KOCAELİ UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

MODULE 3
WRITING PACK 2
for
E GROUPS
2024-2025
 CHAPTER 1

COMMON MISTAKES IN WRITING

When you have a lot of simple, short sentences then the writing seems to be choppy and cut up. By creating a
variety of compound sentences, the ideas seem to flow better. The person reading your writing has an easier
time following what you have written. Using coordinating conjunctions is a good way of combining ideas and
sentences. They also help the reader understand the logical relation between your thoughts. 6 most common
coordinating conjunctions are; for, and, but, or, yet, and so. When a coordinating conjunction connects two
independent clauses (complete sentences) to form a compound sentence, a comma almost always appears
before the coordinating conjunction.
Examples:
I wanted something to eat, so I looked in the fridge.
Reading fiction is beneficial, for it can make us more empathetic.
They borrowed dozens of folding chairs, yet there were not enough for the guests.
We liked the play’s story, but we didn’t care for its staging.
Writing is the skill of organizing ideas and trying to convey the message to the reader as correctly as possible is
the main concern. However; some mistakes may make your piece of work difficult to be understood for some
common reasons. When you focus on these mistakes, you are likely to perform better in your writing. Here are
the common mistakes and ways to fix them:

1. Run-on sentences
A run-on sentence is a grammatical error that occurs when two independent clauses (complete thoughts) aren’t
properly joined. This kind of sentence makes it difficult to see where one idea ends and the other begins. Two
common types of run-on sentences are; fused sentences and comma splices.

A) Fused sentences: These are the sentences when two independent clauses are joined without any
punctuation or coordinating conjunction. We can fix fused sentences using these three methods:
1) Use a semicolon between the independent clauses
2) Insert a comma and a coordinating conjunction such as; and, but, for, or, so, and yet
3) Break the line into two sentences using a period.
Fused Sentence: My roommate wants to win the Tour De France one day he spends hours cycling.
Correction 1: My roommate wants to win the Tour De France one day; he spends hours cycling.
Correction 2: My roommate wants to win the Tour De France one day, so he spends hours cycling.
Correction 3: My roommate wants to win the Tour De France one day. He spends hours cycling.
Fused Sentence: I wanted to be a doctor now I don’t.
Correction 1: I wanted to be a doctor; now I don’t.
Correction 2: I wanted to be doctor, but now I don’t.
Correction 3: I wanted to be a doctor. Now I don’t.

Exercise 1: Read the sentences and write FS for Fused Sentences, and C for Correct Sentences.
____ 1. Many young footballers want to play for professional leagues only a few succeed.
____ 2. I lost my favorite socks did you find them?
____ 3. Laura was exhausted from hours of study, but luckily she made it to class on time.
____ 4. Dolphins have killed sharks they never attack humans.
____ 5. They served the shrimp with its head on Mary lost her appetite.
____ 6. Mary's sister ate the shrimp she didn’t seem to enjoy it
____ 7. In later years, Mary developed a shrimp allergy, but her sister still enjoys shrimp.
____ 8. The roads were covered with ice, yet the school didn’t cancel the exam.
____ 9. The typewriter hummed loudly I turned it off.
____10. Tom works hard he can't satisfy the boss.

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Exercise 2: Correct the following fused sentences
1. I went to the store I forgot my wallet.
2. She enjoys painting she also likes to draw.
3. He studied all night he still didn't pass the exam.
4. We took a long drive to the beach it was worth the trip.
5. She cooked dinner for everyone nobody wanted to help clean up.

B) Comma splices: This type of mistake occurs when a comma is used incorrectly to connect two independent
clauses. For example: "I love to read, I go to the library often." By correcting run-on sentences, you can enhance
clarity and improve the overall flow of your writing. To fix comma splices use the following methods:
1) Use a period to separate the independent clauses: "I love to read. I go to the library often."
2) Use a semicolon to connect closely related independent clauses: "I love to read; I go to the library
often."
3) Use a coordinating conjunction (for, yet, so, but, and, or) with a comma: "I love to read, and I go to the
library often."

Exercise 3: Correct the comma splice errors in the following sentences using the methods above.
1. I wanted to go for a walk, it started to rain.
2. She loves to play soccer, her brother prefers basketball.
3. The movie was really exciting, I can't wait to see the sequel.
4. He finished his homework quickly, he played video games afterward.
5. We visited the museum, it was very interesting.
6.The soldiers ran out of food and water, they walked miles to reach to the camp.

2) Sentence Fragments
Fragment is another common mistake that writers make. It means incomplete sentence lacking a verb or a
subject. Here are several examples of sentence fragments:
1. Because I was late. (This fragment is incomplete; it does not express a complete thought.)
2. Running through the park. (This lacks a subject and a verb; it needs to be connected to a complete sentence.)
3.When I finish my homework. (This introduces a dependent clause but does not contain a complete thought.)
4.The dog barking loudly. (This phrase lacks a main verb and does not form a complete sentence.)
5. After the storm passed. (This is a dependent phrase that requires a main clause to complete the thought.)
6. Hoping to win the contest. (This fragment also lacks a subject and a verb to form a complete idea.)

Exercise 4: Which of the following is a fragment?

1) a) She loves to swim. b) Swimming in the ocean.
2) a) I went to the store. b) After buying some groceries.
3) a) My favourite hobby is painting. b) During the rainy days.
4) a) He was reading a book. b) In the quiet corner of the library.
5) a) The cake was delicious. b) With chocolate frosting.

Exercise 5: Rewrite each fragment to make it a complete sentence.

1. While he was running after the motorbike.
2. When we arrived at the party.
3. The interesting book on the table.
4. During the rainy days.
5. After the movie ended.

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3) Subject Verb Agreement
Proper subject-verb agreement helps ensure that the writer's message is clear. When subjects and verbs agree
in number (singular or plural), it minimizes confusion for the reader about who or what is performing the action.
Writing with correct subject-verb agreement also conveys professionalism. It reflects a high standard of writing,
which is particularly important in academic, business, and formal contexts. Here are some rules to help you:

1) Collective nouns (e.g., team, group, committee) usually take a singular verb when they act as one unit.
Our team wins the cup every year.
2) Indefinite pronouns (e.g., everyone, someone, nobody) take singular verbs
Nobody listens to me.
3) Titles of books, movies, and other works take singular verbs
Harry Potter series is popular all around the World.
4) When subjects are joined by "and," a plural verb is used
My brother and sister are going to the concert.
5) When subjects are joined by “or” the verb agrees with the subject closest to the verb.
Either my parents or my sister is coming to my graduation ceremony.
Either my sister or parents are coming to my graduation ceremony.
6) Each and Every take singular verbs.
Each student in the class has a text book.

Here are some more examples;

1. The group of students are going on a field trip. (Correct: The group of students is going on a field trip.)
2. Each of the dogs have a unique name. (Correct: Each of the dogs has a unique name.)
3. The team are winning their game today. (Correct: The team is winning their game today.)
4. The committee have made their decision. (Correct: The committee has made its decision.)

Exercise 6: Underline the subject in each sentence and choose the correct alternative
1. Your friendship over the years and your support (has/have) been very meaningful to us.
2. Hamilton Family Centre, which is a shelter for teenage runaways in San Francisco, (offers/offer) a wide variety
of services.
3. The main source of income for the Arab Emirates (is/are) oil and pitch.
4. The chances of promotion (is/are) excellent in this job.
5. There (was/were) a Pokémon card stuck to the refrigerator.
6. None of the professors (was/were) able to solve the mystery in the laboratory.
7. Every year, during the midsummer festival, the smoke of village bonfires (fills/fill) the sky.
8. The story performers (was/were) not only popular among children but also the adults liked them a lot.
9. One of my friends (is/are) going to get a degree in Harvard School of Economics.
10. Economics (was/were) my favourite subject at college.

4) Misplaced Modifier
A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the word it modifies /
describes. Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward, ridiculous, or confusing.
Furthermore, they can be downright illogical . To fix a misplaced modifier, they should appear next to the words
they describe. Here are some examples;

Incorrect: She almost drove her kids to school every day. (“almost” seems to modify the verb “drive” and looks
ridiculous)
Correct; She drove her kids to school almost every day.
Incorrect: The dog chased the bird with a wagging tail.
Correct: The dog with a wagging tail chased the bird.

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Find misplaced modifiers and correct them.

Incorrect: The lady fell a sleep with her cat who was tired after all day work.

Correct: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Incorrect: Her house was a complete mess, so she nearly finished the cleaning in three days.

Correct: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Incorrect: The waitress served bread to the woman that was well buttered.

Correct: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Incorrect: We found the contact lens during the dinner on the carpet.

Correct: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Incorrect: You will like this antique drawer suitable for ladies with thick legs.

Correct: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Incorrect: The farmer wanted to hire someone to look after his horse who doesn’t drink or smoke.

Correct: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 CHAPTER 2

CAUSE AND EFFECT PARAGRAPH

What Is a Cause/Effect Paragraph?

A cause/effect paragraph is a kind of paragraph which explains the reasons/cause or the results/effects of
something. A paragraph giving causes answers the question, “Why does/did this happen?” A paragraph giving
effects answers the question, “What are/were the results of this?”

What Makes a Good Cause/Effect Paragraph?

 It is about either causes or effects. In one paragraph, you cannot address both. You should state in your
topic sentence whether you are explaining the causes or effects.
 It is about a topic that is easily managed in one paragraph. You shouldn’t write two or more paragraphs.
 There is often more than one cause for an event of situation, and there is often more than one result.
The results can be positive, negative, or both. Try to list and explain at least three causes or effects in
your paragraphs.
 A good paragraph is sufficiently detailed. As with all good paragraphs, don’t make your reader guess
what you want to say. Give details about each cause or effect. (minor supports)
 Try to avoid monotony. Short sentences, repeating the same vocabulary, no flow of ideas, no/not
enough linkers, no /not enough use of signals, and no/not enough transitions will make your paragraph
monotonous.

CAUSE /EFFECT PARAGRAPH SIGNALS

Topic Sentences for Effect ........ has three major effects on our body /health/economy/climate
change etc.
………….. leads to several (both)negative/positive effects on one’s
mental health
…………… may have several significant impacts on people’s life/
academic success/family relations etc.
----------- may have both positive and negative effects.

Topic Sentences for Cause There are three major/main causes of …………………..
………., ……………, ………………. are the three significant causes of
……………………..
…………………………. may have some significant reasons.
Supporting Sentences The first/second/third major cause/effect is …………………..
One of the major causes of …………….. is ………………
The first reason is …………………..
Another cause/reason/effect/impact is ……………………
The final/last cause/effect/impact/reason is………
Concluding Sentence Overall,……./ To conclude ………../ All in all,…………………… /All things
considered…….

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Exercise 1. Write topic sentences for the following paragraphs.
_________________________________________________________________. Firstly, excessive drinking can
lead to serious health issues, including liver disease, heart problems, and weakened immune function. Alcohol
also affects the brain, impairing judgment and coordination, which increases the risk of accidents and injuries.
Secondly, alcohol can contribute to mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety, as heavy drinkers
often use alcohol to cope with negative emotions. Moreover, alcohol can impact relationships, as it may lead to
conflicts, poor communication, and increased tension among family and friends. Additionally, heavy drinking can
result in financial problems due to the cost of purchasing alcohol and potential job loss. In short, the impacts of
alcohol can have far-reaching consequences, affecting individuals' health, relationships, and overall quality of
life.

__________________________________________________One of the major causes is that more people need

food; as a result, they clear forests to create farmland for crops and animals. The second cause of deforestation
is logging. Companies cut down trees for wood and other materials, often without caring for the environment.
The third main cause is building cities. When the population grows, the need for building homes and roads
grows accordingly. This results in taking over forested lands and thus, governments and municipalities cut trees
to provide people with more housing options. The final cause is fires, since they can quickly destroy large areas
of forest. These fires may be natural or man-made, but they cause a big forest loss. To protect our remaining
forests, we need to tackle these reasons and find better ways to use land.

Exercise 2. Find the irrelevant sentence in the following paragraphs.

(1) Traffic accidents happen for many reasons that can make roads unsafe. (2) One major cause is distracted
driving. (3) Drivers might use their phones, eat, or change the music instead of focusing on the road. (4) Another
important reason is speeding. (5) When people drive too fast, they cannot stop quickly if something suddenly
appears in front of them. (6) Accidents often lead to traffic congestion, causing delays for other drivers. (7) Bad
weather, like rain or fog, can also cause accidents by making it hard to see or making the road slippery. (8)
Additionally, driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs is very dangerous. (9) It affects a driver’s ability to
think clearly and react properly. (10) To conclude improving safer driving habits, roads and signs can make
driving safer for everyone.

(1) Bullying has serious and lasting effects on both victims and their communities. (2) Firstly, individuals who
experience bullying often face significant emotional pain, leading to anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem.
(3) Studies show that children who experience violence at home imitate these behaviors at school. (4) These
mental health issues can disrupt their daily lives and make it challenging to concentrate in school or engage in
social activities. (5) Secondly, victims often suffer physical health problems, like headaches or stomachaches,
due to the stress they have. (6) Victims reported that they feel better when they are at home with family;
however, they have these symptoms only at school. (7) Furthermore, bullying creates a hostile environment
that affects not only the victim but also bystanders and the overall school climate. (8) Students may skip school
more often and show lower academic performance. (9) All things considered, bullying is a serious issue
impacting academic success and the emotional state of the victims as well as causing physical health problems.

(1) Divorce may have a significant effect on both individuals and the society. (2) One significant cause is poor
communication, which often leads to misunderstandings, unresolved conflicts, and feelings of disconnection. (3)
Another cause is that, when partners fail to express their needs and concerns for a long period, divorce becomes
an inevitable option. (4) The third cause is the financial issues. (5) Stress related to money management or
different spending habits can create tension between spouses. (6) Additionally, infidelity commonly plays a role
in the breakdown of trust in a marriage, making it difficult for couples to repair their relationship. (7) A recent
study shows that 20% of divorces are due to cheating. (8) Finally, changing personal values or growing apart as
individuals can further drive couples toward divorce. (9) When people marry at an early age, they may realize
that they want to live a different life after some years. (10) Ultimately, these factors can weaken a marriage,
leading couples to choose divorce as a way to find happiness again.
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CAUSE AND EFFECT TRANSITION WORDS/CONJUNTIONS: The transitions used in cause/effect paragraphs can
be classified in to two groups; as Reason and Result.

Transition words for cause (reason) Transition words for effect (result)
 Because  Therefore
 Because (of the fact that)  Thus
 Since  Consequently
 As  As a result
 Due to (the fact that)  Hence
 Owing to (the fact that)  So
 For this/that reason
 Because of this
 As a consequence
 This leads to..
 This results in

BECAUSE
We use because before a clause (subject + verb). It can be used at the beginning or in the middle to combine
two simple sentences. A comma is used when the clause of reason is at the beginning of the sentence.
 We didn’t go because it was raining heavily.
 Because the concert was canceled, they went back home.
There are more sophisticated ways of saying ‘because’:

AS/SINCE
We use as and since in a very similar way to because. They are followed by (subject + verb) and can be used at
the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. However, as and since are more formal expressions and are more
common in written than spoken English.
 The Government urged people to stay indoors since/as more rain is forecast for the entire weekend.
 As/Since the roads were blocked, the victims had to be rescued by helicopter.

BECAUSE OF/ DUE TO/OWING TO

We use because of/due to/ owing to before a noun, not a full sentence. We can also use due to/owing to have
the same meaning with ‘because of’, but they are more formal and sound more sophisticated. Study the
examples and rewrite them using As/Because/Since
 They postponed the concert because of/ due to / owing to the heavy rain.
 Henry lost his job because of/due to / owing to his poor performance.
 The festival lasted short because of due to/owing to hurricane.
 I couldn’t enjoy the meal because of/due to/owing to their argument
.
DUE TO THE FACT THAT/OWING TO THE FACT THAT/ BECAUSE OF THE FACT THAT
They have the same meaning with because of / due to / owing to, but they are followed by a clause (Subject
+Verb)
Due to the fact that there was not enough water supply, the campers chose a different location to set up their
tents.
Many species are becoming endangered due to the fact that climate change is altering their ecosystems.
Due to the fact that most students have lack of motivation, they experience failure in their academic life.
We use clauses of result to talk about the result of an action or situation.
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SO
We can use so + subject + verb at the end of a sentence to mean ‘this is why’.
 We didn’t have anything to do, so we decided to rent a film.
 I worked very hard today, so I’m exhausted.

FOR THIS REASON

We usually use for this reason at the beginning of a sentence. We use a comma after it. If we use it in the mid
position, we use semicolon before it and it is followed by a comma.
 Rent is very expensive in Boston. For this reason, we decided to move to Ohio.
 He looked quite pale. For this reason, we told him to see a doctor.
 The players trained hard every day; for this reason, they improved their skills a lot over the season.

AS A RESULT / CONSEQUENTLY / THEREFORE / THUS / HENCE

As a result, consequently, therefore, thus and hence are more formal and more common in written language.
They are normally used at the beginning of a sentence, followed by a comma.
 The flight was delayed due to the storm. As a result, many passengers complained.
 Animals were his only true passion. Therefore/Consequently, he decided to study biology.
 The park was crowded with visitors. Thus/Hence, we chose to go somewhere quieter.
 The wildfire in LA lasted for days. As a result, many people who were mostly celebrities left homeless.
We can also use consequently and therefore in the mid position. If they join two independent clauses, put a
semicolon before the transitional expression and a comma after the transitional expression.
 The doctor advised him to reduce his sugar intake; consequently, he began to eat healthier foods.
 She worked hard to prepare for the exam; therefore, she felt confident on test day.

Exercise 1: Complete the sentences using so, therefore, thus, consequently, due to, due to the fact that,
because of and because. Add comma, semi-colon, or period where necessary. More than one answer is
possible.

1. The weather was terrible yesterday ______________we decided to stay home instead of going out.
2. Many people are becoming more health-conscious; ______ they are choosing to eat organic foods.
3. They delayed the project _______________ the lack of resources and support from management.
4. She missed the deadline ________________________ her inability to manage her time effectively.
5. He didn't study for the exam ___________________ he did not pass it.
6. The proposal received a lot of support from the community ______ it was approved by the council.
7. They chose to implement new technologies in their work______ their productivity increased
significantly.
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HOMEWORK: Complete the paragraph with the transitions given, more than one answer is possible.

IN CONCLUSION- FIRST OF ALL - THE THIRD REASON IS THAT - ANOTHER REASON IS – THEREFORE - TO
ILLUSTRATE - AS A RESULT - ANOTHER REASON - AN EXAMPLE OF THIS IS - THE LAST REASON - SUCH AS -
AN EXAMPLE OF THIS - THUS - DUE TO

There are three main reasons why Turkish people want to enter TV competitions. _________________(1)
they want to become famous. Millions of people watch these competitions; __________, people think they will
appear on TV and social media at least once a week and everyone will get to know them.
_____________________ (2) Aleyna Tilki, who was an ordinary schoolgirl, earned her fame after attending a
song contest. __________ she is now one of the most popular singers in the country. __________ (3) why
Turkish people attend such competitions is that they offer a great amount of money to the winners. These
money awards are almost impossible to earn by working at a regular job. _____________ (4) a competition
called Passaparola. It offered 10 million TL to the winner, which is quite a lot of money for someone who works
as a teacher or engineer. _______________ (5) some people want to join these contests just for fun. They want
to escape the routine flow of their lives and try something exciting before they die. ___________________ (6) is
the TV competition called Survivor. Two teams go to a remote island and try to prove their strength and survival
skills; ______________ (7) they experience great excitement and joy. For most of the competitors, such an
experience is precious and priceless. ____________________ (8) fame, money and excitement, people want to
be a part of these TV competitions.

Exercise 3: Read the paragraph below quickly and answer the questions.
Climate change has become one of the most pressing issues of our time, leading to several negative impacts on
our planet. Firstly, rising temperatures cause glaciers and polar ice caps to melt, resulting in higher sea levels.
Thus, coastal towns may experience flooding and loss of land. Secondly, extreme weather events are becoming
more frequent and severe. For example, hurricanes and droughts have intensified; impacting agricultural
production and leading to food shortages in some regions. Lastly, climate change significantly affects
biodiversity. Many species struggle to adapt to changing climates; consequently, they lose their habitat, and
some of them face extinction. To conclude, climate change threatens future generations and the World.

1)Is the paragraph about the causes or effects of climate change?

2) How many causes/effects can you list? What are they?

3)What is the topic sentence of the paragraph? How would you paraphrase it?

4)What are the signal words/phrases in the paragraph?

5)What are the transition words/conjunctions in the paragraph?

6) What does the writer do in the concluding sentence?

a) give advice or make a suggestion about the topic to the reader
b) make a prediction or offer hope for the future
c) restate the main idea from the topic sentence
d) summarize the main points from the supporting sentences
(Remember you can use all the strategies above when writing your concluding sentence.)
7) How would you paraphrase the concluding sentence in the paragraph?
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TASK 1 (LECTURER GUIDED): STUDY THE CHART BELOW AND DISCUSS THE EFFECTS OF DEPRESSION. DO NOT
FORGET TO WRITE A CONCLUDING SENTENCE.

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TASK 2
Study the chart below and write a paragraph about the effects of automation. Remember to add minor
supports (details, examples, explanations) to the major supports given below.

.
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Further self-practice topics:

1) Nowadays more and more students are dropping out of college. Discuss the causes of this phenomenon.
2)There is a dramatic fall in the number of traffic accidents compared to fifteen years before. Discuss the
reasons in a paragraph.
3) Inflation has risen dramatically by more than 60 %. Discuss the effects of high inflation in a paragraph.
 Remember you can check your paragraphs using AI tools such as; Grammarly, ChatGPT, GoogleAI etc.
Pay attention to the prompts when using AI. To illustrate, you can write: “I am a b1+ student, can you
check my paragraph?” or “Can you check my spelling/grammar/transition words/signals”, “What score
would I get out of 100 according to EILTS writing rubric?” etc.
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CHAPTER 3

COMPARISON & CONTRAST PARAGRAPH

This type of paragraph is about the similarities and differences of two things. The
Comparison paragraph compares two subjects and discusses how they are similar and lists a few
examples. In the Contrast paragraph, two subjects are discussed as how they are different, again, listing a
few examples. We can use the words below to make the similarities and differences clear.

Comparison Signals Contrast Signals

Similarly However,
Likewise, On the other hand,
the same as In contrast,
similar to but / while /whereas
like Although
as + adjective/adverb + as Unlike
both …. and different from
not only… but also One difference is that …
One similarity is that …. Another difference is that …
Another similarity is that …..

e.g. Husband and wife were similarly successful in their careers.

My house is the same color as yours.
Alarms are similar to / like guard dogs.
You are as tall as your father.
She doesn’t play tennis as well as her sister.
Both his father and mother are Spanish.
Not only Tom but also Mark can speak English fluently.

e.g. Brian Ferry’s music is fast. However/On the other hand/In contrast, Sting’s compositions are soft.
Although/Whereas/While Brian Ferry’s music is fast, Sting’s compositions are soft.
Brian Ferry’s music is different from Sting’s compositions.
Unlike Brian Ferry’s music, Sting’s compositions are soft.
She is a hardworking student, but her boyfriend is a lazy one.

What Makes a Good Compare/Contrast Paragraph?

 It is about either similarities or differences. In one paragraph, you cannot address both in detail. You
should state in your topic sentence whether you are comparing or contrasting.
 It shows similarities or differences between two things that already have some kind of connection. You
can also compare two places, two kinds of music, two people, two religions, two systems of
government, and more. Don’t compare or contrast things that have no logical connection.
 It is about a topic that is easily managed in one paragraph. Do not write two or more paragraphs.
 It is sufficiently detailed. As with all good paragraphs, don’t make your reader guess what you want to
say. Give examples and make further explanations (minor supporting sentences)

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Study the first comparison paragraph example.
Istanbul and New York
Istanbul and New York, which are two of the most significant cities in the world, have several
things in common. The first similarity is in their population. Both Istanbul and New York are the most
crowded cities in their country. Almost fifteen million people live in each city and their population is
increasing day by day. Another similarity is that both cities are culturally important. For example, there
are many different museums and art centres in Istanbul such as Topkapı Museum and Istanbul Modern.
Likewise, New York is the cultural centre of The USA with its Metropolitan Museum, Museum of
Modern Art and many others. There are also festivals and concerts in both cities nearly every month.
The final similarity is related with economy and trade. Both cities play a significant role in the economy
of their country because they are the centres of stock market-Istanbul/IMKB and New York/Wall Street.
Again as for trade, both cities are also the centres of import and export. All in all, Istanbul and New York
are two important cities which have several features in common.

Study the second comparison paragraph example and underline its signals.

The food in India is similar to the food in China in several ways. First of all, in both countries, rice is an
important food. It is served at almost every meal in India and China. For example, in both countries people
have rice even at breakfast. In addition, both Indian and Chinese dishes can be spicy. Many different
spices such as curry, ginger and cinnamon are used in the dishes and these spices add a lot of taste to the
food. Furthermore, Indian and Chinese foods are alike because in the dishes, vegetables are used rather than
meat. They prepare the dishes by using different kinds of vegetables such as carrot, cabbage, squash, red and
green pepper, and so on. Finally, both countries use a variety of methods in cooking. Both in India and China,
people mostly boil, fry and grill food but they also try other ways for cooking. To sum up, Chinese and Indian
food, are not only popular but also very similar.
Study the first contrast paragraph example.
Airplanes and Helicopters
Airplanes and helicopters are both important forms of air travel, but there are great differences
between them. The first difference between these two vehicles is their shape and design. While
airplanes have long, slender bodies with wings, helicopters have round bodies and propellers rather
than wings. Secondly, they differ from each other in terms of their speed. Airplanes can travel
extremely fast, reaching speeds of 3.000 km per hour. On the other hand, helicopters move at much
lower speeds than airplanes. The final distinction is their direction of take-off and flight. Unlike
helicopters which take off vertically and can move in any direction, airplanes take off horizontally and
can move in a forward direction only. Also, airplanes need a lot of space for take-off and landing.
However, helicopters require a very small takeoff or landing space. In conclusion, due to these
differences, these two vehicles serve people in different ways.

Study the second contrast paragraph example and underline its signals.
Right Brain / Left Brain
The left and right sides of your brain process information in different ways. The left side is
logical, rational, and verbal. On the other hand, the right-side processes information emotionally,
creatively, and visually. Left brains think in words, whereas right brains think in pictures. People who
depend on more on the left side of their brain are list makers and analysts. They are detailed, careful,
and organized. In contrast, right-brained people are visual and sensual. When a left brained person has
to make an important decision, he or she makes a mental list of all the factors involved and arrives at a
decision only after careful analysis. When a right-brained person has to make the same decision, on the
other hand, s/he decides with feelings. For example, a left brained automobile shopper will consider a
car’s cost and fuel efficiency, whereas a right brained shopper bases a decision on how shiny the
chrome is and how soft the seats are. Of course, no one is 100 percent left-brained or 100 percent
right-brained. Although one side may be stronger, both sides normally work together.

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 Complete the contrast paragraphs below with appropriate signal and transition words.

The Weather in Chicago and Miami

My cousin and I recently had a discussion about whether his hometown, Chicago, or my hometown, Miami,
has better weather. There are three differences between the weather in our two hometowns. First, Chicago
has all four seasons, 1___________ Miami does not. Chicago enjoys summer, fall, winter, and spring weather.
2
___________, Miami has only two seasons: a very mild winter and a very long summer. 3_______________ is
that Chicago’s worst weather occurs in the winter. On average, the high temperature reaches only around 32
degrees, and the low each night goes down to about 20 degrees. 4__________ Chicago, the problem is not the
cold but rather the heat in Miami. In the summer, the temperature reaches 95 degrees in the daytime and
drops only to 75 or so at night. 5____________a Chicagoan’s biggest weather fear is a blizzard, the biggest
weather problem for people in Miami is a hurricane. 6__________, my cousin and I learned that each of our
hometowns has unique weather.

My Life in Canada vs My Grandmother’s Life in Pakistan

My life in Canada is very different from my grandmother’s life in our old country. ___________________, I
have access to education in Canada _____________ my grandmother had very little chance of formal
education. I am in high school now, and I have studied a range of subjects: English, Maths, Chemistry, Biology,
Physical Education, Music, and lots more; _______________ most of her learning was from traditional books
at home. __________________ I have more freedom than my grandmother had. _______________ her, I can
go out with my friends, see a movie, or play soccer. My friends are both girls and boys. I am even learning to
drive, so I will be more independent. My grandmother could not do those things. She had to stay at home,
help her mother, and learn to cook traditional food. She certainly could not go to a movie with a boy!
______________, I know I will have more career opportunities. After high school, I want to go to college and
train to be a paramedic or a firefighter. My mother did not have those opportunities; as a girl, she was not
expected to have a career, and certainly not the kind of career I want to have. She got married when she was
very young, and she has never had a paying job. To conclude, I’m not saying my life is better than my mom’s
life but living in a modern culture makes a huge difference.

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TASK 1 : Write a contrast paragraph about cats and dogs as pets considering the following information:

CATS DOGS
SLEEP TIME 12-18 hours a day 14-15 hours a day
CHARACTERISTICS Independent, Prefer Solitary Dependent, Need Emotional
Bonding
CARE EXPENSES ~ 10 Dollars /month ~ 30 Dollars/month
LIFESPAN ~ 20 Years ~ 15 years

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TASK 2. Choose two cities, counties, jobs, sports, people etc. Think of the similarities and the differences and
list them in the Venn diagram below. Then write a comparison paragraph discussing similarities OR a
contrast paragraph based on differences.

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 CHAPTER 4

PROCESS PARAGRAPH
In a process paragraph, we write how to do/make something (e.g. how to make a cake, how to
write a paragraph etc.) or how something works/ happens (e.g. a wedding ceremony). When you
explain the step-by-step process, you are giving instructions.

Time Order Signals

You can use these connectors/signals to make the steps of the process clear.

Sentence Connectors Others

To begin with, The first step
First, (Second, Third, etc.) The next step
Then The final step
Next,
After that, After five minutes,
Later,
Following this, After you take the pizza out of oven,
Now,
Meanwhile,
When/While
Finally,

What makes a good process paragraph?

 In one paragraph, you should only explain one single process, don’t explain two different processes, or
the steps after the process in your paragraph.
 Use imperative or passive structure and generally present simple tense.
 It is about a topic that is easily managed in one paragraph. Do not write two or more paragraphs.
 It is sufficiently detailed. As with all good paragraphs, don’t make your reader guess what you want to
say. Make further explanations where necessary. These may include; specific measures, times, or
methods.
 Try to use adverbs to modify the actions. (stir gently, fold rapidly, etc.)
 Avoid unnecessary details, since this will cause confusion.

Exercise 1. Study the paragraph and underline the signals.

How to Eat Tacos
Taco is a mouth-watering, world-famous Mexican dish; however, some people avoid eating Taco in public;
since it is messy and difficult to eat. If you follow these steps, you will enjoy Tacos whenever and wherever you
want. First, fold the tortilla bread around the fillings and grab it from the top with one hand. Meanwhile,
reserve your other hand for emergencies; such as catching massive taco parts, sauces, or spillages. Then, hold
the Taco perpendicular to the table. At the same time, make sure that the plate is just under the Taco because
this will protect your clothes from getting messy and the taco parts will directly fall into your plate. Finally, lean
your face just into the Taco and take a big bite slowly. Make sure you clean your mouth with tissues after each
bite. Although it seems complicated and messy to eat Tacos, these steps will help you eat them with
confidence in public.

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Exercise 2. Study the paragraph below and fill in the missing parts with signals.
How to Make Scrambled Eggs
Scrambled eggs are a kind of quick and easy light meal. You need two fresh eggs, milk, butter, salt and
pepper. You also need a mixing bowl, a tablespoon, a fork and a frying pan. ________ , break the eggs into
the bowl. _____________, add about three tablespoons of milk, the salt and the pepper. Beat the mixture
with a fork until it is well mixed. ________________, melt a small piece of butter in the frying pan over
low heat. Pour the egg mixture into the pan and let it heat through. _____________, turn up the heat
slightly. ____________ the eggs cook slowly, push them around gently with the fork. When the scrambled
eggs ready. They should be light and fluffy. ____________, in just a few minutes, you can sit down and
enjoy your delicious meal. Scrambled eggs is nutritious and easy to make if you follow these steps.

TASK 1: How to Make a French Toast

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TASK 2: How to Buy an Online Bus or Plane Ticket

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TASK 3: Watch the video about how to perform CPR on adults twice, take notes, and write a paragraph with
your own words.
Link for the video: https://youtu.be/-NodDRTsV88?si=SYTzLYeGx94r8nJB

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Sometimes we prefer to use Passive Structures when explaining the steps of technical, industrial, etc.
processes. However, pay attention to intransitive verbs when using passive in your paragraphs because these
verbs do not take any object. As a result, they cannot be used in the passive form.

TASK 3: Study the chart below on recycling plastic waste and complete the paragraph.

Plastic is one of the most widely used materials in the world, but it also has a significant environmental
threat due to its non-biodegradable nature. Recycling plastic waste has several steps. The first step in
the plastic recycling process is collecting. Plastic waste is collected from various sources, such as
households, industries, and commercial establishments, and transported to a recycling centre. The
next step is sorting. It is sorted according to its type machines or people. Following this, the sorted
plastic waste is shredded into small pieces by machines such as; granulators or
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recycle is crucial for our planet; therefore, always sort your wastes at home and try to avoid using
plastic as much as possible.

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TASK 3: Study the picture and write a paragraph on the process of making a traditional canoe using
passive where possible.

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 TASK 4: Look at the picture and write the process of using a fire extinguisher using passive.

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