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12 ATOMS
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Initially, J.J. Thomson proposed an atomic model in which he thought of as electrons embedded in
between protons. In 1911, his student Earnest Rutherford proposed a nuclear model, on the basis of
a scattering experiment. In spite of strong experimental evidence, Rutherford’s model of the atom
was rejected on the ground of the classical theory of electromagnetism.

So, in order to rectify the shortcomings of Rutherford’s model, in 1913, Niels Bohr
combined the classical and early quantum concepts of Einstein and Plank to explain
the stability of an atom.

Atoms are made up of the same amount of negative and positive charges. In
Thomson’s model, atoms were described as a spherical cloud of positive charges with
embedded electrons. In Rutherford’s model, one tiny nucleus bears most of the mass
of the atom along with its positive charges, and the electrons revolve around it.
Rutherford’s model didn’t fulfil two explanations.

It could not concur with the stability of the matter as it foretells that atoms are unstable
because of the electrons that revolve around the nucleus might spiral into the nucleus.

It is unable to explain the spectral characteristics of a line of atoms. Atoms of every element emit a
specific characteristic spectrum and are stable. The spectrum is made of a line spectrum, which is an
isolated parallel line.

Thomson’s model has a defect of unstable electrostatically and Rutherford’s model is

electromagnetically unstable.

Thomson Model

According to Thomson, "An atom

consists of positively charged matter,
into which negatively charged particles
are embedded randomly". But this
model did not last long as it
could not explain the
observations of
Rutherford's alpha-
particle scattering
experiment.
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ALFA – PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

ALFA – PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

In 1911, Rutherford, along with his assistants, H. Geiger and E. Marsden, performed the Alpha
Particle scattering experiment, which led to the birth of the ‘nuclear model of an atom’.

In this experiment, a piece of a radioactive substance (radium) is

placed in a lead block. Only a limited beam of alpha particles might
escape since the block is designed with slits. A high-energy a-particle
beam was focused on a thin gold foil (thickness of about 100 nm). A
moveable circular screen coated with zinc sulphide is placed around the
gold foil to detect the a-particles after scattering.

When alpha particles collide with the zinc sulphide screen, light flashes or
scintillations appear, which can be observed. It was feasible to determine the proportions of the α-
particles that were deflected through various angles by looking at different parts of the screen.

Observations of Alfa – Particle Scattering Experiment

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BOHR MODEL

BOHR MODEL
Bohr’s Model of an Atom

The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It came into existence with the
modification of Rutherford’s model of an atom. Rutherford’s model introduced the nuclear model of
an atom, in which he explained that a nucleus (positively charged) is surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.

Introduction to the Bohr Model

Bohr theory modified the atomic structure model by explaining that electrons move in fixed orbitals
(shells) and not anywhere in between and he also explained that each orbit (shell) has a fixed energy.
Rutherford explained the nucleus of an atom and Bohr modified that model into electrons and their
energy levels.

Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus (positively charged) surrounded by negative electrons
moving around the nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that an electron located away from the nucleus has
more energy, and the electron which is closer to nucleus has less energy.

Energy Level

Bohr's Model explained how electrons travel in different circular orbits around the nucleus. The
orbits are symbolized with the letter ‘n’, where the value of n is an integer. The transfer of electrons
is possible by emission and absorption of energy.

Postulates of Bohr Theory

There are three Bohr’s Postulates in Neil Bohr Model, each of these are described in detail below:
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BOHR MODEL

First Postulate

The first postulate states that every atom has a positively charged central core called the nucleus in
which the entire mass of an atom is concentrated. Negatively charged electron revolves about the
nucleus in a circular orbit, the centripetal force required for revolution is provided by the
electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and electrons.

If ‘m’ is the mass of an electron revolving around the nucleus with a velocity ‘v’ in a circular orbit,
then the required centripetal force is:

mv2
F = r ⋯ (1)
2

Also, the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus of charge (+Ze) and the electron is

(- e) will be:

1 ze ∗ e
F = ⋯ (2)
4πε0 r 2
1
We know that K =
4πε0

ze∗e Ze2
F = K = K
r2 r2

Now, equating eq (1) & (2), we get:

Mv2 Ze2
= K
r r2

Second Postulate

The second postulate talks about stable orbits. According to Bohr, electrons can revolve in a certain
discrete (discontinuous) non-radiating orbits, called stationary (permitted) orbits, for which angular
h
momentum (L) of the revolving electron is an integral multiple of . Thus the angular momentum
2π
of the orbiting electron is an integer number.

The angular momentum of an electron = mvr

For any stationary orbit:

nh
mvr =
2π

Where,
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BOHR MODEL

n = A principal quantum number, which has a positive integral value ranging from 1, 2, 3, to n.

h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10−34 Js

Third Postulate

The emission or absorption of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one non-radiating
orbit to another. The difference between the total energies of electrons in the two stationary orbits
is absorbed when the electron jumps from inner to the outer orbit, and emitted when electrons
jump from outer orbit to the inner one.

If E1 & E2 = Total energy (T.E.) of an e- in an inner and outer stationary orbit respectively, then the
frequency of radiation emitted on jumping of from outer to inner orbit is given by:

E = hf = E2 – E1 ⋯ (3)

We know that most of the hydrogen atom is in the ground state and when this atom receives energy
either electron collision or heat, it may require sufficient energy to raise the electron to higher energy
state, i.e., from n = 1 to n = 2, 3,…,∞. The atom is said to be in excited state, and difference in their
energies can be calculated from equation (3), which is:
4 4
2πmK 2 Z2e 2πmK 2 Z2e 1 1
hf = + [ − ]
n12 h2 n12 h2 n22 n12
4
1 2πmK 2 Z2e 1 1
= [ − ]
λ Ch3 n22 n12
4
2πmK2 Z2e
Also, = R, a constant called the Rydberg constant
Ch3

1 1
And, ⊽ = 1λ = R [ − ] … … . (4)
n22 n21

Where,

Eq. (4) is the Rydberg formula,

⊽ = wave number of emitted radiation.

a. Radius of Bohr’s stationary orbit is:

n2 h2
r =
4π2 Mke2
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BOHR MODEL

We can see that r n2, if the radii of stationary orbit are in the ratio of 1 : 22 : 32, i.e., 1 : 4 : 9; this
means the stationary orbits are unequally spaced.

b. Velocity of an electron in Bohr’s stationary orbit is given by:

KZe2
v =
nhr

c. Total energy of an electron in Bohr’s nth stationary orbit is:

4
2πmK2 Z2e
En = − … … . . (5)
n2 h2

Or,

13.6
En = − … … (6)
n2

Here, TE of an e− in a stationary orbit is negative, which means the electron is tightly bound to the
nucleus.

Energy Level Diagram

On putting value of n = 1, 2, 3, ...we get the energies of electrons in various stationary orbits as:

13.6
E1 = − eV = 13.6 eV … (a)
12
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BOHR MODEL

13.6
E2 = − eV = − 3.4 eV ⋯ (b)
22
13.6
E3 = − eV = − 1.5111 eV ⋯ (c)
32

13.6
E4 = − eV = − 0.85 eV ⋯ (d)
42

13.6
E5 = − eV = − 0.544 eV ⋯ (e)
52

13.6
E6 = − eV = − 0.3778 eV ⋯ (f)
62

A pattern from eq. (a) to (f) shows us that the value of E1 n2. It means the value of E becomes less
negative with the increase in the value of square of n. Also, the value of En becomes zero when n
reaches to ∞.
13.6
En = − eV = 0 eV
∞2

Hydrogen Spectrum

As we know electrons always try to remain in their lowest energy level, the excited electrons go back
to their original level and emit radiation in this process. This phenomenon explains the emission
spectrum via hydrogen, sometimes known as a hydrogen emission spectrum. The electron
transitioning from a high energy state to a low energy state is the primary cause of the hydrogen line
emission spectrum.
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BOHR MODEL

In 1885, the first such series was observed by a Swedish school teacher Johann Jakob Balmer (1825–
1898) in the visible region of the hydrogen spectrum.

1. Lyman series: Electron moves to the first shell from any other shell.
2. Balmer series: Electron moves to the second shell from any other shell.
3. Paschen series: Electron moves to the third shell from any other shell.
4. Bracket series: Electron moves to the fourth shell from any other shell.
5. Pfund series: Electron moves to the fifth shell from any other shell.

What is the Spectral emission?

When an electron transitions, or jumps, from a higher energy state to a lower energy one,
spectral emission occurs. To distinguish between the two states, the lower energy level
is denoted by n1, while the higher energy state is denoted by n2.
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BOHR MODEL

Rydberg’s formula

1 1 1
= Z2 R ( 2 − 2 )
λ n2 n1

where,

Z is the atomic number,

𝐧𝟏 is the principal quantum number of the lower energy level,

𝐧𝟐 is the principal quantum number of the upper energy level, and

R is the Rydberg constant. (1.09677 × 107 m−1 for hydrogen and 1.09737 × 107 m−1 for heavy
metals).

Example 1: Find the ratio of wavelengths of the last line of the Balmer series and the last line of the
Lyman series.
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BOHR MODEL

Solution: We know that,

1 1 1
= Z2 R ( 2 − 2 )
λ n2 n1

For the last Balmer series

n1 = 2, n2 = ∞, Z = 1

1 1 1
= R ( 2 − 2)
λb 2 ∞
4
λb =
R

Similarly, For the last Lyman series

1 1 1
= R ( 2 − 2)
λl 1 ∞

1
λ1 =
R
4
λb R
= 1
λl
R

λb
=4
λl

The ratio of wavelengths of the last line of the Balmer series and the last line of the Lyman series is
4.
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ALFA – PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

• Rutherford's observations led him to the conclusion that: “A large proportion of the α-
particles that bombarded the gold sheet passed through it without deflection”.
Hence, the majority of the space in an atom is empty.
• Only a few particles deflected back (deflection angle of 180
degrees). As a result, positively charged particles in an atom
occupy a small fraction of the overall volume of the atom.
• According to Thomson's Model, if the atom's positive charge was
uniformly distributed, positively charged a-particles with a significant mass (4 a.m.u.) would
pass through a weak electric field mostly undeflected or slightly deflected. He did discover
that several of the a-particles had significant deflections. Some particles even resurfaced from
the foil. As a result, Thomson's Model was eliminated as it couldn't explain this data.

Rutherford model of atom

Rutherford proposed the atomic structure of elements, on the basis of his experiment. According to
Rutherford’s atomic model:

• The positively charged particle was concentrated in an extremely small volume and most of
the mass of an atom was also in that volume. He called this a nucleus of an atom.
• Rutherford proposed that there is negatively charged electrons around the nucleus of an
atom. the electron surrounding the nucleus revolves around it in a circular path with very high
speed. He named orbits to these circular paths.
• Nucleus being a densely concentrated mass of positively charged particles and electrons being
negatively charged are held together by a strong force of attraction called electrostatic forces
of attraction.
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ALFA – PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model

The Rutherford atomic model is failed to explain certain things.

According to Maxwell, an electron revolving around the nucleus should emit electromagnetic
radiation due to accelerated charged particles emit electromagnetic radiation. but Rutherford model
says that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed paths called orbits. The radiation would
carry energy from the motion which led to the shrinking of orbit. Ultimately electrons
would collapse inside the nucleus.

As per the Rutherford model, calculations have shown that an electron would
collapse in the nucleus in less than 10-8 seconds. So Rutherford model has
created a high contradiction with Maxwell’s theory and Rutherford later could
not explain the stability of an atom.

Rutherford also did not describe the arrangement of electrons in the orbit as one of
the other drawbacks of his model.

Regardless of seeing the early atomic models were inaccurate and failed to explain
certain experimental results, they were the base for future developments in the world
of quantum mechanics.

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

In 1912, Rutherford proposed his nuclear model of the atom. It is also known as Rutherford's
planetary model of the atom. Salient features of Rutherford's atom model are as follows :

Every atom consists of a tiny central core, named nucleus, in which the entire positive charge and
the almost whole mass of the atom are concentrated. The size of the nucleus is typically 10−4 times
the size of an atom.

Most of an atom is empty space.

In free space around the nucleus, electrons would be moving in orbits just as the planets do around
the sun. The centripetal force needed for the
orbital motion of electrons is provided by
electrostatic attractive forced experience by
electrons due to a positively charged nucleus.

An atom as a whole is electrically neutral.

Thus, the total positive charge of the nucleus
is exactly equal to the total negative charge of
all the electrons orbiting in an atom.