Note: All your answers to questions must be in Red or other color (not

including blue) for easier grading. Points will be deducted if you do not
distinguish your answers.

Lab 11. Patterns of Inheritance

Objectives:
 Perform a Monohybrid (one-trait) cross and explain how the results
predict all the possible offspring
 Relate Mendel’s law of segregation to the results of a Monohybrid
(one-trait) cross
 Explain and predict the results of a monohybrid cross in corn plants.
 Perform a Dihybrid (two-trait) cross and explain how the results
predict all the possible offspring
 Explain and predict the results of X-Linked crosses in Drosophila

Vocabulary:
 Gene
 Alleles
 Homozygous dominant
 Homozygous recessive
 Heterozygous
 Genotype
 Phenotype
 Carrier
 Punnett square
 Probability
 Law of Segregation
 Law of Independent Assortment
 X-linked or sex-linked
 Sex chromosomes
 Autosomes

Introduction:

Gregor Mendel is known as the “father of genetics” due to his extensive

research of inherited traits – specifically in the pea plant. Because of
Mendel’s work, the contributions of many other scientists, and advances in
technology we now know that diploid individuals have two copies of each
gene, called alleles, which correspond to exhibited traits.
 We also know that alleles are located on chromosomes. Since diploid
organisms have two copies of each chromosome it is possible for them to be
homozygous dominant (two dominant alleles, AA), homozygous
recessive (two recessive alleles, aa), or heterozygous (one dominant and
one recessive allele, Aa). These combinations of alleles are called the
genotype. When we refer to the visible traits, or appearance, we are
referring to the organism’s phenotype.

If the phenotype associated with a given version of a gene is observed

when an organism has only one copy, the allele is said to be dominant
(denoted by uppercase letters, A). The phenotype will be seen whether the
organism has one copy of the allele (heterozygous, Aa) or two copies of that
allele (homozygous, AA). If the phenotype associated with a given version of
a gene is observed only when an individual has two identical copies, the
allele is said to be recessive (aa). The phenotype will be observed only when
the individual is homozygous for the allele concerned. An individual with only
one copy of the allele will not show the phenotype but will be able to pass
the allele on to subsequent generations. As a result, an individual
heterozygous for an autosomal recessive allele is known as a carrier.

Mendelian Inheritance Patterns

Scientists use a grid-like tool (Punnett Square) to make predictions about

various genetic problems. The Punnett Square shows only the probability
(the chance of something occurring) of what might occur and not the actual
results. For example, if one wants to flip a coin 100 times, since there are 2
sides to the coin, they can expect 50 heads and 50 tails. However, if you
actually flip the coin 100 times, you may actually get 60 heads and 40 tails.
Punnett Squares only show the chances of what might occur each time the
event is undertaken. They do not show the actual outcome. Recall that
Mendel formulated the First Law of Inheritance which states that: Each
organism contains two alleles for each trait (gene), and the alleles segregate
(separate) during formation of gametes. Each gamete (egg or sperm)
contains only one allele for each gene. Upon fertilization, the resulting
offspring will have two alleles for each trait – one from each parent. Using a
Punnett square, we can predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of
resulting offspring, when crossing two parents whose genotypes are known.

For example: If we want to know the possible offspring genotypes from a

cross between a homozygous dominant male and a homozygous recessive
female, we can use a Punnett square to predict the possible outcomes.

 Homozygous dominant Male = GG

 Homozygous recessive female = gg
The possible gametes from these two parents are as follows: G or G, and g or
g. Now we place the gametes on the top and sides of the Punnett square.
Then fill in the spaces with one gamete being contributed by each parent.

g g

G Gg Gg

G Gg Gg
1. What is the probability of having offspring with the following genotypes?
Example: GG 0:4 or 0%
 Gg ___:4 or ____%
 Gg ___:4 or ____%

Part 1: Monohybrid Crosses – Simulation of Mendel’s Work

When a single pair of alleles is involved in one trait, such as green peas,
Mendel found that crossing individuals with heterozygous genotypes (Gg x
Gg) would result in both dominant (yellow pea color) and recessive (green
pea color) phenotypes among the offspring. Crosses such as these, where
ONLY one allele pair and its resulting phenotypes are investigated are called
monohybrid crosses.
Mendel studied seven different traits in pea plants and saw that each time he
conducted monohybrid crosses he could expect a phenotypic ratio of 3:1.
Three offspring having the dominant phenotype and 1 having the recessive.
Data collected from counting 1000s of offspring produced by monohybrid
crosses allowed Mendel to determine the law of segregation, which states
that each trait should have at least two inheritable alleles, these alleles
should segregate during gamete formation and at fertilization organisms
again have two alleles one from each parent.

In this experiment you will be simulating a monohybrid cross using any 2

two-sided (fair) coins that you have. Since each coin has 1-heads and 1-tails
it will represent a heterozygous parent (Hh). You will use two coins at the
same time, so your cross is Hh x Hh, a monohybrid cross.

Question: When simulating a monohybrid cross does Mendel’s conclusion

that Hh x Hh results in 3:1 phenotypic and 1:2:1 genotypic ratio hold true?
Hypothesis: (Write your own)

Materials:
 (2) Any two-sided fair coin (heads on one side, tails on the other)
 Calculator
Procedure:

1. You will pick up 2 coins. Each side represents one allele of the same gene,
Heads (H) and tails (h), respectively. Since each coin has 1-heads and 1-tails
it will represent a heterozygous parent. Since you will use two coins at the
same time your cross is Hh x Hh.
2. To simulate a monohybrid cross, you will toss TWO coins, SIMULTANEOUSLY,
each coin represents one of the heterozygous parents (Hh x Hh).
3. Record the resulting genotype from the tossed coins, which side lands face
up for each coin. The only possibilities that can be made from this toss are:
HH (homozygous heads), Hh (heterozygous heads), or hh (homozygous tails).
Mark the resulting genotype and phenotype in the data table.
4. Pick up your two coins and conduct the same process (steps 1-3) 14 more
times (15 total trials). Record your data in Table 1.

Results:
Table 1: Monohybrid Cross Simulation – 2 two-sided coin toss

Trial Offspring Genotype Offspring Phenotype

10
 11

12

13

14

15

Total number of offspring with:

2. Homozygous dominant genotype:
3. Heterozygous genotype:
4. Homozygous recessive genotype:
5. Calculate the genotypic ratio of your data:
Total number of offspring with:
6. Dominant Phenotype:
7. Recessive Phenotype:
8. Calculate the phenotypic ratio of your data:
Questions:
9. What is the dominant trait and how do you know it is dominant?
10. What is the recessive trait?
11. What are the genotypes of the parents?
12. What are the phenotypes of the parents?
13. Fill in Punnett Square on the right using the parents given in the
procedure
Male __________ x Female __________

14. Looking at your Punnett square, what is the genotypic ratio?

15. Does your genotypic ratio from the coin toss match the ratio of your
Punnett square? (You calculated this in the results section) Why or why
not?

16. Looking at your Punnett square, what is the phenotypic ratio?

17. Does your phenotypic ratio from the coin toss match the ratio of your
Punnett square? (You calculated this in the results section) Why or why
not?

18. In Mendel’s paper he provided data for 1000s of monohybrid crosses.

How did having this large amount of data allow Mendel to arrive at his
final conclusion of a phenotypic ratio of 3:1 and a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1
for monohybrid crosses?

19. Was your hypothesis supported by your data? Why or why not?

20. Is there anything you could have changed about this experiment so
that your hypothesis was better tested?

Part 2: Monohybrid Cross – Life Example in Corn

Just like Mendel’s pea plants, corn also contains genes which have dominant
and recessive alleles that follow Mendel’s laws when used in monohybrid
crosses. In fact, filial generation (F2) multicolored corn which exhibits both
purple (P) and yellow (p) kernels (seeds) results from a cross of a
heterozygous purple (Pp) parent with a second heterozygous purple (Pp)
parent (F1). See Image 1, a monohybrid cross of PP x pp to produce F1
generation Pp offspring, which are then crossed to produce the Mendelian
ratio of 3:1 and 1:2:1, genotype, and phenotype respectively.
Figure 1: Monohybrid cross of homozygous purple (PP) and homozygous yellow (pp)
parents. Filial generation 1 (F1) produces all purple Pp offspring. Filial generation 2 (F2) is a
cross of Pp and Pp F1 offspring, which produces 3:1 genotypic ratio and 1:2:1 genotype.

In this experiment you will be given images of F 2 generation corn cobs and
asked to count the numbers of purple and yellow offspring produced. You will
then determine if your data fits the expected 3:1 phenotypic and 1:2:1
genotypic ratio predicted by Mendel’s Law of Segregation.

Question: When analyzing F2 offspring from a true monohybrid cross using

corn plants does Mendel’s 3:1 phenotypic and 1:2:1 genotypic ratio hold
true?

Hypothesis: (Write your own)

Materials:

 Photos of corn produced through monohybrid cross – F 1 generation

 Calculator
Procedure:
1. Examine the photo below (Figure 2) of F2 generation corn cob A.
Choose one row (left to right) and count and record all purple and
yellow kernels in table 2.
2. Choose one row (left to right) on corn cob B. Count and record all
purple and yellow kernels in table 2.
3. Choose one row (left to right) on corn cob C. Count and record all
purple and yellow kernels in table 2.
 4. Each row you counted, one from cob A, cob B and cob C will count as a
separate trial. Calculate the average number of purple, and yellow
kernels per trial. Then calculate the ratio of purple to yellow.

Figure 2: Images of F2 generation corn cobs

Results:
Table 2: Results of Monohybrid corn cobs count

# of Purple Kernels # of Yellow Kernels

Cob A
Cob B
Cob C
Average
Phenotypic Ratio: __________

Questions:
21. Did your phenotypic ratio differ from the expected phenotypic ratio? If
so, explain your answer.

22. Why were you only asked to calculate the phenotypic ratio and not the
genotypic ratio?
23. Draw and label a Punnett square which results in a 3:1 genotypic ratio
of offspring.

Part 3: Dihybrid Crosses – Crosses that Involve Two Traits

Mendel’s studies with dihybrid crosses, two-trait crosses, showed that when
two dihybrid organisms reproduced (AaBb, heterozygote for two known
genes) the phenotypic ratio of the offspring was 9:3:3:1, giving four possible
phenotypes. He rationalized that this was only possible if each allele pair was
able to sort into gametes independent of the other allele pair.
This led Mendel to his second finding, the law of independent
assortment, which states that each pair of alleles separates and sorts into
gametes independently of the members from another allele pair. This means
that since genes do not influence each other when sorting into gametes each
possible combination of alleles is just as likely to occur as another.
You will know study and perform several dihybrids, or two-trait crosses.
These can be challenging to set up, and the Punnett square you create will
be a 4x4. This simple guide will walk you through the steps of solving a
typical dihybrid cross common in genetics. The method can also work for any
cross that involves two traits.
Consider this cross:

A pea plant that is heterozygous for round, yellow seeds is

self-fertilized; what are the phenotypic ratios of the resulting
offspring?

Step 1: Determine the parental genotypes. From the text above, the word
"heterozygous" is the most important clue, and you would also need to
understand that self-fertilized means you just cross it with itself. When
choosing letters to represent your genes, you’ll need to choose one letter per
characteristic. If it is dominant, it will be capitalized and if it is recessive, it
will be lower case.

RrYy x RrYy

Step 2: Determine the gametes. This might feel a little like the FOIL method
you learned in math class. Combine the R's and Ys of each parent to
represent sperm and egg. Do this for both parents:
Figure 3: Gametes after "FOIL": RY, Ry, rY, ry (parent 1) and RY, Ry, rY, ry (parent 2)

Step 3: Set up a large 4x4 Punnett square, place one gamete set from the
parent on the top, and the other on the side. Refer to the figure below.

Step 4: Write the genotypes of the offspring in each box and determine how
many of each phenotype you have. In this case, you will have 9 round,
yellow; 3 round, green; 3 wrinkled, yellow; and 1 wrinkled green.
Figure 4: Dihybrid cross of RrYy self-fertilized pea plant. The resulting offspring fulfill the 9:3:3:1 ratio
predicted by Mendel.

Some Shortcuts:
In any case where the parents are heterozygous for both traits (AaBb x
AaBb), you will always get a 9:3:3:1 ratio.
9 is the number for the two dominant traits, 3 is the number for a
dominant/recessive combination, and only 1 individual will display both
recessive traits.
Another way to determine the ratios is to do it mathematically 3/4 of all the
offspring will have round seeds 3/4 of all the offspring will have yellow
seeds 3/4∗3/4∗3/4 = 9/16 will have round, yellow seeds.
Crosses That Involve 2 Traits:

Consider: RrYy x rryy

The square is set up as shown below.

You might notice that all four rows have the same genotype. In this case, you
really only need to fill out the top row, because 1/4 is the same thing as 4/16
Additional problems:
In rabbits, grey hair is dominant to white hair. Also in rabbits, black eyes are
dominant to red eyes.
 GG = gray hair
 Gg = gray hair
 gg = white hair
 BB = black eyes
 Bb = black eyes
 bb = red eyes

24. What are the phenotypes of rabbits that have the following genotypes:

Ggbb:

ggBB:

ggbb:
GgBb:

25. A male rabbit with the genotype GGbb is crossed with a female rabbit
with the genotype ggBb. The square is set up below. Fill it out and
determine the phenotypes and proportions in the offspring. Online classes
will need to draw the Punnett square on a piece of paper and upload a
picture of their completed answer.

How many out of 16 have grey fur and black eyes? ________

How many out of 16 have grey fur and red eyes? ________

How many out of 16 have white fur and black eyes? ________

How many out of 16 have white fur and red eyes? ________

26. Both male and female rabbits have the genotype GgBb. Determine the
male gametes produced by this rabbit (the sperm would have these
combinations of alleles remember to use FOIL).

27. Use the gametes from #26 to set up a Punnett square below. Put the
male's gametes on the top and the female's gametes down the side.
Then, fill out the square and determine what kind of offspring would be
 produced from this cross and in what proportion. Online classes will need
to draw the Punnett square on a piece of paper and upload a picture of
their completed answer.

28. An aquatic arthropod called a Cyclops has antennae that are either
smooth or barbed. The allele for barbs is dominant. In the same organism,
resistance to pesticides is a recessive trait. Make a "key" to show all the
possible genotypes (and phenotypes) of this organism. Use the rabbit key
to help you if you're lost.

29. A Cyclops that is resistant to pesticides and has smooth antennae is

crossed with one that is heterozygous for both traits. What are the
genotypes of the parents?

30. Set up a Punnett square for the cross and show the phenotypic ratios.
Online classes will need to draw the Punnett square on a piece of paper
and upload a picture of their completed answer.
Part 4: X-linked Genes
Introduction:

In diploid organisms, each body cell (or 'somatic cell') contains two
copies of the genome. So each somatic cell contains two copies of each
chromosome and two copies of each gene. The exceptions to this rule are
the sex chromosomes that determine sex in a given species. For example,
in the XY system that is found in most mammals—including human beings—
males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY) and females
have two X chromosomes (XX). The paired chromosomes that are not
involved in sex determination are called autosomes, to distinguish them
from the sex chromosomes. Human beings have 46 chromosomes: 22 pairs
of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes (X and Y).

Within a population, there may be several alleles for a given gene.

Individuals that have two copies of the same allele are referred to as
homozygous for that allele; individuals that have copies of different alleles
are known as heterozygous for that allele. The inheritance patterns
observed will depend on whether the allele is found on an autosomal
chromosome or a sex chromosome, and on whether the allele is
dominant or recessive.

In many organisms, the determination of sex involves a pair of

chromosomes that differ in length and genetic content - for example, the XY
system used in human beings and other mammals.

The X chromosome carries hundreds of genes, and many of these are

not connected with the determination of sex. The smaller Y chromosome
contains several genes responsible for the initiation and maintenance of
maleness, but it lacks copies of most of the genes that are found on the X
chromosome. As a result, the genes located on the X chromosome display a
characteristic pattern of inheritance referred to as sex-linkage or X-
linkage.

Females (XX) have two copies of each gene on the X chromosome, so

they can be heterozygous or homozygous for a given allele. However, males
(XY) only have one copy of the X chromosome and thus only one allele for
each X-linked gene. Having only one copy of a gene is known as hemizygous.
Because males will express all the alleles present on the single X
chromosome that they receive from their mother the concepts such as
'dominant' or 'recessive' are irrelevant. If they receive a recessive allele, it
cannot be masked.

Several medical conditions in humans are associated with genes on the

X chromosome, including hemophilia, muscular dystrophy, and some forms
of color blindness. Interestingly many these medical conditions are also
recessive. Since males only have one copy of the X chromosome, they are
more likely to be affected by these recessive diseases. Females having two
copies are not as likely to be affected.

X-Linked Genes Activity:

31. In fruit flies, eye color is a sex-linked trait. Red is dominant to white.
What are the sexes and eye colors of flies with the following genotypes?

 XRXr:
 XRY:
 XrXr:
 XRXR:
 XrY:

32. What are the genotypes of the flies below:

 white-eyed, male:
 red-eyed female (heterozygous):
 white-eyed, female:
 red-eyed, male:
33. Show the cross of a white-eyed female XrXr with a red-eyed male XRY.
Online classes will need to draw the Punnett square on a piece of paper
and upload a picture of their completed answer.

34. Show a cross between a pure red-eyed female and a white-eyed male.
Online classes will need to draw the Punnett square on a piece of paper
and upload a picture of their completed answer.

35. What are the genotypes of the parents?

36. How many of the offspring are:

 white-eyed, male:
 white-eyed, female:
 red-eyed, male:

37. red-eyed, female: Show the cross of a red-eyed female (heterozygous)

and a red-eyed male. Online classes will need to draw the Punnett square
on a piece of paper and upload a picture of their completed answer.
38. What are the genotypes of the parents?

39. How many of the offspring are:

 white-eyed, male:
 white-eyed, female:
 red-eyed, male:
 red-eyed, female:

Licenses and Attributions:

 " Inheritance" by Susan Burran and David DesRochers, LibreTexts is
licensed under CC BY-SA.
 Laws of Inheritance. (2021, March 23). Retrieved July 23, 2021, from
https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/50387