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Erich Christian Wittmann
Connecting
Mathematics
and Mathematics
Education
Collected Papers on Mathematics
Education as a Design Science
Connecting Mathematics and Mathematics
Education
Erich Christian Wittmann
Connecting Mathematics
and Mathematics Education
Collected Papers on Mathematics Education
as a Design Science
123
Erich Christian Wittmann
Department of Mathematics
Technical University of Dortmund
Dortmund, Germany
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword
One of us, who had the good fortune of meeting Trevor Fletcher in the symposium
on the centennial of L’Enseignement Mathématique held in Genève in October of
2000, received a piece of excellent advice from this notable mathematics educator,
namely, that a fundamental task of the teacher of mathematics is to let students
experience the intellectual life that the teacher really lives. Fletcher placed this
quote (from E.E. Moise) at the forefront of his paper of 1975 that bears the title “Is
the teacher of mathematics a mathematician or not?” [Schriftenreihe des Instituts
für Didaktik der Mathematik Bielefeld, 6 (1975), 203–218].
Everybody began with a world “without mathematics”, this term to be taken
with a grain of salt because mathematics is everywhere in our world and comes up
frequently and unavoidably in our daily lives, perhaps even without our noticing it.
You can imagine such a world by putting yourself in the shoes of an infant who
knows no “formal mathematics”. Then we gradually move on to another world of
mathematics after knowing some elementary mathematics in forming mathematical
ideas of objects, notions, theories and techniques out of our experience under some
guidance. Then we continue to move on to a world after knowing more “formal
mathematics” in refining those mathematical objects, notions, theories and tech-
niques under further guidance. In learning and doing mathematics (which should go
hand in hand) the learner proceeds through these worlds and will experience what
Fletcher proposed (see Chap. 1 for further elaboration). This is akin to what the
esteemed mathematics educator Hans Freudenthal termed as the process of
“mathematising”.
Freudenthal valued the specificity of subject specific didactics. He believed that
the teaching of mathematics could and should only be studied in the perspective of
mathematics instead of under any kind of theory of general didactics. In his book
Weeding and Sowing: A Preface to a Science of Mathematics Education (1978)
Freudenthal says, “I see more promise in approaching general didactic problems via
the didactics of special teaching areas than in pressing special didactics into the
v
vi Foreword
The 1960 Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine Peter Medawar says in his
book The Hope of Progress (1972), “A scientist’s present thoughts and actions are
of necessity shaped by what others have done and thought before him; they are the
wave front of a continuous secular process in which The Past does not have a
dignified independent existence of its own. Scientific understanding is the integral
of a curve of learning; science therefore in some sense comprehends its history
within itself.” It reminds us of an intriguing remark, again from Freudenthal in his
book Revisiting Mathematics Education: China Lectures of 1991, that says,
“Children should repeat the learning process of mankind, not as it factually took
place but rather as it would have done if people in the past had known a bit more of
what we know now.”
Ever since the early 1980s one of us has been deeply interested in engaging with
the integration of history of mathematical developments in the teaching and
learning of mathematics. Through such activities one will become aware of the need
in examining a topic from three perspectives: a historical perspective, a mathe-
matical perspective, and a didactical perspective. “Although the three are related,
they are not the same; what happened in history may not be the most suitable way
to go about teaching it, and what is best from a mathematical standpoint may not be
so in the classroom and is almost always not the same as what happened in history.
However, the three perspectives complement and supplement each other.”
[M. K. Siu, Study group in history of mathematics—Some HPM activities in Hong
Kong, Education Sciences, Special Issue, 2014, 56–68.] A teacher of mathematics
would do well to know something about the historical perspective, to have a solid
idea of the mathematical perspective, and to focus on the didactical perspective.
Viewed in this light we note that the history of mathematics means far more than
merely anecdotal embellishment in the design of substantial learning environments.
To be a good teacher what matters most is not just how much more the teacher
has learnt and knows, nor even how much deeper, but of how differently from
various perspectives. In addition, a good teacher should try to carry out what
George Pólya maintains that “first and foremost, it should teach those young people
to THINK” [On learning, teaching, and learning teaching, American Mathematical
Monthly 70 (1963), 605–619], and through exploration and thinking to enable
students become aware that mathematics makes sense and is thus comprehensible.
In this respect the idea of an “elementary mathematics research program of math-
ematics education” proposed by Erich Wittmann is, in his own words, a “truly
interdisciplinary task for which elements of mathematics, its history, its applica-
tions, aspects of epistemology, psychology, pedagogy and the mathematics cur-
riculum have to be merged together” [The mathematical training of teachers from
the point of view of education. Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik, 10, 291–308].
viii Foreword
The papers of Wittmann and his colleagues collected in this volume would, on one
hand, provide a rich and resourceful collection for enriching teachers of mathe-
matics in this endeavor, and on the other hand, inspire mathematics education
researchers who are working towards creating good and great mathematics lessons.
ix
x Preface
present volume contains pages from this textbook that are related to learning
environments described in some papers.
Our experiences in textbook development have convinced us that the design
science approach is effective also at this level. The feedback we received from
teachers was not only a confirmation of the approach as a whole but also deepened,
refined, and extended it.
As an adherent of the genetic principle I do believe that the best way to
understand a concept is to see how it originated from a rough idea and how it has
been increasingly articulated, expanded, differentiated, and coordinated with other
concepts in a continued process. For this reason, I have decided to arrange the
papers in the order in which they were written and published. I am convinced that
this order will not only facilitate the understanding of the approach, but also
stimulate the reader to critically examine this process, to think of variations,
extensions, and alternatives. Moreover, the papers in their natural order represent a
historical progress of one idea in mathematics education over a quite long period of
time. This might be an interesting case study for both experienced mathematics
educators and novices. Comments on the papers are given on pp. 20–24.
The objective of mathematics education as a design science is not to design any
learning environments but rather learning environments that represent mathematical
and educational quality at the same time: “substantial learning environments”, as
they have been specified. For this purpose, mathematics must be seen not as just a
provider of subject matter, but as an educational task (Hans Freudenthal).
Connecting mathematics and mathematics education requires looking at mathe-
matics from the point of education and also looking at mathematics education with
a broad understanding of elementary mathematics. This reciprocal way of thinking,
fully addressed in the paper “The Mathematical Training of Teachers from the Point
of View of Education” (p. 37), is present in all papers. In the introductory Chap. 1
this important point will be discussed extensively.
I am well aware that in my work I have drawn heavily upon what great minds
before have created. For good reasons John Dewey, Johannes Kuehnel, Jean Piaget,
Hans Freudenthal, and Heinrich Winter have been chosen as arch fathers of the
project Mathe 2000. There is perhaps some merit in systematically applying the
design science approach to the developmental research conducted in Mathe 2000
and to teacher education. However, this work has also been greatly influenced by
developments in England in the 1960s, the golden age of English mathematics
education, I would say, at the Freudenthal Institute Utrecht in the 1970s and 1980s,
by Nicolas Rouche’s developmental research at the Centre de Recherche sur
l’Enseignement des Mathématiques (CREM) in Nivelles/Belgium in the 1980s and
1990s, and by developments in Japan in the same period of time.
The reader will meet some basic quotations, particularly those from John
Dewey’s works, in several papers. I do not think this as a disadvantage as these
quotations deserve to be repeated and as they serve as links between the chapters.
In preparing this volume I have greatly appreciated the cooperation with Natalie
Rieborn/Springer Nature, who took care of the editing process, and Barbara
Giese/RWTH Aachen who skillfully converted the text into a nice LateX.
xii Preface
I have profited very much from the continuous professional and personal
exchange with quite a number of fine colleagues, and I would like to single out five
of them. The first is Jerry P. Becker, who I met first at ICME 1 in 1969 and who
since then has kept me informed about international developments. As to ele-
mentary mathematics and the history of mathematics I owe much to my German
colleagues Gerhard N. Müller, co-director of Mathe 2000, Gerd Walther, my first
doctoral student and later Professor at the University of Kiel, and my colleagues
from Hong Kong, Man Keung Siu and Chun Ip Fung, who by the way are all used
to looking beyond their noses.
Last not least, I would like to express my sincere thanks to my Japanese col-
leagues for the fruitful exchange I have had with them over two decades. I feel
solidarity with them in their conscious emphasis on and their commitment (fu-
doshin) to teacher education as I do believe that what ultimately counts in math-
ematics education is the impact on teachers. The design science approach is
subordinated to this end.
I am looking forward to any comments to this volume, and I would be happy to
get into contact with mathematics educators and mathematicians who are thinking
in similar directions.
xiii
xiv Contents
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
10 The Alpha and Omega of Teacher Education: Organizing
Mathematical Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2 Mathematics in Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3 The Context of Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4 The O-Script/A-Script Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5 Operative Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6 Experiences with the Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
11 Operative Proofs in School Mathematics and Elementary
Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
1 Some Learning Environments with Embedded Operative
Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
1.1 Even and Odd Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
1.2 Multiplicative Arrow Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
1.3 Egyptian Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
1.4 Fitting Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
2 The Concept of Operative Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
3 The Theoretical Background of Operative Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
3.1 Mathematics as the Science of Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
3.2 The Quasi-empirical Nature of Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
3.3 The Operative Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
3.4 Practicing Skills in a Productive Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
12 Collective Teaching Experiments: Organizing a Systemic
Cooperation Between Reflective Researchers and Reflective
Teachers in Mathematics Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
1 Mathematics Education as a “Systemic-Evolutionary” Design
Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
2 Taking Systemic Complexity Systematically into Account:
Lessons from Other Disciplines ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
3 Empowering Teachers to Cope with Systemic Complexity
as Reflective Practitioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4 Collective Teaching Experiments: A Joint Venture of Reflective
Teachers and Reflective Researchers ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5 Closing Remarks: The Role of Mathematics in Mathematics
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Contents xvii
xix
xx About the Author
This led him to the following question: “How to teach teachers so as to be useful for
teaching mathematics so as to be useful?”
The main professional task of a teacher is to prepare, conduct, analyze lessons
and mark papers, and the success of teaching crucially depends on getting students
actively involved, not by applying extrinsic means of motivation but by applying
intrinsic ones. So, it seems a logical decision to develop mathematics education in a
way that makes sense at the very front of teaching. This has completely been in line
with the position expressed by Richard Elmore (1997):
“What do I teach on Monday morning?” is the persistent question confronting teachers.
Because they are inclined to ask such questions, teachers are often accused by researchers,
reformers, and policymakers of being narrow and overly practical in their responses to the big
ideas of education reform. Given the state of the current debate on standards-based reform,
though, I think the Monday morning question is exactly the right one, and it should be firmly
placed in the minds of everyone who purports to engage in that reform.
Consider the following practical issues. Most statements of content and performance stan-
dards coming from professionals and policymakers take no account whatsoever of such basic
facts as the amount of time teachers and students have in which to cover content. They are
merely complex wish lists. In order to be useful in answering the Monday morning question,
they have to be drastically pared, simplified, and made operational in the form of lesson
plans, materials, and practical ideas about teaching practice.
Up to the end of the nineteenth century and into the first decades of the twentieth
century the role of the teacher was widely understood as that of an “instructor” or
“deliverer of knowledge”. His or her task was to separate pieces of subject matter,
present it to the students, link it to what they had learned before, embed it into a
system and test if the students could reproduce and apply the new knowledge.
The most elaborate form of this view on teaching and learning are the famous
“formal stages” by Friedrich Herbart that were elaborated for the teaching practice
by his successors. Wilhelm Rein gave them their final form: “Preparation”, “Presen-
tation”, “Association”, “System”, and “Application” (for details see de Garmo 2001,
Chap. V, 130 ff.).
At the beginning of the twentieth century the “progressive education” movement
gave new impetus to voices who had been pleading in favor of a shift for a long
time. In 1916 the German mathematics educator Johannes Kuehnel (1865–1928)
described the new role of teachers and students according to the new vision in his
book “Neubau des Rechenunterrichts” [Re-Installing the Teaching of Arithmetic]
(Kuehnel 1954, 69–70, transl. E.Ch.W.) as follows:
The goal of teaching arithmetic is to provide the students with the foundations for a mathe-
matical penetration of all things and phenomena of nature and human life . . . When therefore
in the enlightened educational view of our time skills appear as certainly indispensable tools
and so as an unquestioned objective of teaching, however, not more than tools, it is the task
of the future to consciously replace the mere concentration on skills by true mathematical
education.
The main question that provides the yardstick and the orientation for the whole book can
be formulated as follows: What is the both scientifically and practically founded teaching
method by which we can further the development of the student in the desired way?
This formulation readily reveals the influence of the new orientation. It is not a method
by which we want to instruct the student in something in a way as easy, as painless or as
pleasurable as possible, be it knowledge or skills. Instructing, presenting, conveying are
notions of the art of teaching of the past and have only little value for the present time; for
the educational view of our time is no longer directed to plain subject matter. Of course,
the student should acquire knowledge and skills also in future – we even hope more than
in the past – however, we do not want to impose them on him, but he should acquire them
himself. In this way also the role of the teacher is changing in every respect. Instead of
delivering subject matter he will have to develop the student’s abilities. This is something
completely different, in particular for teaching arithmetic. For the differently formulated
question for the teaching method will deprive the teacher of two instruments that in the past
seemed indispensable and as marks of the highest art of teaching: presenting and forming.
For compensation the teacher gets two other instruments that at first sight seem insignificant,
that, however, are much more powerful: providing opportunities and stimulating individual
development.
And the student is no longer tuned to passively receiving knowledge, but to actively acquiring
it. What characterizes the teaching method of the future is not instruction and receptivity,
but organization and activity.
In the following decades this view of teaching and learning has gradually spread
in many countries and found substantial support from many sides (see, for example,
ATM 1967, with a wonderful preface by David Wheeler; Freudenthal 19721 ; Becker
and Shimada 1997, translated from the Japanese original published in 1977; Revuz
1980, with a most remarkable title; Winter 1989).
In the early1980s Heinrich Winter, very much influenced by Hans Freudenthal,
served as an advisor for a committee engaged with developing a syllabus for the
primary school of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. In the document the role of
the teacher is described in Winter’s unmistakable style as follows (KM 1985, transl.
E.Ch.W.):
For pursuing the mission and the objectives of mathematics teaching a conception is appro-
priate in a particular way in which learning mathematics is considered as a constructive,
inquiry-based process. This means that students should get as many opportunities as possi-
ble for self-reliant learning in all phases of the learning process:
– starting from challenging situations; stimulating the students to observe, to ask questions,
to guess
– displaying a problem or a complex of problems; encouraging students’ own ideas and
providing support
– anchoring new knowledge in prior knowledge in manifold ways; summarizing new knowl-
edge as clearly and concisely as possible, in some cases insisting on memorization; encour-
aging students to practice on their own
– discussing with students about the nature of the new knowledge and about the processes
with which it has been gained (recollection), stimulating students to investigate related
problems by themselves.
The role of the teacher consists of finding and offering challenging problems, providing
students with conceptually rich teaching aids and productive forms of exercises and above
all to establish and maintain a communication that is favorable for the learning processes of
all children.
This syllabus also reflected the so-called “general mathematical objectives” that
Winter had already formulated ten years previously: Mathematizing, Exploring,
Explaining and Communicating (Winter 1975).
Another important innovation brought about by this syllabus is the emphasis on
a balanced orientation to both applications and structure (applied and pure mathe-
matics) that Winter had postulated in a paper on the role of mathematics for general
education, in which he delineated three major objectives of mathematics teaching
(Winter 1995):
(1) to perceive and understand phenomena in the world around us that concern us or
should concern us, in nature, society and culture, and to do this in a way specific
for mathematics,
(2) to get acquainted with mathematical structures, represented in language, sym-
bols, pictures and formulae, and to understand them as mental creations, as a
deductively ordered world of its own,
(3) to acquire problem-solving strategies (heuristic strategies) going beyond math-
ematics by coping with problems.
The design science approach to mathematics education has been born from the
intention to assist teachers in these tasks, that is, to provide them with first-hand
1 From “Instruction and Receptivity” to “Organization and Activity” in Teaching 5
knowledge for organizing learning processes in the form of elaborated teaching units
(later called substantial learning environments). These units should be explicit about
how
– to introduce students into mathematical activities by which mathematical knowl-
edge can be acquired,
– to accompany them and to provide support during their activities,
– to assist students in reporting about their observations, in formulating the patterns
they have found,
– to assist students in explaining these patterns,
– to fix the knowledge that has been acquired and to summarize it in a pregnant
form.
These professional interventions of teachers reflect the natural flow of any goal-
directed teaching and learning of mathematics. Guy Brousseau has captured them in
five “didactical situations”: instruction, action, formulation, validation, and institu-
tionalization (Brousseau 1997).
Table 1 shows the interplay between the teacher’s interventions and students’
activities whereby italics indicate who is taking the initiative during the situation in
question (Wittmann and Müller 2017, 20).
This table is extremely useful for organizing teaching and for analyzing and evalu-
ating lessons along the “Organization and Activity” model of learning and teaching—
provided the potential inherent in mathematics is used properly.
The next section illustrates it with an example.
6 1 Unfolding the Educational and Practical Resources Inherent …
The book Notes on Primary Mathematics (ATM 1967) starts with the sketch of a
unit (“An Addition Game”) that is well suited to show how Table 1 can be brought
to mathematical life. In this section this unit will be expanded into a fully-fledged
learning environment. In Germany the natural place of this unit in the curriculum is
the beginning of grade 5. This grade is traditionally devoted to refreshing knowledge
of mental arithmetic, semiformal strategies of calculation, the standard algorithms,
and the arithmetical laws from the first four years of education (that in most German
states form the primary school).
Objectives: Repetition of arithmetic at the primary level in the context of a mathe-
matical structure that goes beyond the familiar number structure and has applications
on the EAN-Number and the ISBN-Number.
Mathematical background: Residue class rings
Teaching materials: Counters, dot arrays, worksheets
1. At the beginning the teacher announces that the following unit is intended to
practice arithmetical skills and to explore new mathematical structures that at
first sight look a bit strange but give the opportunity for creative work.
2. Introduction of the tasks
First the students are asked to solve some division problems (Fig. 3).
Based on the results and explanations of the students the teacher emphasizes that
any number can be written as a multiple of 10 plus a remainder that is just the
Ones digit of the number (Fig. 4)
The students then receive the extended Hundred chart as a worksheet (Fig. 5)
and use it as follows:
Each student chooses two columns of this chart and exerts additions and mul-
tiplications only with the numbers of these two selected columns. The teacher
explains this rule by means of examples (Fig. 6).
3. Student work
While the students are working the teacher checks if the task has been well
understood and provides support where necessary.
4. Report
After the students have collected enough data the teacher directs the attention
to the Ones digits of the results. The students report on their findings. With the
teacher’s support they will formulate a pattern: the Ones digits of the results
depend only on the Ones digits of the summands resp. the factors.
For example, the Ones digits 3 and 7 always yield the Ones digit 0 for addition
and the Ones digit 1 for multiplication.
5. Explanation of the pattern
The explanation follows immediately from the standard algorithms (Fig. 7):
Both the addition and the multiplication of the Ones digits might lead to a carry.
This carry and the following calculations do not affect the Ones digits. The size
of the numbers does not matter.
6. Summary
The teacher summarizes the findings by telling the students that mathematicians
have found it useful to “forget” the tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. and to calculate
only with the Ones digits by using slightly different signs:
7⊕4=1
In words: the Ones digit 7 additively combined with the Ones digit 4 yields the
Ones digit 1.
In short: 7 plus 4 equals 1. In this case, however, “plus” means the new sign ⊕.
74=8
In words: the Ones digit 7 multiplicatively combined with the Ones digit 4 yields
the Ones digit 8.
In short: “7 times 4 equals 8”. Again “times” here means the new sign .
The students get a worksheet (Fig. 8) in which some results of the addition and
the multiplication table for the Ones have already been entered. The teacher
should take time and slowly explain how the tables have to be read and show
how sums and products of Ones are entered into the table.
Only after a thorough clarification should the individual students fill in the miss-
ing entries themselves. Of course, students are allowed to cooperate, as always,
and to assist each other.
2 The Learning Environment “Calculating with Remainders” 9
7. Applications
Certainly, the students will wonder what purpose these tables are useful for and
will be surprised that there is an application in their immediate environment.
Both the European Article Numbers (EAN) and the International Standard Book
Number (ISBN) consist of 13 digits whereby the last digit is a check digit that
is determined in the following way: the first 12 digits are alternately multiplied
by 1 and 3 according to the addition and multiplication table for the Ones, and
then the sum of the products is determined according to the addition table of the
Ones. Finally, the check digit is chosen such that it complements the sum to 0.
Example EAN 978489582586?
First the digits are multiplied alternately with 1 and 3:
From the multiplication table for the Ones we gather the results of the products:
9 ⊕ 1 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 2 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 7 ⊕ 5 ⊕ 4 ⊕ 2 ⊕ 5 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 8.
The addition table for the Ones allows us to calculate this sum step by step:
9 ⊕ 1 = 0, 0 ⊕ 8 = 8, 8 ⊕ 2 = 0, . . .
In shorthand notation:
9⊕1 ⊕8 ⊕2 ⊕8 ⊕7 ⊕5 ⊕4 ⊕2 ⊕5 ⊕8 + 8.
0 8 0 8 5 0 4 6 1 9 7
At the end of this unit each student should be able to determine the check digit
of the EAN number of an article bought in some shop or check the ISBN number of
some of their books.
Language: German
Der Holsteiner ging über den Hof in den Stall zurück, und mit der
Zunge vor Frost stotternd, stimmte er mit dem anderen ein:
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