ESci 112

CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS I

Differential Calculus
 Mo d u l e N o . 2
Differentiation of Algebraic
Functions
 Module Overview

Calculus revolves around two major concepts: the derivative and the integral.
In fact, the progression of engineering mathematics is from Precalculus, basically
preparation for Calculus, Differential Calculus, Integral Calculus, and the last one,
Differential Equations, is the combination of Differential and Integral Calculus.

And by starting this module, we have already covered the things we need to
know and will now be discussing Differential Calculus. However, in this module, we
shall only be focusing on determining the derivative of algebraic functions.
 Module Overview

The process of finding the derivative of a function (may it be algebraic,

trigonometric, exponential, or logarithmic) is called differentiation. And the branch
of Calculus dealing with this process is called Differential Calculus. Differentiation
is an important mathematical tool in physics, mechanics, economics, and many other
disciplines which involve change and motion.
 Lesson 2.1

The Symbol Δ, Derivative of a Function

𝒅𝒚
& Geometric Significance of
𝒅𝒙
 Lesson Summary

Recall that the previous module talked about limits. And it was mentioned
that Calculus does something special with the approximations we are able to capture
the curves and the tips. That something special is making ∆x approach 0. And since
the word “approach” was mentioned, limits are definitely involved.

Now in this lesson, we will get to know this symbol ∆.

 Lesson Summary

Also, in this lesson, we will finally be defining the derivative. Defining the
derivative will involve deltas, limits, and of course, some Precalculus concepts.

𝑑𝑦
Lastly, this lesson will discuss the geometric significance of the derivative .
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
That is, provides the formula for the slope of the line tangent to the given curve at
𝑑𝑥

a certain point. To determine the value of slope of the tangent line at a certain point,
we just have to substitute the coordinates of that point on the curve.
Lesson 2.1 Learning Outcomes
 After completing lesson 2.1, the students must be able to:

1 Define Δrange = f (domain, Δdomain);

Evaluate the derivative of functions using the definition

2 𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
= lim ; and
𝑑𝑥 𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

3 Determine the slope of the line tangent at a certain point.

 The Symbol Δ

• Any change in a variable quantity is called an increment.

• For instance, if a variable, say x, changes from one fixed value x1 to another x2,
the difference (x2 – x1) is called an increment.
• The symbol Δ, which is read as “delta,” is customarily used to denote the change
or increment.
• If x is the variable, then the symbol Δx, read as “delta x,” denotes the increment of
x.
 The Symbol Δ

• Note that Δ is not a number nor a variable but the symbol Δx is a variable.

• Note also that, in general, an increment of x or Δx may either be positive or

negative, but not zero.
 The Symbol Δ

• The table below shows the comparison between Δ and Δx, Δy, etc.

Symbol Description
Not a variable
Δ Not a number
Denotes change or increment only
A variable
Δx, Δy, etc. Can be positive or negative
Can never be zero
 The Symbol Δ

• Let y be a continuous, single-valued function of x denoted by:

y = f (x) → (1)
• If the independent variable (x) changes from the value x to another value x2 = x +
Δx, the function (y = f (x) ) will also change from y to y + Δy. That is,
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) → (2)
∆𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑦 → (3)
• But we have y = f (x), then substituting it to eq. (3):
∆𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥) → (4)
 The Symbol Δ

• Equation (4) is graphically illustrated in the figure below.

 The Symbol Δ
Example 2.1.1: Defining Δy in terms of x and Δx.
If y = x2, solve for Δy.

Solution:
• A change in the domain Δx will correspond to a change in range (y). Take
note: the change is in the domain. Hence,

𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2

• Transfer ‘y’ to the right side, then,

∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2 −𝑦
 The Symbol Δ
Example 2.1.1: Defining Δy in terms of x and Δx.

Solution:
∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2 −𝑦

• And note that from the given equation, y = x2, substitute it to the equation
above.

∆𝒚 = 𝒙 + ∆𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 → Ans.
 The Symbol Δ
Example 2.1.2: Defining the changes in Area of a Circle
If A = πr 2, solve for ΔA.

Solution:
• 𝐴 + ∆𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟 + ∆r 2

• ∆𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟 + ∆r 2 +𝐴
• ∆𝑨 = 𝝅 𝒓 + ∆𝒓 𝟐 + 𝝅𝒓𝟐 → Ans.
Practice Problems
Define Δy as a function of f (x, Δx).

1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4 𝐴𝑛𝑠: ∆𝑦 = ∆𝑥(∆𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 2)

2. 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠: ∆𝑦 = sin ∆𝑥

 The Derivative of a Function

• If an increment Δy of a function y = f (x) (refers to equation 4) is divided by Δx,

that is,
∆𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥) → From eq. 4
∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥+∆𝑥 −𝑓 𝑥
= → Divide both sides by Δx
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

• the quotient gives the average rate of change of y with respect to x in the interval
from x to Δx.
 The Derivative of a Function

• Also, note that the equation is the difference between the function values divided
by the difference of the x-values and often referred as the difference quotient.

∆𝑦
• Simply, is a measure of the rate at which y is changing with respect x for the
∆𝑥

interval Δx.
 The Derivative of a Function

• Suppose we set x as fixed value and then let the increment Δx vary, approaching
zero. Thus, we define the expression as,
Δ𝑦 𝑓 𝑥+∆𝑥 +𝑓 𝑥
lim = lim
∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑓 𝑥+∆𝑥 +𝑓 𝑥
• As the increment Δx approaches zero, the quotient of approaches a
∆𝑥

limit and that limit is called the derivative of y with respect to x for the given
value of x.
 The Derivative of a Function

• The derivative of y with respect to x is customarily denoted by the symbol:

𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝒙

• There are also other symbols used to denote the derivative, which are:
𝑑
𝐷𝑥 𝑦, 𝐷𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
 The Derivative of a Function

• Stated formally, the derivative of a function may be defined in the following

manner:
Definition 2.1: The Derivative of a Function
The derivative of a function f given by y = f (x) with respect to x at
any x-value in its domain is the number

𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑦 𝑓 𝑥+∆𝑥 −𝑓 𝑥
= lim = lim =
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 ∆𝑥

provided that the limit exists.

 The Derivative of a Function

𝑑𝑦
• The symbol is considered as a single symbol, not as a fraction or a quotient of
𝑑𝑥

two variables or quantities.

∆𝑦
• It should be regarded as the limiting value of the fraction as Δx → 0.
∆𝑥

𝑑
• It can also written and/or interpreted as (𝑦).
𝑑𝑥
 The Derivative of a Function

𝑑𝑦
• The process of finding the derivative of y with respect to x or , when y = f (x) is
𝑑𝑥

known, is called differentiation.

• And if the derivative exists, the function f (x) is said to be a differentiable
function.
• Examples of applying differentiation on other variables and quantities are:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑥2 sin 𝑥 𝐴 𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The Derivative of a Function

• Note:

If the limit exist at x = c, then we can say that the function f is

differentiable at x = c and called as a differentiable function.
 The Derivative of a Function

• The procedure for finding the derivative of a given function may be summarized
in the following four-step rule.
1. Substitute x + Δx for x and y + Δy for y in y = f (x).
2. Substract y = f (x) from the result of (1) to obtain Δy in terms of x and Δx.
3. Divide both sides of (2) by Δx.
4. Find the limit of (3) as Δx approaches zero then substitute it to Δx.
 The Derivative of a Function
Example 2.1.3: Differentiation
Find the derivative of y = x2.

Solution:
• Add the small changes or increments both sides (Δy and Δx)

𝑦 = 𝑥2
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2

• Transfer y to the right to express the equation as Δy and substitute y = x2.

∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2 −𝑦
∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2 − 𝑥2
 The Derivative of a Function
Example 2.1.3: Differentiation
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
• Divide both sides by Δx and apply = lim .
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

∆𝑦 𝑥+∆𝑥 2 −𝑥 2
=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑦 𝑥+∆𝑥 2 −𝑥 2
= lim = lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

• Expand and simplify the numerator.

𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 +2𝑥∆𝑥+∆𝑥 2 −𝑥 2
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
 The Derivative of a Function
Example 2.1.3: Differentiation
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 +2𝑥∆𝑥+∆𝑥 2 −𝑥 2
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

2𝑥∆𝑥+ ∆𝑥 2
= lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

∆𝑥(2𝑥+∆𝑥)
= lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

= lim (2𝑥 + ∆𝑥)

∆𝑥→0
 The Derivative of a Function
Example 2.1.3: Differentiation
Solution:
• Setting Δx = 0, then we have

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 + 0
𝑑𝑥

𝒅𝒚
= 𝟐𝒙 → Ans.
𝒅𝒙
 The Derivative of a Function

• If the notation s = f (t) is used, then by Definition 2.1, the derivative of s with
respect to t is defined as
𝑑𝑠 ∆𝑠
= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑡

• Likewise, we may define

𝑑𝑢 ∆𝑢
= lim If u = f (x)
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑣 ∆𝑣
= lim If v = f (x)
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑉
= lim If V = f (r)
𝑑𝑟 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑟
 The Derivative of a Function
Example 2.1.4: Differentiation
Find the derivative of s = 3t2 – 4.

Solution:
• Add the small changes or increments both sides (Δs and Δt)

s = 3𝑡 2 − 4
s + ∆𝑠 = 3 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 2 −4

• Transfer s to the right to express the equation as Δs and substitute s = 3t2 - 4.

∆𝑠 = 3 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 2 −4 −𝑠
∆𝑠 = 3 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 2 − 4 − (3𝑡 2 − 4)
 The Derivative of a Function
Example 2.1.4: Differentiation
Solution:
𝑑𝑠 ∆𝑠
• Divide both sides by Δt and apply = lim .
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

∆𝑠 3 𝑡+∆𝑡 2 −4 −(3𝑡 2 −4)

=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

𝑑𝑠 Δ𝑠 3 𝑡+∆𝑡 2 −4 −(3𝑡 2 −4)

= lim = lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

• Expand and simplify the numerator.

𝑑𝑠 3𝑡 2 +6𝑡∆𝑡+3 ∆𝑡 2 −4 −3𝑡 2 +4
= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
 The Derivative of a Function
Example 2.1.4: Differentiation
Solution:
𝑑𝑠 3𝑡 2 +6𝑡∆𝑡+3 ∆𝑡 2 −4 −3𝑡 2 +4
= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

6𝑡∆𝑡+3 ∆𝑡 2
= lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

∆𝑡(6𝑡+3∆𝑡)
= lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

= lim (6𝑡 + 3∆𝑡)

∆𝑡→0
 The Derivative of a Function
Example 2.1.4: Differentiation
Solution:
𝑑𝑠
= 6𝑡 + 3(0)
𝑑𝑡

𝒅𝒔
= 𝟔𝒕 → Ans.
𝒅𝒕
Practice Problems
𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑦 𝑓 𝑥+∆𝑥 −𝑓(𝑥)
Using the definition of differentiation, = lim = lim ,
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 𝛥𝑥
solve the following:

𝑑𝑦
1. y = 4x2 – 5x Ans. = 8𝑥 − 5
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
2. y = x3 + 2x Ans. = 3𝑥 2 + 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2
3. 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 Ans.
𝑑𝑥
=
𝑥
 Geometric Significance of dy/dx

• Consider the graph of y = f (x) shown in the figure below.

The lines secant and tangent to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Adapted from “Differential and Integral Calculus, 6th Ed.,” by F.T
Feliciano and F.B. Uy, 1983, Manila, Philippines: Merriam and Webster Bookstore, Inc. Copyright © 1983 by
Merriam and Webster Bookstore, Inc.
Geometric Significance of dy/dx
• Let P(x, y) and Q(x + Δx, y + Δy) be any two
points on the curve.

• Line S, which intersects the curve at P and Q,

and having an angle of inclination α, is called
the secant line of the curve.
Geometric Significance of dy/dx
• Solving for the slope of the secant line S, we
have
∆𝑦
𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = tan 𝛼 =
∆𝑥

𝑓 𝑥+∆𝑥 −𝑓 𝑥
𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
∆𝑥
Geometric Significance of dy/dx
• Line L passing through point P and having
angle of inclination 𝜃 is the tangent line at P (P
remaining fixed) along the curve y = f (x).

• Since point P is a fixed point, the line L serves

as the limiting position of the secant line S as it
approaches the tangent line L or symbolically
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶 → 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽.
Geometric Significance of dy/dx
• The figure below shows the progression, as the secant L approaches to the point of
tangency, as Δx approaches zero (0).

Tangent line approximations. Adapted from “Calculus, 9th Ed.,” by R. Larson and B.H. Edwards, 2010, Belmont,
CA: Brooks/Cole. Copyright © 2010 by Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Geometric Significance of dy/dx
• Hence,
Δ𝑦
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = lim
∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥

𝑓 𝑥+∆𝑥 −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = lim
∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥

• Thus, the derivative of y = f (x) at point P on

the curve is equal to the slope of the tangent
line at P. This is the geometric significance of
𝑑𝑦
the derivative .
𝑑𝑥
 Geometric Significance of dy/dx
• So, we can say that to find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at point
𝑑𝑦
P means that we need to find the value of at that point P. The symbol
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
ቚ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥,𝑦

is commonly used to denote the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at
the point (x, y).
 Geometric Significance of dy/dx
Example 2.1.5: Slope of Line Tangent to a Curve
Find the slope of the line tangent to the curve y = x3 at the point (2, 8).

Solution:
• Add the small changes or increments both sides (Δy and Δx)

y = 𝑥3
y + ∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 3

• Transfer y to the right to express the equation as Δy and substitute y = x3.

∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 3 −𝑦
∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 3 − 𝑥3
 Geometric Significance of dy/dx
Example 2.1.5: Slope of Line Tangent to a Curve
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
• Divide both sides by Δx and apply = lim .
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

∆𝑦 𝑥+∆𝑥 3 −𝑥 3
=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑦 𝑥+∆𝑥 3 −𝑥 3
= lim = lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

• Expand and simplify the numerator.

𝑑𝑦 𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 ∆𝑥+ ∆𝑥 2 + ∆𝑥 3 −(𝑥 3 )
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
 Geometric Significance of dy/dx
Example 2.1.5: Slope of Line Tangent to a Curve
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2 ∆𝑥+ ∆𝑥 2 + ∆𝑥 3
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

∆𝑥 3𝑥 2 +∆𝑥+ ∆𝑥 2
= lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

= lim (3𝑥 2 + ∆𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2 )
∆𝑥→0

= 3𝑥 2 + 0 + 0 2
 Geometric Significance of dy/dx
Example 2.1.5: Slope of Line Tangent to a Curve
Solution:
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

• Hence, the slope of the line tangent to the curve at point (2, 8) is
𝑑𝑦 2
ቚ =3 2
𝑑𝑥 2,8

𝒅𝒚
ቚ = 𝟏𝟐 → Ans.
𝒅𝒙 𝟐,𝟖
Practice Problems
Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph.

3 𝑑𝑦 3
1. y = 𝑥 + 1, (-2, -2) Ans. 𝑑𝑥 ቚ =
2 −2,−2 2

𝑑𝑦
2. y = t2 + 3, (-2, 7) Ans. ቚ
𝑑𝑡 −2,7
= −4

𝑑𝑦
3. y = x3 + 1, (1, 2) Ans. ቚ
𝑑𝑥 1,2
=3