Hg Cl2)-
kyanizing
 2. Metal sleepers:
✓ These are either steel or cast iron, mostly cast
iron since it is less prone to corrosion.
Requirements of metal sleepers:
✓ They should be capable of the tensile and
compression stress due to the moving loads.
Cast iron sleepers:
a. Pot or bowl sleepers
b. Plate sleepers
c. Box sleepers
d. C.S.T 9(Central standard trial)sleepers
e. Rail free duplex sleepers
Pots or bowl sleepers:
✓ They consists of two bowls placed inverted on
the ballast.
✓Effective bearing area 0.232 sq.m is provided
under each rail support.
✓On top of the pot, a rail seat or chair is provided
to hold the F.F rail or B.H rail with cant of 1 in
20.
✓Weight of sleeper is 114 kg. it can be used on
curves, sharper than 4˚ on B.G.
C.S.T-9 (Central Standard Trial-9)sleepers: it is
standardized by track standard committee. It
has triangular inverted pot on either side on
rail seat, a plate with projecting rib and a box
on the top of plate.
• C.S.T.-9 sleeper for B.G. weighs 103 kgs. This can be
easily assembled as shown in fig.
• Here tie bar is fastened to the plate by means of
four standard cotters. Small variation in gauge can
be corrected by these 4 cotters.
• Shape of cast iron support in such a way to provide
stable base for the rail, lateral and longitudinal
stability of track.
• Mild steel two way key is provided to resist creeping
movement of the rail.
• Rail seat has 1 in 20 cant and 11.4 cm width in B.G.
• Form rigid track subjected to vibration under
moving load without any damping or absorption.
• Suitable for speed up to about 110 kmph.
Steel sleepers:
Various types of steel sleepers
1. Key type a) lugs or jaw pressed out of metal
b) with loose lugs or jaws
2. Clip bolt type
3. Saddle or spring type.
Features
• Fastening to the sleepers are less in numbers and
simple in nature.
• Gauge by use of steel sleepers can be easily adjusted
and maintained.
• Life of sleepers is much more than wooden sleepers.
• Cost is relatively more than wooden sleepers.
3. Concrete sleepers:
Two types of concrete sleepers
i. Reinforced concrete sleepers
ii. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers.
Concrete material is called as ideal sleeper due to
i. They made up of strong homogeneous material.
ii. Impervious to effect of moisture.
iii. Unaffected by the chemical effect of atmospheric
gases or sub soil salts.
iv. Easy to mould into required shapes to withstand
the stresses developed by moving loads.
Reinforced concrete sleeper: these are 2 types
1. Through type: in this type when concrete sleepers is
stressed, cracks on the tension side are inevitable.
Though these cracks are very small they tend to
enlarge with repetition of the impact loadings of fast
trains. This is the major reason for the failure of this
sleeper.
2. Composite tie type
Prestressed concrete sleepers:
drawbacks of previous one can be eliminated by this type of
sleepers,.
1. In this concrete is put under very high initial compression.
2. The max permissible compressive strength of 211 kg/cm2.
3. Max. cube crushing strength of concrete in the sleeper is
422 kg/cm2 at 28 days.
4. Pre-stressed wires are stressed to an initial stress of 8.82
kg/cm2.
 Reinforced concrete sleepers

Wooden sleepers

Prestressed concrete structures Anchors

Adzing of Sleepers:
In order to obtain an inward slope of 1 in 20 for the rail,
sleepers are adzed to form a table at this slope at the rail
seat.
This process is known as adzing of sleepers. Generally
adzing is done for wooden sleepers.
For smooth and comfortable journey accurate adzing is
required.
1 in 20 1 in 20
slope slope
Ballast material:
1. Broken stone:
✓ It is the best material for the ballast. Mostly stone
ballast is used in all important tracks.
✓ The best stone for ballast is a nonporous, hard and
angular. Igneous rocks such as hard trap, quartzite and
granite are good material and are used in large
quantities for high speed tracks in India.
✓ For stability , graded broken stone ballast is better than
ungraded one.
✓ The size of stone ballast should be 5 cm for wooden
sleepers and 4 cm for metal sleepers.
2. Gravel or river pebbles or shingle:
Gravel is second best material for ballast material.
Source: river bed, gravel pits.
Due to smoothness of the particles these are liable to
displace the sleeper and the packing does not hold.
3. Ashes or cinders:
Earlier this is available in large scale on railways since
coal been used in locomotives.
It can provide excellent properties since it is very porous
in nature.
It is very cheap and can be used in sidings but not in
main lines as it is very soft and gets reduced due the
wheel load pressure and make the track very dusty.
Due to its corrosive quality it corrodes the steel sleepers
and foot of the rail.
But in emergency such as floods ashes or cinders can be
used for the repairing formation or packing tracks.
4. Sand:
It is cheap and provides good drainage. It is particularly
good for packing pot sleepers.
But the drawback is it gets into the moving parts and on
the track causes heavy wear therefore leads to high
maintenance cost.
6. Kankar:
It is a lime agglomerate. It can be used where stone is
not available. It can be used in road and railways as
well. Under the application of loads it will become
powder therefore it can be used only in M.G & N.G.
7. Brick ballast:
Where no stone or other substitutes available it can
be used. It can be easily powdered and creates
dusty tracks.
8. Blast furnace slag:
It is a by-product in the manufacture of pig iron
forms. The material should be hard and with high
density and these are free from gas holes.
9. Selected earth
Size of ballast:
The broken stones either of too big size or too small size
are found unsuitable for railway ballast.
Size of ballast depends upon
▪ Type of sleepers
▪ Maintenance method
▪ Location of the track.
The size of the ballast used varies from 20mm to 50mm with
reasonable proportion of intermediate sizes. The exact size
of the ballast depends upon the type of sleepers.
▪ For wooden sleepers-51mm
▪ For steel sleepers-38mm
▪ For under switches, points and crossings-25.4mm
Minimum depth of ballast section:
The wheel load dispersion in the ballast is
assumed at 45˚ to the vertical.
For uniform distribution of load on the
formation, ballast depth should be such that
the dispersion lines should not overlap each
other.
Therefore, depth of ballast can be calculated by
Sleeper spacing (s)=
width of sleeper(w)+2×depth of ballast
Tests on ballast: Ballast material quality is defined by its
particle characteristics. Therefore testing of ballast
material is required to define these characteristics.
Tests for ballast material:
Durability tests:
Three abrasion tests are mainly using:
Los Angeles abrasion: it’s a dry test to measure toughness or
tendency for breakage of aggregate.
It consists 12 steel balls in a large steel drum for 1000
revolutions. Impact of steel balls cause crushing on ballast.
Material from the test should sieve with 1.7 mm sieve.
The LAA value =((w₁-w₂)/ w₁)×100
Here
w₁= total weight of specimen
w₂= weight of material retained on the 1.7 mm sieve.
Los Angeles Abrasion test
Crushing test:
• To test resistance of an aggregate to crushing under wheel
loads.
• The aggregate passing 12.5 mm IS sieve and retained on
10 mm IS sieve is selected for standard test. Material is
placed in a steel mould of 150 ×180 mm deep.
• Load is applied through the plunger at a uniform rate of 4
tonnes per minute until the total load is 40 tonnes, and
then the load is released.
Aggregate crushing value = (w₂/ w₁) ×100
Here
Total weight of dry sample taken = w₁
Weight of the material passing through 2.36mm sieve = w₂
Impact test:
It measures the toughness to sudden shocks and
impact loads.
Aggregate size of passing through12.5mm sieve and
retained on 10 mm sieve placed in a steel mould.
Subjected to 15 blows with 14 kg weight of hammer at a
height of 380mm.
Aggregate impact value = (w₂/ w₁) ×100
Here
Total weight of dry sample taken = w₁
Weight of the material passing through 2.36mm sieve = w₂
 Steel mould

Tamping
rod
Shape tests:
Flakiness index: The flakiness index of aggregates is the
percentages by weight of particles whose least
dimension(thickness) is less than 0.6 of their mean
dimension.
Elongation index:
• The elongation index of an aggregate is the
percentage by weight of particles whose greatest
dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times of their
mean dimension. The elongation test is not applicable
to sizes smaller than6.3 mm.
THICKNESS GAUGE
Length gauge
S.no Characteristics Tests

1 DURABILITY Los Angeles abrasion

Mill abrasion
Deval abrasion
Clay lumps and friable particles
Crushing value
Impact
2 SHAPE AND SURFACE Flatness
CHARACTERISTICS Elongation
Angularity or Roundness
Fractured particles
Surface texture
3 GRADATION Size
Size distribution
Fine particles content
4 UNIT WEIGHT Specific Gravity
Absorption

5 ENVIRONMENTAL Freeze- Thaw breakdown

Sulfate soundness
 Track Fittings and
Fastenings
Track fittings and rail fastenings are used to keep the rails in
the proper position and to set the points and crossings
properly.
They link the rails endwise and fix the rails either on chairs
fixed to sleepers or directly on to the sleepers.
The important fittings commonly used are:
1. Fish plates
2. Spikes
3. Bolts
4. Chairs
5. Blocks
6. Keys
7. plates
Pandrol clip or elastic rail clip
• The Pandrol PR 401 clip is standard type of fastening used
in I.R.
• Earlier manufactured by Messrs and Guest, Keens and
Williams.
• Require very less maintenance.
• Spring steel bar with a dia of 20.6 mm and is heat treated.
• It exerts a toe load of 710 kg for a nominal deflection of
11.4 mm.
• Can be fitted to wooden, steel, cast iron and concrete
sleepers.
• Disadvantage is that it can be taken out using ordinary
hammer so does not provide enough safeguard.
Fish plates: these are used in rail joints to maintain the
continuity of the rails and to allow expansion and
contraction.
Requirements of fish plates:
• Fish plates should maintain the correct alignment both
horizontally and vertically.
• They should support the underside of the rail and top of
the foot.
• Provide proper space for the expansion and contraction
• They should be made up of such a section to withstand
shocks and heavy stresses due to lateral and vertical B.M
Sections of fish plates:
Various sections have been designed to bear the stresses due
to lateral vertical bending.
Standard section is bone shaped
Fish
plates
Design of fish plate section is depends up on the various stresses
dueto lateral and vertical bendings.
The strength of fish plate can be increased by means of increase in
the depth but the c/s of fish plate is constant through out the
length.
Ex:
Bone shaped plate for F.F rails
Increased depth fish plate for B.H rail.

Spikes:
For holding the rails to the wooden sleepers, spikes of various types
are used.
Requirements of spikes:
Spikes should be strong enough to hold the rail in position and it
should have enough resistance against motion to retain its
original position.
The spikes should be deep for better holding power.
It should be easy in fixing and removal from the sleepers.
The spikes should cheap in cost and it should capable of maintaining
the gauge.
Various types of spikes:
1. Dog spikes: For holding F.F rail to wooden
sleeper.
These are stout nails to hold rail flanges with timber
sleepers.

The only disadvantage of these spikes is that due to

wave motion of rail the spike is driven out of the
sleepers which reduce the pressure on the foot
of F.F rails, resulting in creep occurrence.
2. Screw spikes: these are tapered screws with V-
threads used to fasten the rails with timber
sleepers.

These are more stronger than dog spikes in holding

power.
These are costly and the gauge maintenance is more
difficult than earlier one.
Round spikes:
The head shape is either cylindrical or hemi
spherical.
These are used for fixing chairs of B.H. rails to
wooden sleepers and also fixing slide chairs of
points and crossing.
Standard spikes: These are used for cast iron
chairs only to fix them with
timber sleepers.
Elastic spikes:
The disadvantages of dog spikes can be eliminated by this.
The advantages of this spikes is its head absorbs the wave
motion without getting loose.
Chairs:
These are used for different types of rails
C.I Chairs:
For holding D.H and B.H rails, chairs are used. B.H rails are
supported on C.I Chairs fixed to the sleepers by round
spikes.
Slide chairs:
These are plates of special shape on which the stock and
tongue rails rest.
Blocks: when two rails run very close as in case of check
rails, etc. small blocks are inserted in between the two
rails and bolted to maintain the required distance.

Bolts: used for fixing various track components in position.

Dog or hook bolt: when sleepers rest directly on
girder they are fastened to top flange top flange
of the girder by bolts called dog bolts.
Fish bolt: made up of medium or high carbon steel.
For a 44.7 kg rail, a bolt of 2.5 cm. dia. and 12.7
cm length is used. With each fish plate standard
practice is to use four bolts. Generally, a
projection of 6 mm of the shank is left out after
the nut is tightened.
Keys
: eys are small tapered pieces of timber on steel to fix rails
K
to chairs on metal sleepers.
Morgan key:
This is about 18 cm long and tapered 1 in 32. these are suit
the C.I chair, plate sleepers and steel sleepers with the
rail.
The advantages of morgan keys are
• They can be used as left hand or right hand keys.
• They are light in weight due to double recess on either
side.
• They are versatile in nature.
Bearing plates:
Bearing plates are rectangular plates of mild steel or
cast iron used below F.F rails to distribute the load
on larger area of timber sleeper.
Advantages:
• To distribute the load coming on rails to the sleepers
over a larger area and to prevent skidding of the rail
in the soft wooden sleepers.
• Prevent the destruction of the sleeper due to
rubbing action of the rail.
• Adzing of sleeper can be avoided by bearing plates.