CEN4415 PROCESS DESIGN I

LECTURERS
• Prof. Dr. Süleyman KARACAN (Coordinator)
• Assos.Prof. Emir H. ŞİMŞEK
• Assos.Prof.Dr. Hakan KAYI
COURSE INFORMATION
Course Title Code Semester T+P Hour Credits ECTS

PROCESS DESIGN I CEN4415 7. 3+0 3.0 3.0

Semester

Prerequisites SEPARATION PROCESSES,CHEMICAL REACTION ENGINEERING

Goals Mass and energy balances for a process,

Determination of the size of the units of the process,
Determination of the compositions and other conditions of the flow,
Determination of investment and operating costs of the units ,
Determination of the profitability of the process.
 Week Topics
1. Week Introduction to Process Design, Group and Teamwork

2. Week Flow Charts and P & I Diagrams

3. Week Mass and Energy Balances for Units

4. Week Piping and Instrumentation

5. Week Evaluation of System Performance

6. Week Pipeline Design

7. Week Pump and Compressor Design

8. Week Heat Exchangers and Classification

9. Week Heat Exchanger Design Parameters and Methods

10. Week Condenser Design

11. Week Engineering Ethics.

12. Week Economic Analysis of Processes

13. Week Feasibility presentations

14. Week Feasibility presentations

Evaluation of Success
Type Number Percentage Contribution

Midterm 1 15
Project Report 3 12

Quiz ? 3
Final sınavı 1 80
TOPLAM 110
 DESIGN PROJECTS TO BE CARRIED OUT IN PARALLEL WITH RELATED TOPICS

• Creation of flow charts with computer support for All processes and process units
(MATLAB and ChemCAD/Aspen HYSYS)

• Pipelines and pump design

• Heat exchanger design

 REFERENCES

• Turton R., Bailie R.C., Whiting W.B., Shaeiwitz J.A., 1998, Analysis, Synthesis and Design of
Chemical Process, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

• Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. and Sinnot R.K., 1999, Chemical Engineering, Vol 6, Design,
3rd ed., Butterworth-Heinmann, Oxford.

• Sandler H.J., 1987, Practical Process Engineering: A Working Approach to Plant Design,
McGraw-Hill, New York.

• Douglas J.M., 1988, Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes, McGraw-Hill, New York.

• Peters M.S. and Timmerhaus K.D., 1985, Plant Design and Economics for Engineers, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York.

• Perry R.H., Green D., Maloney O.M., 1997, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

Chemical Engineering Process Design is the design of processes for the desired
physical and/or chemical transformations of substances.
• Design is a creative activity, actually can be regarded as an art.
• The design does not exist at the start of the project.
• The designer begins with a specific objective or customer need in mind, and by
developing and evaluating possible designs, arrives at the best way of achieving
that objective.
• The designer will be constrained by many factors, which will narrow down the
number of possible designs for the achievement of the objective.
• Mostly, more than one possible solution to the problem, and more than one design.
• Depending on the nature of the constraints, several best designs may be possible.
 CODES AND STANDARDS

In engineering practice standards cover

1. Materials, properties, and compositions.

2. Testing procedures for performance, compositions, and quality.
3. Preferred sizes; for example, tubes, plates, sections, etc.
4. Methods for design, inspection, and fabrication.
5. Codes of practice for plant operation and safety.

The terms standard and code are used interchangeably, though code should really be
reserved for a code of practice covering a recommended design or operating procedure; and
standard for preferred sizes, compositions, etc.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

American Petroleum Institute (API)

American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society (ISA)

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

FLOW SHEETING
 FLOW DIAGRAMS

A flow diagram can be considered as a key document in process design.

It indicates:

 location of the equipment in the process,

 their connections with each other,

 the streamlines, and the rates of the streams, their composition,

 the operating conditions of the equipment.

Purposes for the Use of Flow Charts:

• They form the basis for the designs of specialist design groups.

• They are used to compare the operational performance of the process with the design
value during start-ups.

• They are used for the preparation of operating manuals and the preparation of
documents for the training of operating technicians.
Advantages of Flow Charts:

• Creation of alternative flow charts

• Selection of the most suitable process
• Determining the most suitable process conditions

Today, flow charts are prepared with aid of computers. CAD

 Types of Flow Diagrams

1. Block Flow Diagram (BFD) and Block Plant Flow Diagram (BPFD)
2. Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
3. Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID, Process control, equipment
dimensions etc.)
4. Additional Diagrams (Specifications: For equipment design requirements)
5. Three-dimensional drawing of the process
6. Three-dimensional plant model
 BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM (BFD)

1. Block Flow Process Diagram

1. Operations shown by blocks.

2. Major flow lines shown with arrows giving direction of flow.
3. Flow goes from left to right whenever possible (recycles go right to left).
4. Light stream (gases) toward top with heavy stream (liquids and solids) toward bottom.
5. Critical information unique to process supplied.
6. If lines cross, then the horizontal line is continuous and the vertical line
is broken.
7. Simplified material balance provided.
2. Block Flow Plant Diagram
Each block represents a complete chemical process (compressors and turbines are trapezoids), and a
block flow process diagram could be drawn for each block.
 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (PFD)
The PFD contains the bulk of the chemical engineering data necessary for the design of a
chemical process.

A typical commercial PFD contains:

1. All the major pieces of equipment in the process. Each piece of equipment will have a
unique equipment number and a descriptive name.

2. All process flow streams will be shown and identified by a number. A description of the
process conditions and chemical composition of each stream will be included. These data
will be either displayed directly on the PFD or included in an accompanying flow summary
table.

3. All utility streams supplied to major equipment that provide a process function will be
shown.

4. Basic control loops, illustrating the control strategy used to operate the process during
normal operations, will be shown.
The basic information provided by a PFD can be categorized into:

1. Process topology

2. Stream information

3. Equipment information
 1. Process Topology
The location of and interaction between equipment and process streams are
referred to as the process topology.

Equipment is
represented
symbolically by
“icons” that
identify specific
unit operations.
Symbols for
Drawing
Process
Flow
Diagrams
 T
Conventions Used for Identifying Process Equipment P

P-101A/B
P-101A/B identifies the equipment as a
pump.

P-101A/B indicates that the pump is located

in area 100 of the plant.

P-101A/B indicates that this specific pump is

number 01 in unit 100.

P-101A/B indicates that a backup pump is

installed. Thus, there are two identical
pumps, P-101A and P-101B. One
pump will be operating while the other is idle.
2. Stream Information

Each of the process streams is identified by a number in a diamond box located on the
stream. The direction of the stream is identified by one or more arrowheads.

Utilities are needed services that are available at the plant.

Chemical plants are provided with a range of central utilities that include:
- Electricity, compressed air, cooling water, refrigerated water, steam, condensate
return, inert gas for blanketing, chemical sewer, wastewater treatment, and flares.
Conventions for
Identifying Process
and Utility Streams
Information Provided in a Flow Summary Table
 Flow Summary
Table for the
Benzene
Process

EXAMPLE 1.
Check the overall material balance
for the benzene process.
Example 2. Determine the conversion per pass of toluene to benzene in the R-101 unit given
in the PFD of benzene production process.

Conversion is defined as

X = (benzene produced in reactor)/(total toluene fed to reactor)

Moles of benzene produced in reactor = Toluene in (Stream6)– Toluene out (Stream9)

= 144.0 – 36.0 = 108.0 kmol/h

X = 108.0/144.0 = 0.75
3. Equipment Information
Equipment Descriptions for PFD and P&IDs
Equipment Type
Description of Equipment
Towers
Size (height and diameter), Pressure, Temperature
Number and Type of Trays
Height and Type of Packing
Materials of Construction
Heat Exchangers
Type: Gas-Gas, Gas-Liquid, Liquid-Liquid,
Condenser, Vaporizer
Process: Duty, Area, Temperature, and Pressure for Pumps
Both Streams Flow, Discharge Pressure, Temperature, ΔP, Driver
Number of Shell and Tube Passes Type, Shaft Power, Materials of Construction
Materials of Construction: Tubes and Shell Compressors
Tanks and Vessels Actual Inlet Flowrate, Temperature, Pressure Inlet
Height, Diameter, Orientation, Pressure, and Outlet, Driver Type, Shaft Power, Materials of
Temperature, Materials of Construction Construction
Heaters (Fired)
Type, Tube Pressure, Tube Temperature, Duty, Fuel,
Material of Construction
Other
Provide Critical Information
Equipment Summary for PFD of Benzene Production via Toluene Hydrodealkylation
A More Representative Benzene Process Flow Diagram (PFD) for the Production of
Benzene via the Hydrodealkylation of Toluene
 Process Layout

• The sequence of the main equipment items shown symbolically on the flow-sheet follows
that of the proposed plant layout.
• The aim should be to show the flow of material from stage to stage as it will occur, and to
give a general impression of the layout of the actual process plant.
• The equipment should be drawn approximately to scale.
• For a complex process, with many process units, several sheets may be needed, and the
continuation of the process
streams from one sheet to another must be clearly shown.
• The table of stream flows and other data can be placed above or below the equipment
layout. Normal practice is to place it below.
• The stream line numbers should follow consecutively from left to right of the layout.
• All the process stream lines shown on the flow-sheet should be numbered and the data
for the stream given.
Flow-sheet: simplified nitric acid process.
Precision of Data

• The total stream and individual component flows with at most one decimal place is
sufficient.

• If a stream or component flow is so small that it is less than the precision used for the
larger flows, it can be shown to a greater number of decimal places, if its accuracy
justifies this and the information is required. Imprecise small flows are best shown as
“trace”.

• If the composition of a trace component is specified as a process constraint, e.g. for an

effluent stream or product quality specification, it can be shown in ppm.

• A trace quantity should not be shown as zero, or the space in the tabulation left blank,
unless the process designer is sure that it has no significance.

• Trace quantities can be important. Only a trace of an impurity is needed to poison a

catalyst.
 MANUAL FLOW-SHEET CALCULATIONS

Two kinds of design constraints:

External constraints: not directly under the control of the designer, and which cannot
normally be relaxed. Examples are:
(i) Product specifications, possibly set by customer requirements.
(ii) Major safety considerations, such as flammability limits.
(iii) Effluent specifications, set by government agencies.

Internal constraints: determined by the nature of the process and the equipment
functions. These would include:
(i) The process stoichiometry, reactor conversions and yields.
(ii) Chemical equilibria.
(iii) Physical equilibria, involved in liquid-liquid and gas/vapour-liquid separations.
(iv) Azeotropes and other fixed compositions.
(v) Energy-balance constraints. Where the energy and material balance interact, as for
example in flash distillation.
(vi) Any general limitations on equipment design.
1. Basis for the Flow-Sheet Calculations

The basis used in calculating the values written on the flow chart should be specified on
the flow chart.

Within these basis;

• Annual operating period,

• Reaction efficiency and physical yields,
• Temperature,
• Assumptions to be used

should be included.

Different flow charts should be created for different situations.

1. Basis for the Flow-Sheet Calculations

a) Time:

No plant will operate continuously without shut-down.

Annual operating time in most chemical and petrochemical plants is 90-95% of a year,
usually 8000 hours.

Planned shut-down periods will be necessary for

- maintenance, inspection, and equipment cleaning
- renewal of catalysts
- column packing.
b) Scaling Factor:

 It is usually easiest to carry out the sequence of flow-sheet calculations in the same
order as the process steps.

 The required production rate will usually be specified in terms of the product, not the
raw-material feeds.

 Therefore, it will be necessary to select an arbitrary basis of the calculations, say 100
kmol/h of the principal raw material.

 The actual flows required can then be calculated by multiplying each flow by a scaling
factor determined from the actual production rate required.
2. Flow-Sheet Calculations on Individual Units

Calculations for the obtaining of the composition of the fixed streams of the various units in
the process flow chart includes the use of mass and energy balances together in the reactor
and equilibrium stages.

1. Reactors
(i) Reactor yield and conversion specified (with the help of literature).
(ii) The equilibrium conversion for the reversible reaction is calculated for the reactor
operating temperature and pressure.
2. Equilibrium Stages (absorption, distillation, extraction)
The rates of the output streams are calculated by assuming that the streams leaving the
stages are in equilibrium.
3. Fixed stream compositions
If the composition (or flow-rate) of one stream is fixed by “internal” or “external” constraints,
this may fix the composition and flows of other process streams.
4. Combined heat and material balances
It is often possible to make a material balance round a unit independently of the heat
balance. The process temperatures may be set by other process considerations, and the
energy balance can then be made separately to determine the energy requirements to
maintain the specified temperatures.
EXAMPLE 3.

In the production of hydrogen by the steam reforming of hydrocarbons, the classic

water-gas reaction is used to convert CO in the gases leaving the reforming furnace to
hydrogen, in a shift converter in the petroleum industry.

In this example, given the composition of the gas stream entering the reactor and the
steam/gas ratio, it is desired to calculate the composition of the stream leaving the
reactor. In the reactor, the reaction is carried out in a catalytic environment and it is
assumed that the exiting stream has reached chemical equilibrium.

A typical gases composition obtained by steam reforming of methane is:

CO2: 8.5%, CO: 11.0%, H2: 76.5% by mole of dry gas

If this is fed to a shift converter at 500 K, with a steam ratio of 3 mol H2O to 1 mol
CO, estimate the outlet composition and temperature.
 The temperature is high enough for the gases to be
At equilibrium: considered ideal, so the equilibrium
constant is written in terms of partial pressure .

Mol fraction can be substituted for partial pressure. As the total mols in and out is constant

(Eqn. 1)

Kp is a function of temperature.

Equilibrium constants for various reactions depending on the temperature can be found
directly or ondirectly using different sources.

For example, if the free energy change ΔG of the reaction is known, it can be calculated
using the relation ΔG = -RT ln Kp .
It can also be found in thermodynamics books by using the nomograms given as 1/T vs.
log Kp.
• Since the reaction is exothermic, adiabatic operation is preferred.
• No cooling will be done and heat losses to the outside will be minimized.
• Since the temperature of the gases leaving the reactor also depends on the conversion
rate, the reactor exit temperature must satisfy the equilibrium relation and energy
balance for adiabatic operation.

For this purpose, the solution algorithm given below can be applied.

1. An assumption is made for the fractional conversion, C.

2. For this conversion, the Kp value is calculated from the equation 1.

3. From Kp = f(T) (thermodynamic relations or nomograms), the outlet temperature T is

found.

4. For adiabatic operation, the released heat Q is calculated from the energy balance.

5. Check if Q=0. Calculations (iterations) are continued until Q=0.

Kp values are taken from Spiers, H.M. (1961) Technical Data on Fuel, 6th edn.
 T, K
660
y = 0,0002x + 584,48
640 For T=584.48 K  Q=0
620

600 Kp x 102 = 0.0475 T – 24.447

580

For T=584.48 K  Kp=3.31x10-2

560

540
-200.000 -100.000 0 100.000 200.000 300.000 400.000
From Eqn. 1:
Heat Q, J
7

6 -117C2+515C-341.5=0  C=0.81
y = 0,0475x - 24,447
5
Exit gas composition:
Kp x 10^2

0
540 560 580 600 620 640 660
T, K
EXAMPLE 4.
This example illustrates the use of phase equilibrium relationships (vapour-liquid) in
material balance calculations.
In the production of dichloroethane (EDC) by oxyhydrochlorination of ethylene, the products
from the reaction are quenched by direct contact with dilute HCl in a quench tower. The
gaseous stream from this quench tower is fed to a condenser and the uncondensed vapours
recycled to the reactor. A typical composition for this stream is shown in the diagram below;
operating pressure 4 bar. Calculate the outlet stream compositions leaving the condenser.

The EDC flow includes some organic

impurities and a trace of HCl.
The inerts are mainly N2, CO, O2 non-
condensable.
Take the “non-condensables” (ethylene and inerts) as the tie substance. Treat gas phase as
ideal, and condensed EDC-water as immiscible.

composition of the gas stream:

EXAMPLE 5.
This example illustrates the use of liquid-liquid phase equilibria in material balance
calculations.

The condensate stream from the condenser described in Example 2 is fed to a decanter to
separate the condensed water and dichloroethane (EDC).
Calculate the decanter outlet stream compositions.
 Assume outlet phases are in equilibrium.

The solubilities of the components at 20°C  EDC in water: 0.86 kg/100kg,

Water in EDC: 0.16 kg/100kg

Note the water will contain a trace of HCl, but as data on the solubility of EDC in dilute
HCl are not available, the solubility in water will be used.

As the concentrations of dissolved water and EDC are small, the best approach to this
problem is by successive approximation; rather than by setting up and solving equations
for the unknown concentrations.
 COMPUTER-AIDED FLOW-SHEETING

Process Simulation Programs

1. Simultaneous, Equation based

- Entire process is described by a set of differential equations, and the equations solved
simultaneously, not stepwise.
- Equation based programs can simulate the “unsteady-state” operation of processes and
equipment.

2. Sequential-modular
- Equations describing each process unit (module) are solved module-by-module in a
stepwise manner
- They simulate the “steady-state” operation of the process and can be used to draw-up the
process flow sheet, and to size individual items of equipment
 Structure of a Typical Simulation Program

The program consists of:

1. A main executive program

2. A library of equipment performance sub-
routines (modules); which simulate the
equipment and enable the output streams
to be calculated from information on the
inlet streams.
3. A databank of physical properties.
4. Sub-programs for thermodynamic
routines; such as the calculation of vapour-
liquid equilibria and stream enthalpies.
5. Sub-programs and databanks for costing;
the estimation of equipment capital costs
and operating costs.
 Information Flow Diagrams
 To present the problem to the computer, the basic process flow diagram, which shows
the sequence of unit operations and stream connections, must be transformed into an
information flow diagram.

 Each block represents a calculation module in the simulation program; usually a

process unit or part of a unit.

 Units in which no change of composition, or temperature or pressure, occurs are

omitted from the information flow diagram.

 The lines and arrows connecting the blocks show the flow of information from one
subprogram to the next.

 An information flow diagram is a form of directed graph (a diagraph).

 The calculation topology defined by the information diagram is transformed into a

numerical form suitable for input into the computer, usually as a matrix.
Hydrogenation of nitrobenzene to aniline

PFD

IFD
 MANUAL CALCULATIONS WITH RECYCLE STREAMS
If a proprietary simulation program is not available, problems involving recycle streams
can be solved on a spreadsheet using the procedure described below.

The split-fraction concept

• The basic function of most chemical processing units (unit operations) is to divide the inlet
flow of a component between two or more outlet streams.
• For example, a distillation column divides the components in the feed between the
overhead and bottom product streams.
• When setting up the equations describing a unit operation, it is convenient to express the
flow of any component in any outlet stream as a fraction of the flow of that component in
the inlet stream.
• The flow of any component from unit i to unit j will equal the flow into unit i multiplied by
the split-fraction coefficient.
i = the unit number,
λi,k = the total flow into the unit i of the component k,
αj,i,k = the fraction of the total flow of component k entering unit i that leaves in the
outlet stream connected to the unit j; the “split-fraction coefficient”,
gi,0,k = any fresh feed of component k into unit i; flow from outside the system (from unit 0)

The flow of any component k from unit i to unit j will equal the flow into unit i multiplied by
the split-fraction coefficient
λj,k = λi,k x αj,i,k
The value of the split-fraction coefficient will depend on the nature of the unit and the inlet stream composition.
The outlet streams from a unit can feed forward to other units, or backward (recycle).

1k  g   2k   3k

10k 12k 13k
2k   21k 1k 3k  g 30k   32k 2k   31k 1k
Rearranging each equation we get set of three simultaneous equations with the unknown
flows λ1k, λ2k, λ3k

For a process with n units:

1 2 3 n
EXAMPLE : Acetone Production from Isopropyl Alcohol

Isopropyl alcohol is vaporized, heated and fed to a reactor, where it undergoes catalytic
dehydrogenation to acetone. The reactor exit gases (acetone, water, hydrogen and
unreacted isopropyl alcohol) pass to a condenser where most of the acetone, water and
alcohol condense out. The final traces of acetone and alcohol are removed in a water
scrubber.
The effluent from the scrubber is combined with the condensate from the condenser, and
distilled in a column to produce “pure” acetone and an effluent consisting of water and
alcohol. This effluent is distilled in a second column to separate the excess water. The
product from the second column is an azeotrope of water and isopropyl alcohol containing
approximately 91% alcohol. This is recycled to the reactor. The ZnO or Cu is used as the
catalyst, and the reaction carried out at 400 to 500°C and 40 to 50 psig pressure (4.5 bar).
The yield to acetone is around 98%, and the conversion of isopropyl alcohol per pass
through the reactor is 85 to 90%.

1. Draw process flow and information flow diagrams.

2. Write mass balances equations in the matrix form.
3. Find the split-fraction coefficients and then write mass balance equations again for each
of the components.
PFD

(Acetone + Alcohol + Water)

(pure)

Excess

(azeotropic mixture)
IFD
Split-fractions and fresh feeds
 Estimation of the split-fraction coefficients

Components: k=1 Isopropyl Alcohol, k=2 Acetone, k=3 Hydrogen, k=4 Water

Process Units (i,j): 1. Reactor, 2. Condenser, 3. Scrubber, 4. Dist. Column-1, 5. Dist. Column-2

Before determining the fraction coefficients, the designer should determine some process and
equipment specifications specific to the project work.

These values are the values that the designer can change many times to achieve the desired
results. In other words, they are design variables.
 Trial Values for the Design Parameters

1. Reactor

1. The conversion per pass is given as 90%, so for each mole

alcohol (k=1) entering only 10% leave, hence split-fraction α211 is
fixed at 0.1.

2. Assume that any acetone (k=2) in the feed passes through the
reactor unchanged, α212=1.

3. Hydrogen (k=3) passes through unreacted, α213=1.

4. Water (k=4) passes through unreacted, α214=1.

2. Condenser:

1. Assume 90% of alcohol condensed, α421=0.9 (liquid

out) and α321= 0.1 (vapor out).

2. 80% of the acetone will condense, α422=0.8, α322=

0.2. (Actual amounts will depend on the condenser
design.)

3. Hydrogen is non-condensable, α323=1, α423=0.

4. A greater fraction of the water will condense than

the alcohol or acetone, (b.p. 100C) assume 95% of
water condensed, α324=0.05, α424= 0.95.
3. Scrubber:

1. To give a high plant yield, the scrubber would be

designed to recover most of the alcohol in the vent
stream. Assume 99% alcohol recovery, allowing for
the small loss that must theoretically occur,
α431=0.99.

2. Similarly, 99% of acetone is absorbed, α432=0.99.

3. None of hydrogen is absorbed, α433=0.

4. There will be a small loss of water in the vent gas

stream, assume 1 per cent lost, α434=0.99.
4. Distillation Column-1:

1. The fraction of alcohol in the overheads would be

fixed by the amount allowed in the acetone
product specification. Assume 1% loss of alcohol
to the acetone is acceptable, then alcohol
fraction in the bottoms 99%, α541=0.99.

2. Assume 99% recovery of acetone as product,

therefore α542=0.01.

3. Any hydrogen present in the feed would go out

with the overheads, α543=1.

4. Some water will appear in the acetone product;

as for the alcohol this will be fixed by the acetone
product specification. Putting α544=0.99 will give
less than 1% water in the product.
 5. Distillation Column-2:

1. No distillation column can be designed to give complete

separation of the components. However, the volatilities
for this system are such that a high recovery of alcohol
should be practicable. Assume 99% recovery, alcohol
recycled, α151=0.99.

2. Because of its high volatility in water, all but a few ppm

of the acetone will go overhead, put α152=0.01.

3. As for hydrogen in unit 4, α153=1.

4. The overhead composition will be close to the azeotropic

composition, approximately 9% water. The value of α154
(recycle to the reactor) must be selected so that the
overheads from this unit approximate to the azeotropic
composition, as a first try put α154=0.05.
Estimation of fresh feeds

1. Isopropyl alcohol, take the basis of the flow sheet as 100 mol feed, g101=100 mol.

2. Acetone formed in the reaction. The overall yield to acetone is approximately 98%, so
acetone formed =100x(0.98)=98 mol, g202=98 mol.

3. Hydrogen is formed in equimolar proportion to acetone, so g203=98 mol.

4. Water, the feed of water to the scrubber will be dependent on the scrubber design. A
typical design value for the acetone absorption would require a value of of 200 mol,
so g304=200 mol.
Substituting values for alcohol (k=1) into
the matrix on the l.h.s. gives the
following set of equations for the flow of
alcohol into each unit;

Substitution of the values of the split-

fraction coefficients for the other
components will give the sets of
equations for the component flows to
each unit. The values of the split-
fraction coefficients and fresh feeds are
summarized in Table 4.2.
 SOLUTION PROCEDURE

1. For each component (k), the split-fraction coefficients and fresh feed streams in each
unit are determined.

2. The inlet flow rate of the relevant component to each unit is calculated from the
equation set solution by writing the fraction coefficients for each component (k) in
matrix form.

3. The calculated values are recalculated by changing the split-fraction coefficients and
fresh feed currents until the design constraints are satisfied.
PIPING & INSTRUMENTATION
(P&IDs)
• The process flow-sheet shows the arrangement of the major pieces of equipment
and their interconnection. It is a description of the nature of the process.

• The Piping and Instrument diagram (P&ID) shows the engineering details of the
equipment, instruments, piping, valves and fittings; and their arrangement.

• It is often called the Engineering Flow-Sheet, Engineering Line Diagram or

Mechanical Flow Diagram (MFD).

• The P&I diagram will resemble the process flowsheet, but the process information
is not shown.

• The same equipment identification numbers should be used on both diagrams.

P&ID should include:

1. All process equipment identified by an equipment number. The equipment should be

drawn roughly in proportion, and the location of nozzles shown.

2. All pipes, identified by a line number. The pipe size and material of construction
should be shown. The material may be included as part of the line identification
number.

3. All valves: control and block valves, with an identification number. The type (gate,
plug, ball, globe, diaphragm, etc.) and size should be shown. The type may be shown by
the symbol used for the valve or included in the code used for the valve number.

4. Ancillary fittings that are part of the piping system, such as inline sight-glasses,
strainers, and steam traps, with an identification number.

5. Pumps, identified by a suitable code number.

6. All control loops and instruments, with an identification number.

 Information found on a P&ID

Equipment Piping Instruments Utilities

Backup units Size (Use Standard Sizes) Indicators Entrance utilities
Parallel units Schedule (Thickness) Recorders Exit utilities
Materials of construction Controllers Exit to waste treatment
Insulation (thickness and Show instrument lines
type)

Exclusions from P&IDs

 Symbols and Layout

The symbols used to show the equipment, valves, instruments and control loops
will depend on the practice of the particular design office.

The equipment symbols are usually more detailed than those used for the process
flow-sheet.

Standard symbols for process equipment, pumps, controllers and valves are defined
by international (International Society of Automatization-ISA) and national (British
Standard BS 1646, German Standard DIN 28004, American National Standards
Institute-ANSI) standards.
ISA-5.1-1984
(R1992)

BS 1646

It represent all types of control Locally mounted means that Main panel means that
valve, and both pneumatic and the controller and display is they are located on a panel
electric actuators. located out on the plant near in the control room.
to the sensing instrument
location.

Except on small plants, most controllers would be mounted

in the control room.

See Appendix-A in Sinnott, Towler for a large list of equipment and piping systems.
All process information that can be measured at
the plant is indicated by a circle mark on the
P&ID.
Piping Connection Symbols
From Process Flow Sheet to P&ID
Biodiesel Production
P&ID for Benzene
Distillation
 CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTS

• Instruments are provided to monitor the key process variables during plant operation.
• They may be incorporated in automatic control loops, or used for the manual monitoring
of the process operation.
• In most modern plants, the instruments will be connected to a computer control and data
logging system.
• Instruments monitoring critical process variables will be fitted with automatic alarms to
alert the operators to critical and hazardous situations.
• It is desirable that the process variable that is to be monitored should be measured
directly; however, this is often impractical and some dependent variable that is easier to
measure is monitored in its place.

For example, in the control of distillation columns the continuous, on-line, analysis of the
overhead product composition is desirable but difficult and expensive to achieve reliably, so
temperature is often monitored as an indication of composition. The temperature instrument may
form part of a control loop controlling, say, reflux flow; with the composition of the overheads checked
frequently by sampling and laboratory analysis.
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL OBJECTIVES

1. Safe plant operation

(a) To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits.
(b) To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and automatic
shut-down systems.
(c) To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures.

2. Production rate
To achieve the design product output.

3. Product quality
To maintain the product composition within the specified quality standards.

4. Cost
To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other objectives.

5. Stability
To maintain steady, automatic plant operation with minimal operator intervention.
 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SCHEMES in P&IDs

Control loops needed for steady process operation

(a) Level controls
(b) Flow controls
(c) Pressure controls
(d) Temperature controls

Basic rules of process control

• There can only be a single control valve on any given stream between unit operations.
• A level controller is needed anywhere where a vapor-liquid or liquid-liquid interface is maintained.
• Pressure control is more responsive when the pressure controller actuates a control valve on a vapor
stream.
• Two operations cannot be controlled at different pressures unless there is a valve or other restriction
(or a compressor or pump) between them.
• Temperature control is usually achieved by controlling the flow of a utility stream (such as steam or
cooling water) or a bypass around an exchanger.
• The overall plant material balance is usually set by flow controllers or flow ratio controllers on the
process feeds. There cannot be an additional flow controller on an intermediate stream unless there is
provision for accumulation (surge); such as, an intermediate storage tank.
Preparation of a
Process Control
Loop
 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

LEVEL CONTROL

Level Alarm: High/Low

Level Valve

Typical arrangement for the level control at the base of a column. The control valve should be
placed on the discharge line from the pump.
PRESSURE CONTROL
FLOW CONTROL

To provide flow control on a compressor or pump running at a fixed speed and supplying a near constant volume
output, a by-pass control would be used, as shown in (a).
The use of variable speed motors as shown in (c) is more energy efficient than the traditional arrangement shown in
(b), and is becoming increasingly common.
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL
REBOILER & VAPORIZER CONTROL

Level control is often used for vaporizers; the controller controlling the steam supply to the heating
surface, with the liquid feed to the vaporizer on flow control, as shown in Figure above. An increase in
the feed results in an automatic increase in steam to the vaporizer to vaporize the increased flow and
maintain the level constant.
DISTILLATION COLUMN CONTROL
REACTOR
CONTROL

The schemes used for reactor control depend on the process and the type of reactor. If a reliable online
analyzer is available, and the reactor dynamics are suitable, the product composition can be monitored
continuously and the reactor conditions and feed flows controlled automatically to maintain the
desired product composition and yield.
 3-D PLANT MODEL
After the PFD, P&ID and other diagrams of the facility are drawn, a three-dimensional
drawing is made to see the visuality and equipment layout in perspective.

Isometric View of Preliminary 3-D Plant Layout Model

for Dimethylether (DME) Process (Aveva PDMS
Software)
- END -