School of Electrical Engineering and Computing

Department of Electrical Power and Control Engineering

Introduction to Control System

Prepared by: Urgo H.

May 2023, Adama
1
 Chapter five
Frequency Domain Analysis
 Introduction

• Using time domain characteristics it is possible to obtain an idea about the performance of a given
system.
• If the order of the system increases, it is very difficult to analyse the system by the time domain
approach.
• In previous chapters we examined the use of test signals such as a step ,impulse and a ramp signal.
• In this chapter we consider the steady-state response of a system to a sinusoidal input test signal.
• The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response of the system to a
sinusoidal input signal.
Frequency Response

• In frequency-response methods, we vary the frequency of the input signal over a certain range and
study the resulting response
• The steady-state output of a transfer function system can be obtained directly from the sinusoidal
transfer function, that is, the transfer function in which s is replaced by jw, where w is frequency
 Cont.…

• If the input x(t) is a sinusoidal signal, the steady-state output will also be a sinusoidal signal of the
same frequency, but with possibly different magnitude and phase angle.

• Frequency response (or characteristic ): the ratio of the complex vector of the steady-state output
versus sinusoid input 𝒚 𝒋𝝎
𝑮 𝒋𝝎 =
𝒙 𝒋𝝎

 𝒙 𝒋𝝎 sinusoid input
 𝒚(𝒋𝝎) t h e o u t p u t
 𝑮(𝒋𝝎) frequency response(or characteristic)
 Cont.…

𝒚 𝒋𝝎
• 𝐀 𝒋𝝎 = 𝑮 𝒋𝝎 = 𝒙 𝒋𝝎
Magnitude response
amplitude ratio of the steady-state output versus sinusoid input

• 𝝋 𝝎 = ∠𝑮 𝒋𝝎 = ∠𝒚 𝒋𝝎 − ∠𝒙 𝒋𝝎 Phase response
phase difference between steady-state output and input
• The sinusoidal transfer function G(𝒋𝝎) of any linear system is obtained by substituting s
by 𝒋𝝎.

𝑮 𝒋𝝎 = 𝑮(𝒔)𝒔=𝒋𝝎
 Cont.…
• A negative phase angle is phase lag, and positive is phase lead.
 Methods in Frequency Response

• The magnitude function and phase function are the two plots in frequency response characteristics.
• The angular frequency is the common variable for both these plots. The following curves are commonly
used in frequency response analysis:
i. Bode plot: the plot of both magnitude and phase versus frequency in logarithmic value are
called bode plots.

ii. Polar plot: the plot of the magnitude versus phase angle in polar coordinate where 𝜔is
varied from 0 to ∞ is called polar plot.
iii. Magnitude versus phase plot: the magnitude versus phase plot on rectangular coordinate
as varying w is known as magnitude versus phase plot.
 Definitions of frequency domain specifications
• The performance characteristics of a system in frequency domain are measured in terms of frequency
domain specifications
• Frequency domain specifications are:
1. Resonant peak( 𝑴𝒓 )
2. Resonant frequency𝝎𝒓
3. Bandwidth
4. Cut-off Rate
5. Gain margin
6. Phase margin
 Cont.…

1. Response(resonance) peak (𝑴𝒓 ):-The maximum value of M (jw) as w is varied is termed as resonance peak
(Mr).
• The relative stability of the closed-loop system can be indicated by Mr
• lf Mr is large, there will be large maximum overshoot in a step response.
For the second order system
 Cont.…
2. Resonant frequency𝝎𝒓 : the frequency at which the resonant peak occur is resonant frequency.
This is related to frequency of oscillation in step response . Indicative of speed of transient response for
second order system.

3. Bandwidth (BW): range of frequencies for which normalized gain of the system is more than -3DB.
Frequency at which gain is -3DB is called cut-off frequency.
 Cont.…
• The frequency at which resonant peak equal to 0.707
• lf bandwidth is large, higher frequencies will pass through the system. This indicates a faster rise time.
Therefore, bandwidth gives an idea about transient response.
4. Cut off rate: The slope of the log magnitude curve near the cut-off frequency is known as cut off rate.
• The ability of the system to distinguish a signal from noise can be determined by cut-off rate
 Cont.…

5. Gain margin : The value of gain, to be added to system , in order to bring the system to the verge of
instability.
Gain margin is given by reciprocal of magnitude of open loop transfer function at phase crossover frequency.
The frequency at which the phase of open loop transfer function is 180° is called the phase crossover
frequency 𝝎𝒑𝒄
 Cont.…
• The gain margin in dB is given by negative of dB magnitude of G(jw) at phase crossover frequency
indicates the additional gain that can be provided to system without affecting the stability of the system.
6. Phase margin: The additional phase lag to be added to the gain cross over frequency in order to bring the
system to the verge of instability.
• The gain cross over frequency 𝝎𝒈𝒄 is the frequency at which the magnitude of open loop transfer function
is unity (or is the frequency at which the dB magnitude is zero).
• Indicates the additional phase lag that can be provided to the system without affecting of the stability of
the system.
 Correlation between time and frequency domain specifications for
SOS
The relationship between frequency domain specifications and time domain specifications is important
𝑪(𝑺) 𝑾𝒏𝟐
𝑮 𝑺 = =
𝑹(𝑺) 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝝃𝑾𝒏𝑺 + 𝑾𝒏𝟐
𝑪(𝒋𝒘) 𝑾𝒏𝟐
𝑮 𝒋𝒘 = =
𝑹(𝒋𝒘) (𝒋𝒘)𝟐 +𝟐𝝃𝑾𝒏 ∗ 𝒋𝒘 + 𝑾𝒏𝟐
𝟏
𝑮 𝒋𝒘 = 𝒘 𝒘 =𝑴
𝟏 + 𝒋𝟐𝝃 − ( )𝟐
𝒘𝒏 𝒘𝒏
𝒘 𝟏
Let 𝐮 = ………𝑮 𝒋𝒘 = 𝟏+𝒋𝟐𝝃𝒖−𝒖𝟐
𝒘𝒏

𝟏
𝑮 𝒋𝒘 = =𝑴
(𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝟐𝝃𝒖)𝟐
𝟐𝒖𝝃
˂𝑮 𝒋𝒘 =-𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝟏−𝒖𝟐
 How to obtain those frequencies

𝑑𝑚
Resonant frequency 𝜔𝑟 :- =0
𝑑𝑢
𝑢𝑟 = 1 − 2ξ2
𝑢𝑟 is valid only when 1 − 2ξ2 >= 0 i.e ξ <0.707
𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 2ξ2
1
𝑚𝑟 = 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 𝑢=𝑢𝑟 = ……..
2ξ 1 − ξ2
which shows that 𝜔𝑟 , is a function of ξ and 𝜔𝑛 .

The following conclusions can be drawn:-

1. 𝑚𝑟 approaches infinity and 𝜔𝑟 approaches 𝜔𝑛 . when ξ approaches zero.
2. 𝑚𝑟 is greater than unity and 𝜔𝑟 , is less than 𝜔𝑛 , for 0 < ξ < 0.707.
3. There is no resonant peak and the maximum value of 𝑚𝑟 is unity and 𝜔𝑟 = 0 when ξ > 0.707.
 Cont.…
cut-off frequency (𝑤𝑐 ):- the value of M is 0.707. Therefore, bandwidth becomes equal to 𝑤𝑐 Taking M = 0.707
and u = 𝑢𝑐 we get
𝑢𝑐 2 = (1 − 2ξ2 ) ± 4ξ4 − 4ξ2 + 2

𝑤𝑐 = 𝑤𝑛 (1 − 2ξ2 ) ± 4ξ4 − 4ξ2 + 2)1/2

Bw=𝑤𝑐
Positive sign is considered because BW is a positive quantity.
Bw is a function of 𝑤𝑛 ,. and ξ
The following important conclusions can be drawn
 Bw ∞ 𝑤𝑛
 Bw decreases as ξ increases
 For 0 < ξ < 0.707, BW and M, are directly proportional
 BW decreases due to increase in rise time
 Cont.…
Example
1. A second order system has a maximum overshoot of 50% and period of damped oscillation 0.2 sec in step
response. Determine
a. Resonant peak
b. Resonant frequency
c. Bandwidth
 Advantage and Disadvantage of frequency domain analysis

ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
• In laboratory, it is possible to obtain a frequency
• These methods are basically applicable only to
response test with good accuracy and it is very
linear systems.
useful when it is very difficult to obtain transfer
• It is possible to obtain frequency response for an
function by an analytical technique.
existing system if the time constants are up to
• It is very easy to design open-loop transfer
few minutes.
function for specified closed-loop performance in
• These are time-consuming processes.
frequency domain compared to time domain.
• These methods are back dated compared to the
• In frequency domain it is very easy to visualize the
extensive methods developed for digital
effects of noise disturbance and parameter
computer simulation and modeling.
variations.
Bode Plot
 Bode plot

● A sinusoidal transfer G(j𝜔) may represented by two separate plots,(magnitude Vs frequency and phase
angle) vs frequency
● A Bode diagram consists of two parts
1. A plot the logarithm of the magnitude of sinusoidal transfer function
2. A plot of the phase angle
Where both are plotted against the frequency in logarithmic scale.
The Standard procedure is to plot 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 |𝑮(𝒋𝜔)| and angle vs frequency on logarithmic scale
Where:
 the unit of magnitude is decibel dB
 The curve are normally drawn on a semi log paper using log scale for frequency and linear
scale for magnitude in dB and angle in degrees
 Cont.….
Basic Factors of G( jω)H(jω)
• The basic factors that very frequently occur in an arbitrary transfer function
 Cont.….
The Gain K
• A number greater than unity has a positive value in decibels, while a number smaller than unity has a
negative value.
• The log-magnitude curve for a constant gain K is a horizontal straight line at the magnitude of 20 log K
decibels.
• The phase angle of the gain K is zero.
• The effect of varying the gain K in the transfer function is that it raises or lowers the log-magnitude
curve of the transfer function by the corresponding constant amount, but it has no effect on the phase
curve.
• As a number increases by a factor of 10, the corresponding decibel value increases by a factor of 20.
This may be seen from the following
 Cont.….
A number–decibel conversion line
 Cont.….
Derivative and Integral and Factors (jω)+1
• The logarithmic magnitude of 1/jω in decibels is

• The phase angle of 1/jω is constant and equal to –90°.

• If the transfer function contains the factor (1/jω)n or (jω)n, the log magnitude becomes, respectively,
Cont.….
 Cont.….
First-Order Factors (1+ jωT) +1

• The log magnitude of the first-order factor 1/(1+jωT) is

• For low frequencies,

• For high frequencies,

Cont.….

The exact phase angle f of the factor 1/(1+jωT) is

 Cont.….
• At zero frequency, the phase angle is 0°.
• At the corner frequency, the phase angle is

• At infinity, the phase angle becomes –90°.

• The phase angle is skew symmetric about the inflection point at – 45°
• The maximum error occurs at the corner frequency and is approximately equal to –3 dB, since

• The Log-magnitude curve, together with the asymptotes, and phase-angle curve for 1+jωT as follows.
Cont.….
 Cont.….
Quadratic Factors [1+ 2ξ(jω/ ωn) + (jω/ ωn) 2 ]+1
• Control systems often possess quadratic factors of the form

• The asymptotic frequency-response curve may be obtained as follows: Since

• For low frequencies such that ω << ωn ,the log magnitude becomes
 Cont.….
• For high frequencies such that ω >> ωn, the log magnitude becomes

• The high-frequency asymptote intersects the low-frequency one at ω = ωn, since at this frequency

• This frequency, ωn, is the corner frequency for the quadratic factor considered.
• The two asymptotes just derived are independent of the value of ξ.
 Cont.….
• The phase angle of the quadratic factor [1+ 2ξ(jω/ ωn) + (jω/ ωn) 2 ]-1 is

• The phase angle is a function of both ω and ξ.

• At ω=0, the phase angle equals 0°.
• At the corner frequency ω = ωn, the phase angle is –90° regardless of ξ , since
 Cont.….
Bode plot: only applicable to minimum phase transfer function
Procedure to plot Bode plot
1. Write given transfer function in standard form.
2. Identify the slop of first line for Bode plot .
3. Gain of the first line at 𝝎 = 𝟏𝒅𝑩.
4. Write all corner frequency in ascending order define slope for each line .
5. Write the phase equation and make a table of angle as frequency is varied.
 Stability Analysis using Bode Plots
From the Bode plots, we can say whether the control system is stable, marginally stable or unstable based
on the values of these parameters.
Gain Crossover Frequency and Phase Crossover Frequency
• Phase Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the phase plot is having the phase of - 180 deg is
known as phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by 𝜔𝑝𝑐 The unit of phase cross over frequency is
rad/sec.
• Gain Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the magnitude plot is having the magnitude of zero
dB is known as gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by 𝜔𝑔𝑐 . The unit of gain cross over frequency is
rad/sec.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the phase cross over frequency and the
gain cross over frequency.
 Cont.….
• If the phase crossover frequency 𝝎𝒑𝒄 is greater than the gain crossover frequency 𝝎𝒈𝒄 then the
control system is stable.
• If the phase crossover frequency 𝝎𝒑𝒄 is equal to the gain crossover frequency 𝝎𝒈𝒄 then the control
system is marginally stable.
• If the phase crossover frequency 𝝎𝒑𝒄 is less than the gain crossover frequency 𝝎𝒈𝒄 then the control
system is unstable.
Gain Margin: Gain margin GM is equal to negative of the magnitude in dB at phase crossover frequency.
GM-20log(1/Mpc)= -20logMpc
• Where, Mpc is the magnitude at phase cross over frequency. The unit of GM is dB.
Phase Margin: The formula for phase margin PM is 𝟇𝒑𝒄
• Where, 𝟇𝒑𝒄 is the phase angle at gain cross over frequency. The unit of PM is degrees.
 Cont.….
NOTE: The stability of the control system based on the relation between gain margin and phase margin is
listed below.
• If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are positive, then the control system is stable.
• If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are equal to zero, then the control system is
marginally stable.
• If the gain margin GM and / or the phase margin PM are/is negative, then the control system is unstable.
Cont.….
 Cont.….
Determine Gain crossover frequency, Phase crossover frequency, Gain Margin and Phase Margin for
the following T.F. using Bode plot and also determine the stability.

𝟐𝟎
𝑮 𝒔 =
[𝒔(𝟏 + 𝟑𝒔)(𝟏 + 𝟒𝒔)]
Cont.….
 Cont.….
Stability Analysis
• Gain Crossover Frequency
• The frequency at which the dB magnitude is Zero. Wgc = 1.1 rad/sec
• Phase Crossover Frequency
• The frequency at which the Phase of the system is - 180° Wpc = 0.3 rad/sec
• Gain Margin: The gain margin in dB is given by the negative of dB magnitude of G(jw) at phase cross
over frequency. GM = - {20*log [G(jwpc)] = -32 dB
• Phase Margin:
• PM=Y= 180°+ $gc=180° + (-240°) = -60°
• Conclusion: For this system GM and PM are negative in values. Therefore the system is unstable.
Polar Plot
 Polar Plot
• The Polar plot is a plot, which can be drawn between the magnitude and the phase angle of G(jw)H(jw) by
varying w from zero to∞. The polar graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines.
• Polar plot is a plot of magnitude versus phase angle in complex plane.
(i.e., locus of magnitude traced by the phasor by varying frequency from 0 to∞)
Advantages of Polar plots
• It depicts the frequency response characteristics over the entire frequency range in a single plot.
• Much easier to determine both 𝝎𝒑𝒄 and 𝝎𝒈𝒄 . Here we will have to work with open loop transfer function
G(s)H(s) (and not with closed loop transfer function and unlike Bode plot we need not required to
convert G(s)H(s) to the time constant form).
Disadvantage of Polar plots:
• The plot does not clearly indicate the contribution of each individual factor of the open loop transfer
function.
 Cont.….
Basics of Polar Plot:
• The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jw) is a plot of the magnitude of G(jw) Vs the phase of
G(jw) on polar co- ordinates as w is varied from 0 to 8.
i.e., |G(jw) | Vs angle G(jw) as w → 0 to ∞.
• Polar graph sheet has concentric circles and radial lines.
• Concentric circles represents the magnitude.
• Radial lines represents the phase angles.
• In polar sheet:
 +ve phase angle is measured in ACW from 0°
 -ve phase angle is measured in CW from 0°.
 Cont.….
• To sketch the polar plot of G(j*omega) for the entire range of frequency w, i.e., from 0 to infinity, there are
four key points that usually need to be known:
1. The start of plot where 𝝎 = 0
2. The end of plot where 𝝎 = ∞ ,
3. where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e.,Im (G(j j𝝎)) = 0 and
4. where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, i.e.,Re (G(j𝝎)) = 0
 Cont.….
PROCEDURE:
• Express the given expression of OLTF in (1 + sT) form.
• Substitute s = j𝝎 in the expression for G(s) * H(s) and get G(j𝝎 ) * H(j𝝎 )
• Get the expressions for |G(j𝝎 ) * H(j𝝎 )| & angle G(j𝝎 )H(j𝝎 ).
• Tabulate various values of magnitude and phase angles for different values of 𝝎 ranging from 0 to ∞
• Usually the choice of frequencies will be the corner frequency and around corner frequencies.
• Choose proper scale for the magnitude circles.
• Fix all the points in the polar graph sheet and join the points by a smooth curve.
• Write the frequency corresponding to each of the point of the plot.
 Cont.….

1. Polar Plot of First Order System

Consider a first order system where T is the time constant.

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of G( jω ), i.e., | G( jω) |, is obtained as;

The phase of G( jω ), denoted by, φ , is obtained as;

 Cont.….
The start of plot where ω = 0

The end of plot where ω = ∞

The mid part of plot where ω = 1/T

 Cont.….
2. Polar Plot of Second Order System
Consider a second order system where T is the time constant.

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of G( jω ), i.e., | G( jω) |, is obtained as;

The phase of G( jω ), denoted by, φ , is obtained as;

Cont.….
Nyquist plot Analysis
 Nyquist plot
• Using Routh-Hurwitz criterion, only the absolute stability of a system can be found out. On the other
hand, the Nyquist criterion uses a different approach for finding the stability of a system.
• It focuses also on the relative stability of a the system. It is possible to determine the stability of closed-
loop pole from open- loop pole without knowing the roots of the closed-loop system.
• Nyquist plot is based on polar plot.
• A Nyquist plot is a polar plot of the frequency response function of a linear system.
• That means a Nyquist plot is a plot of the transfer function, G(s) with s = jω. That means you want to plot
G(j ω).
• G(j ω) is a complex number for any angular frequency, ω, so the plot is a plot of complex numbers.
• The complex number, G(j ω), depends upon frequency, so frequency will be a parameter if you plot the
imaginary part of G(j ω) against the real part of G(j ω).
 Cont.….
Example : Sketch the Nyquist diagram for the system shown in the following figure, and then determine the
system stability using the Nyquist criterion.
 Cont.….

Now that we have expressions for the magnitude and phase of the frequency response, we can sketch the polar
plot using the 4 key points.
500 0
𝐺 0 𝐻(0) = = 16.67 ∠𝐺 0 𝐻 0 = tan−1 = 0°
Point 1: The start of plot where ω = 0 30 2 30

Point 2: The end of plot where ω = ∞ 500

𝐺 ∞ 𝐻(∞) = =0
∞

−1
∞3
∠𝐺 ∞ 𝐻 ∞ = tan = −3 × 90° = −270°
30
 Cont.….

Point 3: Where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0
Take the imaginary part of equation (a), and put equal to zero, to get the value of frequency ω at the
interception of real axis.

Point 4: Where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, Re(G(jω)) = 0

Take the real part of equation (a), and put equal to zero, to get the value of frequency ω at the
interception of imaginary axis.
Cont.….
 Cont.….
Four Important Points for Derivation the Nyquist Criterion

1. The relationship between the poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) and the poles of G(s)H(s);
2. The relationship between the zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) and the poles of the closed-loop transfer function,
T(s);
3. The concept of mapping points;
4. The concept of mapping contours.
 Cont.….

It is conclude that;
1) The poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the same as the poles of G(s)H(s), the open-loop system.
2) The zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the same as the poles of T(s), the closed-loop system.
 The Concept of Mapping
• If we take a complex number s = x+jy on the s-plane and substitute it into a function, F(s), another complex
number results. This process is called mapping.
OR
• The term mapping is defined as the substitution of a complex number into a function, F(s), to get another
complex number.
• For example, substituting s = 4 + j3 into the function F(s) = (s2 +2s + 1) yields 16+j30. We say that 4 + j3
maps into 16+j30 through the function s2 +2s + 1.
• The collection of points, called a contour.
Cont.….
 Cont.….
Examples of Contour Mapping

If we assume a clockwise direction for mapping the points on contour A, the contour B maps a clockwise
direction if F(s) has just zeros or has just poles that are not encircled by the contour.
 Cont.….
In this last case, the pole and zero rotation cancel, and the mapping does not encircle the origin.
 The Nyquist Stability Criterion
• A linear closed-loop continuous control system is absolutely stable if the roots of the characteristic
equation have negative real parts.
• Equivalently, the poles of the closed-loop transfer function, or the zeros of the denominator, 1 + GH(s), of
the closed-loop transfer function, must lie in the left-half plane.
• The Nyquist Stability Criterion establishes the number of zeros of 1 + GH(s) in the right-half plane directly
from the Nyquist Stability Plot of GH(s).
Nyquist Stability Criterion
• The closed-loop control system whose open-loop transfer function is GH is stable if and only if
 Cont.….
Where,
• N = total number of CW encirclements of the (-1,0) point (i.e., GH = - 1 ) in the GH-plane.
• Po = number of poles of GH in the right-hand-plane RHP for continuous systems.
• If N > 0, the number of zeros Zo of 1 + GH in the RHP for continuous systems, is determined by

• If N ≤ 0 and Po = 0, then the system is absolutely stable if and only if N = 0; that is, if and only if the (-1,0)
point does not lie in the shaded region.
 Cont.….
Example: Sketch the polar plot for the following transfer function and check the stability of the system.

There is one pole at the origin.

Representing G(s)H(s) in the frequency response form G( jω )H(jω) by replacing s = jω:

1
The magnitude of GH(jω) i.e., |GH(jω)|, is obtained as; 𝐺𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =
𝜔 𝜔2 + 1
𝜔
The phase of GH(jω) denoted by, 𝜑, is obtained as; 𝜑 = ∠𝐺𝐻 0 = −90° − tan−1
1
1
Point 1: The start of plot where ω = 0 𝐺𝐻(0) = =∞
0 0+1
0
𝜑 = ∠𝐺𝐻 0 = −90° −tan−1 = −90°
1
 Cont.….
Point 2: The end of plot where ω = ∞ 1
𝐺𝐻(∞) = =0
∞ ∞+1
∞
𝜑 = ∠𝐺𝐻 ∞ = −90 − tan−1 = −90° − 90° = −180°
𝑝
Nyquist or Polar Plot Nyquist Diagram
|GH(jω)| ∠GH(jω)
ω=0 ∞ -90o
ω=∞ 0 -180o
 Cont.….
• The region to the right of the contour has been shaded.
• Clearly, the (-1,0) point is not in the shaded region; therefore it is not enclosed by the contour and so N ≤ 0.
• The poles of GH(s) are at s = 0 and s = -1, neither of which are in the right-hand-plane RHP; hence Po = 0.
Thus N = -Po = 0, and the system is absolutely stable.
 Relative stability
• We have introduced the Nyquist criterion for the absolute stability analysis of the system.
• Using The Nyquist criterion, it is also possible to find the relative stability of the system. By relative
stability we mean how close the system is to instability, and we can improve the stability of the system.
The degree or extent of the system is called relative stability.
• If the Nyquist polar plot is close to -1 +j0 point, the system is on the verge of the instability. The proximity
to -1 + j0 point is specified in terms of the following two quantities:
(1) Gain margin and
(2) Phase margin
 Cont.….
Gain margin
The gain margin is defined as the reciprocal of the open-loop transfer function evaluated at the frequency
(10) at which the phase angle is -180°.

• The frequency is known as the phase crossover frequency at which the polar plot crosses the negative
real axis. Gain margin measures the relative distance between the -1 +j0 point and the 𝑮 𝒋𝝎 𝑯(𝒋𝝎) plot.
• Depending upon the phase crossover point X shown in Figure below, we set the gain. If the point X is too
near the-1+j0 point, we can decide how much to reduce the gain and if the point X is too far from the -1
+j0 point, we can decide how much to increase the gain.
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Phase margin
• Gain margin alone is not sufficient to indicate the relative stability of a system.
• Another parameter, phase margin, supplements the gain margin.
• A rigorous definition of the phase margin that phase margin 𝝓𝑷𝑴 is the angle by which the polar plot is
rotated to cause it to pass through (-1+j0) point. 𝝓𝑷𝑴 is the angle between the negative real axis and the
radius vector joining the origin to the gain crossover frequency (wgc). The radius
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The End