Bridges © 2009

SUBSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS AND

DESIGN

• Abutments
• Wing walls
• Bearings
• Piers

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Bridges © 2009

4.1 Abutments
I. Functions
II. Types
III. Loads
IV. Design Example

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4.1.1 Functions of Abutments

•An abutment is a structure located at the
end of the bridge for the following
functions:
•Supporting the bridge deck at the ends
•Retaining the approach road
embankment
•Connecting the approach road to the
bridge deck

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4.1.2 Types of Abutment

I. Mass concrete or Stone masonry

• Depends on its mass for stability,
carrying and transmitting loads from the
superstructure to the foundation.
•Simple to construct but expensive due to
large quantity of concrete which has to be
used.

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I. Mass concrete or Stone masonry

•is used for walls up to 3 meters height.

•In this case the settlement of
embankment should be considered in
relation to the abutment.

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Dirt wall

Bridge Seat

Breast wall

River bed

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II. Reinforced T - Abutment

•Reinforced T- abutment is slender

structure and has a large heel and a
small toe.
• This is a reinforced concrete structure.
•Reinforced T- abutment is the most
common form of abutment used.

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Gap for
Soft material

Water Bearing

Abutment

Foundation

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III. Counter fort Abutment

•Abutment with counter -fort are used only

for very tall walls of more than 10 to 20
meters
• Compaction of the fill is difficult due to
the presence of counter- forts.

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Deck

Bearing
Stem
Water
Counterfort
wall

Foundation

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IV. Cellular abutments

•Cellular abutments have cells which can

allow drainage of water.
•These types of abutments are expensive

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Bearing

Water Wall
Cell

Foundation

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4.1.3 Loads on Abutment

I) Dead loads
II) Live loads
III) Earth pressure
IV) Settlements etc

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1) Dead load

•Self weight of Abutment:

•Weight of fill supported by
foundation;
•Dead load and superimposed
load of superstructure

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II) Earth pressure

•Pressure due to the weight of backfill

materials
•Acts continuously on a complete
abutment
•Its intensity varies with substructure
movement, vibration, water table, etc.

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II) Earth pressure

Active pressure on free standing
abutments
•When backfill pressure can move the wall
by tilting
•The wall has positive drainage and the
backfill is free draining granular material.

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II) Earth pressure

Passive pressure
•It is assumed the wall would move into
the backfill
•The resistance of the toe is ignored

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II) Earth pressure

Pressure on Restrained Abutments

•Designed for pressures greater than
active.
•At rest pressure coefficient Ka is usually
taken as 1.5 to 2 times the active
pressure coefficient
•Pressure of compacting roller must also
be considered

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III) Bearing Pressure

Non-cohesive soil
•maximum safe bearing capacity >
maximum load
dry non-cohesive soil
•values are used from CP 2004, CP 2
other codes and charts from load test
Non-cohesive soil below or near
water table
•half bearing capacity > maximum load on
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III) Bearing Pressure

Cohesive soil
•Factor of safety to limit settlement and
local failure are;-
•FS = 3 for dead load alone
•FS = 2, 3 for combined dead and live load
Eccentric and inclined loads
•Allowable pressure > load

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IV) Settlements

•Differential settlement between parts of a

foundation, between foundations,
between abutment and embankment may
cause problems
•For small bridges on stiff soil the
settlement is controlled by use of factor of
safety

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IV) Settlements

•Geotechnical investigation of soil for

compression helps in predicting
settlement
•Records of settlement cases of existing
foundation settlements are very reliable
for similar ground

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IV) Settlements
•Sometimes settlement may be predicted
from the total load on each support
•Mostly the foundation settles very quickly
in comparison to the embankments. The
settlement of foundation is usually
completed by the end of construction

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V) Live Loads
•Live load surcharges to represent vertical
traffic loading, incorporating impact
allowance.
•Horizontal loads due to braking and
traction which can act on substructure
through fill and pavement
•Centrifugal load acting radially.

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4.1.4 Stability of Retaining Walls

•Stability aspects considered are sliding,

overturning and slip failure
•Sliding is resisted by base friction /
cohesion and passive earth pressure,
CP 2 uses FS = 2
•Overturning is resisted by assuring that
the resultant remains in the middle one
third for gravity walls

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4.1.4 Stability of Retaining Walls

• Slip failure checked for weaker soil

strata and for bank seats. Slip of
embankments should be checked as
it may cause failure of skeleton
abutments or bank seats on piles
during construction
• Most values are used from soil
strength tests

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4.1.4 Design Example
Assume a width of 4.0 m and thickness of 1.00 m for
the foundation base
Abutment

1.05 m
0.30

Total length
of the abutment:
L = 7.0 + 1.65 x 2 or L =

4.95 m
10.30m

1.75 0.75 1.50

1.00 m
4.00 m Foundation
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Abutment Analysis - Loading

Self weight of abutment:
(0.4 x 1.7 x 24 x 1.15) + (1.0 x 4.7 x 24 x 1.15) = 148..49 kN/m
Abutment DL = 148.49 kN/m

Weight of beam: 1.25 x 0.55 x 24 x 0.5 x16 x 1.15 x 2 / 9.4 =

32.30 kN/m
Slabs: 12.42x9.4x16 x0.5 /9.4 = 99.36 kN/m
Kerb: 2.76 x 1.5 x 2 x 8/9.4 = 7.05 kN/m
Total DL- beam + slab + kerb: 138.71 kN/m

Superimposed Dead Load

Surfacing: 0.5(1.16 + 3.70) x 6.4 x 16 x 0.5/9.4 = 13.24 kN/m
Parapet: 2 x 8.75 x 16 x 0.5/9.4 = 14.89 kN/m
Total SDL = 28.13 kN/m

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Live Load:
Critical case is HA + HB for this problem
HA UDL: 12.19 x 3.2 x 16 x 0.5/ 9.4 = 33.20 kN/m
HA KEL: 48.75 x 3.2/9.4 = 16.60 kN/m
HB: 425.04 x 2x8/9.4 = 126.61 kN/m
(V1 = 425.04 kN and V2 = 159.96 kN)
Pedestrian: 7.5 x 1.50 x 16 x 0.5 x 2 /9.4 = 19.15 kN/m
Total live load = 195.56 kN /m

Longitudinal Load
Braking load: Due to HA: P = (8 kN/m x 16 + 200) = 328 kN
Due to HB: P = 25% x Total HB = 0.25 x 1800 = 450 kN
Factored loads:
Due to HA = 328 x 1.25 / 9.4 = 43.62 kN/m
Due to HB = 450 x 1.1 /9.4 = 52.66 kN/m

Therefore use the critical load: P = 52.66 kN/m

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Earth Pressure to the Abutment: H = 6.40m
H2 H 2 1  sin 
P s. .K a   s . .
2 2 1  sin 
Given that; s = 18 kN/m3,  = 350
P = 18 x 0.271 x 1 x 1.5 = 7.32kN/m2 (triangular at 1.0 m depth)
Hence PH = 7.32 x 6.42 x 0.5 = 149.91 kN/m,

Due to Surcharge
For HA loading, 10 kN/m2
For HB loading, 20 kN/m2 for 45 HB units
Choose the critical value from HB, hence
P = 20 x Ka x f = 20 x 0.271 x 1.5 = 8.13 kN/m2 ( udl)

Therefore PH = 8.13 x 6.4 x 0.5 = 26.02 kN/m

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Loading to the Abutment Stem
0.40 0.60

1.70m
Nd
10mm Nd = Superstructure load
Fb
0.25
G = Load due to self weight
Vs of abutment stem

4.70 m
Ea
G Ea = Earth fill load
3.2

6.4/3

Vs = Horizontal load due to

surcharge

1.00 m
Fb = Braking force

1.90 m 1.00 m 1.60 m

4.50 m
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Design Moment and Shear Force

Load Type N V La M (kNm)

(kN/m) (kN/m) (m)
DL from abutment 148.49 0 0
DL from superstructure 138.71 0.25 34.68
Superimposed DL of superstructure 28.03 0.25 7.00
Live load on superstructure 195.56 0.25 48.89
Braking 52.66 4.7 247.50
Earth fill pressure - Ea 149.91 2.133 319.77
Surcharge pressure - Vs 26.02 3.2 83.26
TOTAL 510.79 228.59 741.10

The design values shall be as follows:

Normal force N = 510.79 kN/m
Shear force V = 228.59 kN/m
Bending Moment M = 741.10 kNm/m
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 Bridges © 2009
Checking for stability of the Abutment
0.40 0.60

1.70m
Nd
10mm Nd = Superstructure load
Fb
Ns 0.25 Gw = Load due to self weight
of abutment stem
1.85
Gf = Load due to self weight
of foundation
Vs

4.70m
Ea = Earth fill load - horizontal

5.70m
Ea Gw
En = Earth fill load - normal

2.10 Ns = Normal load due to

3.70

surcharge
2.47

Vs = Horizontal load due to

1.00 m
En Gf 2.25
surcharge
3.55
Fb = Braking force
Ref. Point
1.90 1.00 1.60
4.50 m

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Earth Pressure for Stability Checking
H2 H 2 1  sin 
P s. .K a   s . .
2 2 1  sin 
H = 7.4 m
Due to backfill
Given that; s = 18 kN/m3,  = 350
Normal earth pressure = 18 x 1.9 x 6.4 = 218.88 kN/m
P = 18 x 0.271 x 7.4 = 36.10 kN/m2 (triangular pressure)
Hence PH = 36.10 x 7.4 x 0.5 x 1.5 = 200.36 kN/m,

Due to Surcharge
For HA loading, 10 kN/m2
For HB loading, 20 kN/m2 for 45 HB units
Choose the critical value from HB, hence
P = 20 x Ka x f = 20 x 0.271 x 1.5 = 8.13 kN/m2 ( udl)
Therefore PH = 8.13 x 7.4 = 60.16 kN/m
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 Bridges © 2009
Calculations for stability of abutment
Load Type N V La M
(kN/m) (kN/m) (m) (kNm) M (kNm)
DL from abutment 129.12 2.10 171.15
DL from self weight of footing 108.00 2.25 243
DL from superstructure 120.62 1.85 223.15

Superimposed DL of 16.02 1.85 29.64

superstructure
Live load on superstructure 150.43 1.85 278.30
Braking 0 52.66 5.70 0 300.16
Earth fill pressure - Horizontal 0 200.36 2.47 0 540.97
Earth fill pressure - Normal 218.88 0 3.55 777.02 0
Surcharge pressure - Normal 40.11 0 3.55 142.39 0
Surcharge pressure - Horizontal 0 60.16 3.7 0 222.59
TOTAL 783.18 313.18 1,864.65 1,063.72

Lever arm for Earth fill normal load, La = 0.5 x 1.90 + 1.0 + 1.60 = 3.55 m
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Stability Calculations
Safety Against Overturning :
Restoring moment = 1,864.65 kNm/m
Overturning moment = 1,063.72 kNm/m
Restoring moment/ Overturning moment
Factor of safety = 1864.65/1063.72 = 1.75 > 1.5 - OK

Safety Against Sliding

Driving force = 313.18 kN/m
Resisting force: N and  = 0.60
Therefore resisting force = 783.18 x 0.6 = 469.91 kN/m.
Hence safety against sliding :
469.91/313.18 = 1.50 = 1.5 -- OK
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4.2 WING WALLS

•General
•Applications
•Classifications

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4.2.1 General
•A wing wall is a smaller retaining wall
adjacent or attached to abutment.
•The wing walls do not support any
portion of superstructure.
•They are generally constructed at the
same time and of the same materials as
those of abutments.

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4.2.1 General
•The base of the wing walls is usually at
the same level as the base of the
abutment
•Their design period depends upon the
nature of the embankment and does not
depend upon the type or parts of the
bridge.

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4.2.2 Applications
•To retain the soil and fill supporting the
roadway and approach embankment.
• To provide smooth entry of water into the
bridge site.
•To serve as buttresses to support walls.
•They can also be purely decorative.

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4.2.3 Types of wing walls

1. Straight Wing walls
•These are the extension of abutment wall.
•They are used for small bridges, on
drains with low banks (weep holes are
provided).
•They are simple to build, use more
materials and
can be monolithic to abutment.

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Water

Abutment Abutment
Roadway

wing wall
Parapet Water

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4.2.3 Types of wing walls

2. Splayed Wing walls:
•Forms an acute angle with the bridge
road (usually 45°.)
•These are used for bridges across rivers.
•They provide smooth entry and exit to the
water(weep holes are provided).
•They use less material.

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Wing wall
Water flow
Parapet

Road way

Water flow
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4.2.3 Types of wing walls

3. Return wing walls

•They are used where banks are high and
hard or firm.
•Scour can be a problem for wing walls
and abutments both, as the water in the
stream erodes the supporting soil. Uses
more materials

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4.2.3 Types of wing walls

•No proper compaction of backfill is

achieved
•When structurally attached to the
abutment they provide more stability of a
box structure

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Water

Abutment Abutment

Roadway

wing wall

Parapet
Water
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 4.3 Bearings
• General
• Functions
• Parts of bearings
• Design Requirements
• Types of Bearings
• Selection of bearings
• Design procedures
 4.3.1 General

• A bridge bearing is a superstructure element which

provides an interface between the superstructure and
the substructure.
• It is a structural device that transmits loads while
facilitating translation and/or rotation.
• Bearings are designed in accordance to the BS 5400:
Section 9.!: 1983.
• Bearings shall be designed to resist loads and
accommodate movements. No damage due to joint or
bearing movement shall be permitted under any
appropriate load and movement combination.
 4.3.2 Functions
There are three primary functions of a bridge
bearing:
/ Transmit all loads from the superstructure to
the substructure.
/ Permit longitudinal movement of the
superstructure due to thermal expansion and
contraction.
/ Allow rotation caused by dead and live load
deflection.
 4.3.3 Parts of bearings
• Basic Elements of a bridge bearing can be
broken down into four namely:
• sole plate, masonry plate , bearing or bearing
surfaces and anchorage.
Sole plate
 4.3.4 Design Requirements
1. Movements
• The movements shall include those caused by
the loads, deformations and displacements
caused by creep, shrinkage and thermal
effects, and inaccuracies in installation .
• Other sources of movement include bridge
skew and curvature effects, misalignment or
construction tolerance, settlement of support,
thermal effects, construction loads, etc.
 4.3.4 Design Requirements
Bearings may permit or resist movement in:
• Translation in : longitudinal direction,
transverse direction, vertical direction.
• Rotation in: longitudinal direction, transverse
direction and plane.
• Table that follow ,defines the symbolic
representation of bearing displacement and
rotation restraints.
 4.3.4 Design Requirements
2. Design life:
• Bearings should be designed to last as long as the
bridge itself.
• It is important to allow for inspection and
replacement of bridge bearings, in whole or in
part since it is difficult to ascertain this
requirement for metallic or non metallic bearings.
• Adequate space should be provided around
bearings to facilitate inspection and replacement.
 4.3.4 Design Requirements
3. Durability:
• Bearings should be detailed without recesses and enclosures that
may trap moisture and dirt.
• The materials used in their manufacture and the method adopted
for protection against corrosion should ensure that the bearings
function properly throughout their life.
4. Limit states:
• To meet the serviceability limit state for bearings the design should
be such that they do not suffer damage that would affect their
proper functioning or incur excessive maintenance during their
working life.
• In the ultimate limit state, the strength and stability of the bearings
should be adequate to resist the ultimate design loads and
movements of the structure.
 4.3.5 Types of Bearings
Bearings can be classified depending upon
a) Degree of freedom
b) Material used

(a) Degree of freedom

• These can be fixed or expansion .
• Fixed bearings allow rotations but not displacement (translational)
while expansion allows both displacement and rotation movement.
• Examples of bearings are sliding plate, roller, rocker, elastomeric ,
pin and link, pot , restraining ,isolation bearings etc.
 4.3.5 Types of Bearings
I. Sliding plate:
• A system of two plates, one sliding over the other.
• It is the simplest type of bearings.
• They permit translation in longitudinal and
transverse directions.
• No rotation is permitted and only vertical loads
are resisted /Transmitted.
• Common materials that have been used as sliding
surfaces are:
 4.3.5 Types of Bearings
• Mild steel over mild steel , Mild steel over
phosphor bronze and PTFE over stainless steel
• Sliding bearings are provided where span is
less than 30 m, because the movement
capacity of these bearings is generally small.
• They require regular maintenance by
lubricating the surfaces in 2 to 3 years
intervals.
 4.3.5 Types of Bearings
II. Roller
• The roller bearing consists of a base plate, two or more
rollers and a top plate.
• The roller end is made by providing a saddle and knuckle
plate on top of the rollers.
• The roller end of bearing permits translation as well as
rotation.

III. Elastomeric
• Accommodate large movements .
• Requires minimum maintenance compared to all other
bearings.
 4.3.5 Types of Bearings
• Installation is easy.
• Permits movement of the structure in all directions,
depending upon the applied forces.
• Occupies small space.
• Serves as a shock absorber due to anti-vibration
properties of elastomer.
• Acts as an aid to better dispersion of longitudinal
forces to the approaches.
• Three types of elastomeric bearings are Plain , Steel
reinforced and Fibre reinforced elastomeric pads.
 4.3.5 Types of Bearings
(b) Material used
• A number of different materials are used for
making bearings.
• These include: steel s, phosphor bronze, synthetic
material like rubber(elastomeric) and PTFE(poly
tetra fluoro ethylene) etc.
• Out of these steel, rubber and PTFE are the most
commonly used materials.
• In certain forms of bearings, a combination of
two materials is also used.
 4.3.6 Selection of bearings
• There are several approaches to selecting a
cost-effective and appropriate bearing system
for bridges.
• An important decision is to define the bearing
type suitable for the design requirements.
Table that follow provides a guide for choosing
a suitable bearing type.
 4.3.7 Design procedures
1. Define the design requirements (forces,
translation, and rotation limits).
2. Identify the bearing types that satisfy the design
requirements.
3. Identify the initial and maintenance cost of the
bearings.
4. Choose the appropriate bearing type that meets
the design requirement at the lowest overall cost.
5. Ease of access for inspection, maintenance and
possible replacement must also be considered.
 4.4 PIERS
4.4.1 Introduction
• A pier or bent is an intermediate substructure unit located
between the ends of abridge.
• Its function is to support the bridge at intermediate intervals
with minimal obstruction to the flow of traffic or water below
the bridge.
• The top part of piers is called the cap. The structural
members rest on top of the cap is called the bridge seats.
The devices that are used to connect the structural
members to the bridge seats are called shoes or bearings.
 4.4.2 Types

• Piers can be of different types depending on their

shape as : Solid shaft pier, Column pier, Column pier
with web wall, Cantilever pier or hammerhead pier,
cellullar . etc.
• The selection of the pier type depends on:
required load capacity, superstructure geometry. site
conditions. cost consideration and Aesthetics.
 4.4.2 Types

• Solid shaft piers are used when a large mass is

advantageous or when a limited number of load points are
required for the superstructure.
• Column piers are used when limited clearance is available
under the structure or when narrow superstructure widths
are required
• Pier with web wall. A web wall is connected to columns to
add stability to the pier. The web wall is non-structural but
it serves to strengthen the columns in the event of a
vehicular collision.
• The cantilever or hammerhead pier is a modified column
pier for use with multi beam superstructures.
 4.4.2 Types

• Cellular (Hollow) piers are large enough for a

man to climb down inside facilitate placing of
concrete and inspection during construction.
• They have varying sections and other
complicated geometry thus uneconomical
although aesthetically good.
• In many cases, bridge piers over 30 m in height
are designed as a hollow pier in order to reduce
the dead loads.
 4.4.2 Types

• Hollow piers are usually tall shaft type piers built

for bridges crossing deep valleys
• Being hollow greatly reduces the dead load of
the pier and increases it’s ductility.
• The decrease in the dead load, or self-weight,
of the piers provides ease in transporting them
to the site, and the high ductility provides for
better performance against seismic forces.
 4.4.2 Types

• Based on the materials used: Mass (plain)

concrete, reinforced concrete, masonry, steel,
timber, or a composite material.
• Short piers can be made by masonry or mass
concrete . Tall and medium height piers are
made by solid or hollow RCC sections.
 4.4 Parts of a Pier

• The pier cap or bent cap provides support for the bearings
and the superstructure.
• The pier wall or stem transmits loads from the pier cap to
the footing.
• Columns transmit loads from the pier or bent cap to the
footing .
• The footing transmits the weight of piers or bents, and the
bridge reactions to the supporting soil or rock.
• The footing also provides stability to the pier or bent
against overturning and sliding forces.