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Department of General Studies, Federal Polytechnic Bauchi

Code: GNS 301/ GNS 311
Title: Use of English III
Class: HND I
Session: 2024 / 2025
Hour: 2 hour / week
COURSE DESCRIPTION
English 301 builds upon GNS 201 and GNS 202. The course is designed to improve your
proficiency and competency in language use, especially structural construction, logical
presentation of ideas in prose writing. At the end of this course, you are expected to:
a. Construct good sentence structures
b. Apply the basic principles of logic to reason
c. Write different types of essays
d. Appreciate Literature in English (Poetry)

COURSE SYLLABUS

GRAMMAR: Sentence: types and their functions. Tenses: types and their usages.
Concord: types and their application.

LOGIC: Conception and basic principles: form validity and argument. Application: Fact
versus opinion. Deductive and inductive reasoning: Premise and conclusion.

ESSAY: Types and characteristics of essays. Logical order of presentation of ideas:

chronological, spatial, general-to-specific (deductive), specific-to-general (inductive), and
alternation. Practice: readings from expository and argumentative essays.

LITERATURE: definition and literature genres. Poetry and terminologies in Poetry:

rhyme, rhythm, enjambment, imagery, paradox, metaphor, assonance, alliteration, stanza,
verse, persona, theme, diction, etc. Practice: analysis of selected poems.

Course assessments and composition of your grade

Depending upon chance, the following would be employed.
1. Written essay for class presentation. 20%.
2. Test 20%.
3. Final examination 60%.
Total: 100%.

Musa Baba
December, 2023.
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GRAMMAR
All natural languages, whether written or spoken, primitive or advanced, are organised from individual
item into group of structures; just as the human society. The conventions or rules a society has for the
construction and use of strings of letters or group of words (such as word, phrase, clause and sentence) to
form structures is similar to those rules that categorisedhumans into various levels of strata.
Grammar is the conventional rules or agreements that govern the construction, production, pronunciation,
arrangements and use of a language in a society. Hence, the guideline that accepts or rejects a word
formation (i.e. spelling, coinage, etc), sentence construction (word grouping and pattern), word and
structure pronunciation (stress, intonnation, rhythm, etc), and usages (conversation, acadmic, etc) is what
is termed GRAMMAR).
Previously you were taught word class and relations. The word class identify individual words according
to its function in the langauge and in a particular conversation such as the Noun, Pronoun, Adjective,
Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Determiner (article), and Interjection. Word relations focused on
how words relates to one another in a sentence. These relationships between words are termed
Synonyms, Antonymy, Hyponymy, Metonymy, Homonymy, Polysemy, Homophony, Metonymy,
Collocation, among others.
However, groupind words to from structures in English language are expressed in three major forms:
Phrase, Clause and Sentence. Although our focus in this course in the last category, it is eseential to
briefly revisit the former two.
A Phrase is a group of words that has no subject, no finite (main) verb and does not express a complete
sense. Phrases are named by their head-words or the functions they perform in the sentence; e.g.:
The tall Childless woman in the black lace besides the high-table is eating the ice cream because of
hunger.
A Clause is a group of words that has a subject, a finite verb and a predicate which may or may not
express complete meaningful thought; e.g.:
The person proposed by the chairman who will deliver the speech had left before the guest arrived.

The clause is divided into: Independent (Main) clause and Dependent (subordinate) clause. The
Independent clause expresses complete thought while the dependent clause lacks complete thought. The
dependency is achieved using an adverbial (when, if, because, etc), a demontrative pronoun (that, which),
a semicolon (;), or a comma (,). Examples are:
1. The referee blew the whistle. The football match began.
The referee blew the whistle when the football match began.
2. The coup began. Shots were fired in the air.
As soon as the coup started, shots were fired in the air.

The sentence is a group of words that has a suject, verb and expresses complete thought. The sentence is
the largest structural group in the English language – others being clauses and phrases. The English
language sentence is studied at two major levels.
A. Traditionally, the sentence is divided two major parts i.e. Subject and a Predicate – and they may
sometimes be in form of compound.
i. The subject is the word or group of words that tells us what or whom the speaker or writer is talking
about.
ii. The predicate makes a statement about the subject, usually telling us what the subject is doing or what
is happening to the subject.
1. My sister and I live in Abuja.
2. The Nigerian president attended a conference in Accra.
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B. Contemporarily, the sentence is seen as a much complex structure, composing of the following
elements:
i. Subject: word or group that tells us what or whom the speaker or writer is talking about.
ii. Predicator (Verb): being the nucleus of the sentence, it tells us what the subject is doing, what is
happening to it or what condition is the subject.
iii. Object: the entity (like the subject though with a lesser prominence) which the subject acted upon.
 Direct object – the entity directly acted upon. Example: The cat killed the rat. The students are taking
lecture.
 Indirect object – the entity affected by the action through another entity. Examples: She sent him a
present.
 Prepositional object – object introduced by a preposition but not a receiver of action. Examples: She
is waiting for Tom. He is with the games. I did not agree with what the doctor said.
iv. Complement: a word, phrase or clause that assigns property to a subject or object.
 Subject complement – Rabi is the Head of Department. Ruth is tired.
 Object complement – We named Rayyan the boss. Mami wiped the counter.
v. Adjuncts (modifiers): phrasal or clausal modifiers in sentences
– Adverbial – They took the road near the market. They bought the gift for the award.
 Prepositional – The book is on the table. The flower is round the building.
 Adjectival – The children played in the field. The choir sang at the funeral.

English Sentence Patterns

Using the five elements SVOAC the following sentence structures or patterns are possible. It is important
to note that any of the sentence elements can be a word, a phrase or a clause as the following sentences
show:
1. V – Sing. Come. Run.
2. SV – She is singing. Birds fly. The Plane has landed. You are joking.
3. SVO – I ate the meat. The students played basketball. My father paid my fees. I drank the drink.
4. SVOO – They gave their friends presents. My father bought my mother a new pair of shoes.
5. SVA – She sings beautifully. Your friend is in the car. The biro was seen on the table.
6. SVC – My brother is a doctor. He has become a commissioner. Shehu is very successful.
7. SVOC – The Company nominated Adams the managing director. His father named him his heir.
8. SVOA – My father put the money in the bank. She hid her handbag somewhere.
9. SVAC – She was formerly a beauty queen. I will remain forever grateful.
10. SVOCA – They elected him chairman each year.

Classification of Sentences
The English sentence is classified based on two parametres:
a. Internal structure: the sentence is classified according to the number of the subjects, main verbs and
modifiers used in the sentence. In other words, the sentence is classified according to the number and
types of clauses contained in them (i.e. dependent and independent clauses). Hence this classification
focuses on the words’ functions in the structures.
b. Function: the sentence is classified according to the discoursive (conversational) role it plays –
statement, question, exclamation and command or request. Here, the sentence is seen as a communication
tool where humans communicate intentions in relations to relationships, topics, field, situation, age,
gender, traditions and norms, among others.
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Classification According Internal Structure

1. The simple sentence
The simple sentence is a group of word that has single subject and single verb which expresses a single
idea. It is an independent clause. The simple sentence is very vital in:
a. Making imperative (command or request) statements.
1. Do not cross the road. You stop right there.
2. Can I have a glass of water? I would like some bread.
b. Presenting a limited amount of information.
1. Food is a basic necessity of man.
2. Global warming is a threat to our survival.
c. Listing items.
1. Cereals, roots and tubers, dried fruits, oils, butter and ghee are all good sources of energy.
2. Milk, egg, liver, fruits and vegetables are protective foods.
3. This includes management for aesthetics, fish, recreation, urban values, water, wilderness, wildlife,
wood products, forest genetic resources and other forest resource values.
d. Giving direction or description.
1. The tired, dirty and footsore travellers straggled wearily across the old bridge, up the hill, and finally,
into the town square.
2. To make Almond Pate Marzipan, Sieve the sugar and almonds. Add the flavorings. Gradually add the
beaten eggs. Mix to a smooth paste. Knead until completely smooth. Store, temporarily, in a plastic bag.
e. Clarifying issues.
1. They are essential for health and regulate activities such as maintenance of body temperature, muscle
contraction, control of water balance, clotting of blood, removal of waste products from the body and
maintaining heartbeat.
2. In addition to satisfying physical and social needs, foods also satisfy certain emotional needs of human
beings.
f. Drawing readers’ attention to a point (conclusion).
1. This type of plan focuses on describing the details of the activity such as which trees are to be cut;
marking method; method of payment; harvesting system; location of roads, skid trails, and landings;
treatment of slash; and erosion control, rehabilitation, or reforestation measures.
2. Food has always been the central part of our community, social, cultural and religious life.
3. Conclusively, forest development and protection is an economical endeavour.
g. Asking question.
1. What do you want from your forest land?
2. What do you want your forest to look like in the future?
3. What about your forest is most important to you?
h. Expressing strong feeling
1. Oh, what a shame. I wish I did not come.

2. The compound sentence

It is a combination of two independent clauses in a single structure. Each clause must be a simple
sentence, consisting of a subject, a predicate and expressing complete thought. Sometimes it or two or
more complex sentences connected together by a conjunction, adverbial or a semi-colon. The compound
sentences are use for:
a. To coordinate statements of equal importance.
1. Foods like fruits, vegetables and nuts can be eaten raw but most foods are cooked to bring about
desirable changes.
b. To put in more emphasis on certain notions.
1. These foods help to maintain life and promote growth; they also supply energy.
2. The author wrote many stories for children and he also wrote a number of poems.
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c. To manage space and words.

1. Whole grains chiefly furnish starch, proteins, minerals, B -Vitamins and fibre; meat does not.
2. Bello will beat himself and Idi too.
d. To compare or contrast two related or divergent ideas within the same structure.
Peter joined the army but his friend went to a university.
e. To paint a vivid picture in an argument presented.
I went to the bank ; I later rushed back for my lectures (semi colon).
3. The complex sentence
It is a structure that contains only one main clause and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses. The
connection is done by the use of: a pronoun (who, whom, that, which), adverbials (before, because, when,
since, while, if), a conjunction (but, nor), a preposition (of, to, from,) or a comma. The underlined words
indicate the main clauses. The complex sentence is used for:
a. The complex sentence makes important ideas stand out from the lesser ones to help readers easily
locate and differentiate major ideas from the details in a text.
1. She wore the blouse and the perfume which her son gave her.
b. It helps writers provide additional information to clarify ideas in same sentence.
1. When he spoke to me, I refused to answer him because he was very impolite.
c. Convey cause and effect: When the manuscript is edited, the company will publish it.
1. Because the student did not pass the test, he fails the course.
2. The President will sign the bill into law if the Parliament pass its resolution.
4. The compound-complex sentence
It consists of two or more main clauses and at least one subordinate one. Sometimes two complex
sentences are joined together using coordinators or subordinators to form the compound-complex
sentence. Impliedly this sentence type is usually the longest among the sentence types we have in English
language. That is why it has the capacity to accommodate a lot of ideas, details and expresses series of
events. Writers use this type of sentence:
a. To narrate a story or to describe events, ideas, actions, things or person.
After a few weeks of stay with her parents Tasalla’s mother was becoming too disturbed, especially when
her husband said to her that he and his learned friends and acquaintances had tried all they knew yet
they were not able to identify any problem with Tasalla nor did they feel confident that she would be
able to make a wife for another husband.
b. To compare or contrast ideas in an elaborate sense.
1. Bello joined the army after he graduated from school but Idi went for business because he needed to
join the family business.
c. To convey cause and effect.
1. As soon as it starts raining, farmers begin to plant and they always hope that the rains will come
regularly.
d. To elaborate on a chain of ideas or events or extend reasoning.
1. Before he gained admission into the university, his mother was always worried and she never stopped
planning what he would do when he finished his university education.
2. Here, you will learn the food materials you will need in making cake and you will identify all
possible faults that may possible occur while preparing or making cake.

5. Multiple Sentences
A multiple sentence is a sentence that has at least three main clauses and no subordinate clause.
The multiple sentences are use for:
a. Drawing an apt conclusion.
1. I came, I saw, I conquered.
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b. Summarising a sieries ofevents or actions.

1. Mary cooked breakfast ; Augusta washed the dishes and Tom swept the compound.
2. My mother was excited at the news ; she sang and danced and she cried simultaneously.
Types of sentences
Sentence type No. of independent clause No. of dependent clause
Simple 1 0
Compound 2 0
Complex 1 1 or more
Compound-Complex 2 1 or more
Multiple 3 0

Each sentence type has its specific functions and usage in writing. However using too much a sentence
type consecutively can make a text seem immature, too rigid and boring. Therefore, balancing between
these sentences is highly recommended in any form of text.

Class Activity 1. Study the following sentences according to both traditional and current methods.
Cereals are an important and economic source of energy. Hundred grams of cereals supply 340 kilo
calories of energy. Cereals are also a significant source of proteins (8 – 11 percent) in the diets of people
whose staple food is cereals. However, cereal protein is incomplete as it lacks an essential amino acid,
lysine. This lack is made up when cereals are eaten along with other protein foods such as dhals, pulses
and milk. Wheat flour contains glutelin and gliadin as proteins which are commonly known as gluten.
The strength of the wheat flour is based on the quality of gluten used. Whole grains chiefly furnish
starch, proteins, minerals, B -Vitamins and fibre. Refined cereals lose part of the protein, minerals, and B
- Complex vitamins in milling. They contain a little more starch than whole cereals. Whole grains contain
more vitamins, minerals and fibre than refined grain and are valuable dietary sources of iron, phosphorus,
thiamine and fibre.
Classification According to Grammatical Functions
A. Declarative: a sentence that gives information in form of statements or claims, expressed either
positively or negatively, in a conversation. These are also referred to as affirmative or assertive.
1. The athletes ran down the street.
2. My sister is a teacher.
3. I would like to know your name.
B. Interrogative: a sentence that solicits for information; inquires or asks a direct question.
1. Did you bring your camera?
2. Where did you buy your watch?
3. Why do people work?
C. Imperative: a sentence that solicits or incites action of another person either politely (request) or
authoritatively (command).
1. Would you get out of the way! Do not cross the field! Shut the door! Stop! (command).
2. Give me your pen, please. Would you like some tea? Come this way, gentlemen. (request).
D. Exclamatory: a sentence that expresses strong feeling or shows emotions. Examples are:
Alas, she is dead!
Life is short!
Who goes there!
I do not have it!
Oh! What a mess!
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Homework: Study the following sentences according to both traditional and current methods.
1. Construct 10 sentences each for the five types of sentences.
2. Read an excerpt from any text and identify the various sentence types in it.

TENSES
The “tense” is an aspect of the verb that tells the time of the action, situation, or event in relation to the
time of reporting i.e. the time the speaker is reporting. This relation is indicated by the ‘verb’ usually by
changing its form. The English language has three tenses – the present, past and future– each with its
subtypes.
The Present Tense
The Simple Present Tense
It is formed by using the “base/simple” form of the verb. The simple present tense has the simple form of
the verb (called plain infinitive), with “-s or –es” added when it is a third person singular subject. The
simple present tense reports action or event that occurs at the moment of report. The action could be
repeated habitually. It is also use to cite an author.
1. The car is arrives. 2. He goes for a walk every morning. 3. Joshua says, “I will come home
when I finish the work”.
The Present Continuous Tense
It is constructed by using the verb “be” (is/am/are) with the gerund “-ing” form of the verb (called the
present participle). This tense describes future plans or a particular action in progress at the time of report
which could continue upto a period of time in the future.
1. Ifeoma and Titi are singing a lullaby. 2. I am going there. 3. She is writing another book this
year. 4. He is seeing the doctor on Tuesday.
The Present Perfect Tense
It is formed by using “has or have + third form (past participle)” of the verb. This tense is use to describe
action that was just finished or have started in the past but has connection with the present, or to describe
an action that was repeated before now.
1. Ronke has opened the door for the visitors. 2. Muyiwa and I have washed the plates.
2. I have seen many movies. Daniel has written many books. 4. We have driven this car to 10 cities.
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense
: It is formed by adding “have or has + been + -ing form of the verb + since or for”. This describes an
action that began in the past which is still going on at the moment of report and that the action may
continue into the future with or without a specific mention of time.
1. The farmers have been tilting the field for two hours now. 2. Jane has been living in Gombe since
1980. 3. I have been thinking about looking for a new job. 4. I have been walking forever.

The Past Tense

The Simple Past Tense
This is constructed by using the “second form of the verb”. The past tense reports actions or conditions
that are concluded, narrate stories or express facts that are no longer true.
1. Edgar bought a new television set. Mr. and Mrs. Smith travelled to Calabar.
2. We were happy yesterday.
3. I was preparing to leave for the airport. Suddenly, I heard a call at the door. I hesitated for a while
before answering it. The face got me startled as I became short of any action.
4. Dinosaurs lived on the Asian continent.
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The Past Continuous Tense

The use “was or were + -ing form of the verb”. The past progressive tense is use to describe action in
progress in the past which could span over a period of time or to show that two actions occurred
concurrently in the past. It also reports short temporary actions in the past.
1. The children were playing in the field.
2. Obi and I were visiting our friends yesterday when we saw our english teacher.
3. When our plane landed this afternoon, it was raining.
The Past Perfect Tense
This is formed by using “had + third form (i.e. past participle) form of the verb”. The past perfect tense is
use to report an action or event that was absolutely completed in the past which could result in another
action in the past; to show two actions took place where one preceded the other and to expresse a
hypothetical condition or to report a direct speech.
1. She had cried. The enemy had surrendered.
2. I had already seen the house before I bought it.
3. I had never seen an ostrich until I visited my Uncle’s farm in the Village. Bob had already taught
his class before he took his son to the game. Joel had looked after the baby on several
occasions before the encounter with the hyenas took place.
4. If Karim had looked for his wife during the day, she would not have got lost.
5. Karim said to his wife, “I wish you have not fallen into the river”.
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense
The tense is formed using the “had + been + -ing form + since or for” to form this tense. The tense
shows duration of an activity that was in progress before another event in the past
or to describe activity or condition that has connection with the present moment
with or without mention of time.
1. I have been studying for two hours before I took a walk.
2. At that time, he had been writing a book for two months.
3. Her hair was wet because she had been running in the rain since morning.
4. He had been living in Biu since 1990.

The Future Tense

The future tense indicates action or conditions in the future. It is a tense use to tell about actions that are
yet to occur with the use of the auxiliaries ‘shall’ and ‘will’ with a main verb. ‘Shall’ is used after the
personal pronoun (I, we) except the purpose of the sentence is to express willingness, intention, a firm
promise or a strong determination. ‘Will’ is used after the personal pronouns and after all nouns.
The Simple Future Tense
This tense is formed by using “will or shall or is going to + first form of the verb”. The tense is use to
report or predict forthcoming actions or events which could be spontaneous. It also expresses promises or
willingness to do something as well as possibilities or expectations in the future.
1. I shall go to the University next week. He will go to college next summer.
2. I think he will not attend the party.
3. Okon will give you a computer for your birthday. The phone is ringing and I will get that for
you.
4. It will rain tomorrow. It is going to rain. The test is going to be difficult.

The Future Progressive Tense

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This tense is formed by using “will or shall + be + -ing form of the verb”. It reports an action in progress
at a time in the future with or without emphsis of the time duration. It also indicates that two actions will
take place in the future where the first action may be interrupted by the second action.
1. I will be playing golf at six in the evening.
2. Professor Daudu will be giving an inaugural lecture on Friday.
3. When you arrive in Jos, he will be sleeping.
4. I will be doing my homework when the lecturer comes.
Future Perfect Tense
This tense is formed by using “will + perfect tense + past participle of the verb”. The tense
shows action would have been completed by some time in the future or to show that an action would have
been completed in the future before another action will take palce.
1. She would have read the book by the time you leave.
2. The last train would have left by next hour.
3. Professor Bello would have ended the lecture before we arrived.
4. We should have left for Lagos qhen the meeting starts.

The Future Perfect Progressive Tense

This tense is formed by using “will or shall + have + been + -ing form of the verb + since or for”. The
tense reports an action will continue upto to a particular event or time in future and emphasise the duration
of action in the future that will still be in progress at a certain time.
1. They would have been talking for over an hour by the time you arrive.
2. I would have been waiting for her for three hours when she arrives.
3. I would have been attending Shoreline Seminar for two years next September.
4. I would have been studying at Federal Polytechnic Bauchi for 2 years when I
graduate.

CONCORD
Concord refers to agreement between various components or entities use in a sentence or in sentences to
make sense, foster understanding, and to communicate effectively. Agreement is essential in producing
Standard English utterances and structures. Therefore, it is important to maintain Agreement in terms of
number, case, person, gender, tense, and voice. Common problems or mistakes amongs language learners
are caused by inconsistencies in the use of:
 Subject and Verb Agreement
 Pronoun and Noun Antecedent Agreement (N)
 Time and Verb (Tense) Agreement
 Voice Agreement (shifts)

a. Subject/Verb agreement
A verb must agree in number with its subject.
1. Singular subject takes singular Verb: The news is terrifying. English is a difficult subject.
2. Plural subject takes plural Verb: His surroundings are unkind. The chairs are expensive.
3. Singular subject connected by a coodinating conjuction with another singular subject takes a plural
verb: The boy and the girl are lazy. Pleasure and hard work do not mix.
4. Plural subject connected by a coodinating conjuction with another plural subject takes a plural verb:
Ladies and gentlemen were invited. Some fathers and mothers are very strict.

Exceptions:
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1. Where a Singular subject is connected with subordinating conjunctions (“with”, “as well as” or
“together with”) the singular verb is used. For example: The boy with his sister is here. Gambling in
addition to women is Godwin’s Achilles heel. The king together with his chiefs encourages theyouth to
study hard.
2. When a compound subject joined by “and or but” is perceived as a single unit or refers to the same
person, the singular verb is used. For example: Bread and butter is ready. Gari and Agusi soup is tasty.
Trial and error results in success. My sister and confidant is very hard working. My brother and rival
shares tha same opinion on this matter.
3. When a single subject is connected to another single subject with a correlative conjunction, the singular
verb is used. For example: Neither the teacher nor the student is here. Either Viola or Talatu plays the
drum. Not only Adamawa but Osun has it.
4. When the subjects joined by the correlatives conjunctions differ in number, the verb agrees with the
closest noun. For example: Neither the students nor the teacher is quite ready. Either the student or the
teachers are not prepared.
5. When a collective noun is followed by “of” and “a plural noun” the singular verb is used. For example:
A team of athletes is leaving for Paris tonight. The case of instrument is lost. A flock of sheep crosses the
road.
6. Where the first person pronoun ‘I’ or the second person pronoun (singular or plural) is use, the plural
verb is used. For example: I have (not has/had) warned Sola. You are tired. You have to speak.
7. When the indefinite pronoun (everyone, everybody, somebody, someone, each, every. etc) is use, the
singular verb is always used. Everybody knows his place. One does not have to blame anyone for his
mistakes. Nobody is perfect. Each window and door is securely locked after closing hour.
8. Some nouns donot take plural form. They are inherently singular (water, honey, sand, dust, furniture,
equipment, instrument, etc). Therfore use the singular verb. Water is life. Honey is sweet. Sand is heavy.
9. Some nouns can be used as both singular and plural form (i.e. collective nouns: choir, team, class,
audience, congregation, army, jury, etc). They take singular or plural verb depending on their use. The
problem lies in consistency with regards to shift in number and pronoun antecedent. Examples: The choir
is singing its (not their) song. The teams are doing their (not its) best. The army are determined to probe
its (their) officers.

B. Pronoun – Noun Antecedent Agreement

A pronoun must agree in case, number, person and gender with its antecedent noun.

Case Number Person

First Second Third
Subjective Singular I You He / She
Plural We You They
Objective Singular Me You Him/Her
Plural Us You Them
Gender Masculine He, His, and Him
Feminine She, Her, and Hers
Nueter It, Me, Us, We, They, Them, etc.
Indefinite Pronoun: are always Somebody, One, None, All,
use in the third person singular. Everybody, Each, Everyone, etc.

1. Number
A pronoun replacing a noun must have the same number as the noun it replaces.
The jury has given its verdict. The kind and the wicked have their place in fiction. Neither the student nor
the teacher lost his ticket.
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2. Gender
Pronoun replacing a noun must a masculine if the noun is male, feminine if the noun is female and nueter
if the noun is neither male nor female.
Lawandi is here and he is in the reception. Life is difficult yet there is nothing one can do about it. Look at
that lady; I believe she is sick.

3. Case
A subject in a sentense must be replaced with a subjective pronoun while an object must be replaced with
an objective pronoun.
Bello is strong and he is naturally endowed. Ado forgave the slander but warned him to desist from the
act. When asked about the incident, Nasiru said, “Yes, Obasanjo told me”.
4. Person
The pronoun replacing noun must be a first person if the noun is the first person case, a second person or
third person as the case may be.
Talatu is good student because she passed all her courses with ‘B’ grades. Obasanjo told Nasiru that you
need to be stupid sometimes to govern well in Nigeria. Ado was ecited with the results when he says, I
have passed.

C. Verb – Tense agreement

The aspect of the verb which indicates time of action or condition must agree with the reporting verb. If
the reported time is in the past then the verb must be in the past form; if it indicates action or conding yet
to happen, the verb must be in the future form and if the action reported is at the moment of report, the
verb must be in the base/infinitve form.
a. Madam Cycilia is the HOD. Malam Bello occupies the office of the head in the department.
b. Madam Cycilia was an odinary lecturer before she was elected the HOD.
c. Mallam Bello will become the Dean of the school after his tenure as the HOD.

D. Voice agreement
Shift in voice may results in the shift of subject or change in person in the sentence.
1. He abhorred injustice (av) and all workers were treated kindly by him (pv).
2. He stood up (av), spoke sternly (av), and was seated (pv).
3. They dragged him (av) tortured him (av) and was murdered (pv).
4. We were punished (pv), but they praised him (av).

Exceptions: there are three situations where you can use the passive voice.
1. When the active subject is unknown or cannot be easily expressed. A man was shot. A cry was heard. A
need was felt.
2. When the active subject is self-evident from the context. The man was killed. The food was eaten. The
singers were praised.
3. When tact and delicacy of sentiment is needed. We should have been informed. The worker should
have been dismissed.
4. For stylistic effects, one can shift voices. e.g. We stated the fact (av) but doubted they were (pv).
5. If the subject is maintained: Although he managed to hide safely for two hours (av) he was finally
cornered and arrested by the Police (pv). The thief twisted through heavy traffic to elude the police (av).
He was almost trapped between a bus and a lorry (pv) but squeezed through and sped on (av).

Class activity 2: study the agreement mistakes presented in the followings. Some could be accepted as
informal usage (the parenthetical option) of the language:
a. None of the boys have (has) done the work.
 Page 12 of 26

b. Everybody brought their (his) books to (the) class.

c. Neither Judy nor Solo have (has) come.
d. Who (Whom) did you call?
e. It’s me (It is I).
f. Kunle is taller than me (I).
g. They say (It was said) that the President have (has) fired (dismissed) the former NSA.
h. We were surprised at them (their) being so noisy.
i. My dad (father) is worried at us (our) being jobless (unemployed).
j. We rushed to the party but nobody is (was) there.
k. The novel described (describes) how Ikemefuna was (is) killed by his step father to appease the gods.
l. If you take good food when hungry, one (you) feels (feel) satisfied.
m. I enjoy farming because it makes us/you (me) appreciate nature.
n. We hate examination because it makes me/one/you (us) nervous.
o. For one to succeed in the examinations, I (one) must study hard.

LOGIC
Introduction
At one time or another students will be required to write composition essays, assignments, tests,
examinations, term papers, projects or laboratory reports. It follows that readers would want to see a good
and logical argument and presentation of information. As student writer you would equally want to
achieve the desired goal you set out to achieve – i.e. persuading someone to side with your opinion,
convincing your teachers to agree with your points so that you score high marks, proving a claim you
proposed, presenting data you researched either in the field or from other secondary sources, etc. The
following terms are basic and worth noting.
Logic: it is the science or art of reasoning base on available data.
Reasoning: the process of thinking in an orderly manner based on available information in order to arrive
at an orderly and convincing conclusion. It involves identifying, recognizing, recollecting, analysing,
synthesising, inferencing, and presentation of rational results that can be remembered in future – either
asserting a claim or rejecting it.
Issues: a situation full of uncertainty about whether or not to accept or reject a claim, or about what to do
or not do.
Statements: a pronouncement of claims subject to scrutiny in other to either accept it as true or to reject it
as false. They are presented in form of proposition, assertion, judgment, hypothesis, principle, thesis or
law. Examples of statement that make a claim include: the sun rises from the east. Loose objects are
always attracted to the ground. However, suggestions, commands or proposals are not statements. As in: I
suggest we should get a new refrigerator. Stand back! Let us quit studying.
Premises: are statements that serve as reasons or evidences in an argument in order to proof or support the
claim made in the argument. It could be inform of definition, explanation, expansion, elaboration,
highlighting, exemplification, instances, comparison, contrast, illustration, analysis, synthesis, concurring,
qualifying, negating, describing, narrating, evaluating, summarising, transitioning etc.
Conclusion: it is the judgement one make based on factual premises.
Inference: the process of drawing educated conclusions (guess) from evidences and reasoning (premises)
about an event or object based on observation, background context and previous information, usually after
an investigation. For example: data collected from drug trials infer that it can cure a disease; giving an
intervention in organisation to employees infer that employees productivity will be enhanced; if someone
gives you a package of ‘pen’ and says its full of ‘Bic’, you can infer that every item in the pack is a ‘Bic’;
if you picked out a ‘Bic’ from a pack of biros - then another -, you can infer that all the biros in the pack
are ‘Bic’; if yo know that, if it rains the ground gets wet, when you see the ground wet you can infer that it
 Page 13 of 26

had rained recently; if you see someone eating a new dish and he is making a face you can infer that he
does no like the food; if someone slams a door behind him, you can infer that he is angry about something.
Types of infrences are induction, deduction, and abduction.
Proof: is a convincing argument that should convince the audience – i.e. a valid argument.
Argument: is a conclusion supported by one or more premises (reasons). For example the statement:
Valid Argument (Validity): an argument is said to be valid if and only if its conclusion follows from its
premises and it convince. It is an argument in which the claim, the premises and the conclusion are all
found to be true.

Bello cheated during the examination

I saw Bello looking at Ado’s paper during the examination.
Bello and Ado got the same questions wrong.
They also got the same questions right.
They have same choices of words, expressions, strutures and organisation.
Bello must have cheated.
We cannot allow cheating.
Therefore, someone should discipline Bello.

Factual argument: an argument is factual if and only if all of its premises are true. We can say that the
following is a factual argument:
Mathmatics is the science of numbers.
Numbers are categorised as odd and even numbers
All odd numbers are integers (digits).
All even numbers are integers (digits).
Therefore, all odd numbers are even numbers.

Sound argument: an argument is sound if and only if it is both factual and valid argument. A good
example could be seen in argument.
All living things are mortal
All creatures are living things
All human beings are creatures
Hassan is a human being
Therefore, Hassan is mortal.

Logical Fallacy: a situation where an error occurs in the process of reasoning due to false dilemma,
faulty sampling, stereotyping, Ad hominem (deviation / attacking persons) or post-hoc (past event).
If you are not with us; you are against us. (False dilemma)

Yesterday you left for school at 7:15 a.m. and you arrived on time.
Today you left for school at 7:15 a.m. and you arrived on time.
Therefore, if you leave at for school at 7:15 a.m. you will always arrive on time. (Faulty sampling)

All English teachers are boring

Ladi is an English teacher
Therefore, Ladi is boring. (Stereotyping)
Mr Buba have been teaching Citizenship for our class in the Polytechnic
Mr Buba will teach this year
Definitely, it is Mr Buba who will take us Citizenship this year. (Post hoc)
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Class activity:
Argument 1:
If an animal is a dog, then it is a mammal.
Charlie is not a dog.
Therefore, Charlie is not a mammal.
Argument 2:
If Bello does not finish his homework on time, he will not go to the party.
Bello did not go to the party.
Therefore, Bello did not finish his homework on time.

Types of reasoning
a. Deductive reasoning:
Deductive argument claims that it is logically necessary if the premises are all true so should be the
conclusion. In other words, it is an argument in which the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the
conclusion. That if the premises are true and verified then, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be
false. This is because accurate points will always lead to an accurate conclusion or results. Otherwise,
erroneous points or analysis must lead to erroneous conclusion or results.
In this form of reasoning the presenter begins with a statement of claim in form of general idea. She then
breaks down these ideas into bits of convincing information in form of definition, explanation, expansion,
elaboration, highlighting, exemplification, instances, comparison, contrast, illustration, analysis, synthesis,
concurring, qualifying, conceding, negating, describing, narrating, evaluating, summarising, transitioning
etc. She makes her conclusion base on the points presented in form of remark, declaration, assertion,
affirmation, condemnation, rejection, etc.
This process is usually seen in most academic writings (test, assignment, term paper, seminar paper,
project, etc) where students attempt to answer various questions during assessments. The pattern is usually
presented in descending or outline in paragraphs – such as:

I. A. Topic sentence Claim

1. Supporting sentence
2. Examplification sentence
3. Illustration sentence
4. Comparison or Contrasting sentence Premises
B. Concluding sentence Conclusion / Argument

This can further be seen in a composition essay as:

Topic = Introductory paragraph Claim
Proof 1 = paragraph 2
Proof 2 = paragraph 3
Proof 3 = paragraph 4
Proof 4 = paragraph 5
Proof ... = paragraph 6 (body paragraphs) Premises
Conclusion = Concluding paragraph Judgement

The format can be elaborated much further in a more serious academic writing known as “term paper”,
“seminar paper”, research reports”, etc. Usually it takes, haphazardly, the following structure.
Topic statement
Claim = Section A / Introduction
Proof 1 = Section B / Literature review
Proof 2 = Section C / Methodology
 Page 15 of 26

Proof 3 = Section D / Data analysis or discussion of data

Proof 4 = Section E / Data synthesis or data presentation
Proof 5 = Section F / Presentation of results
Judgement = Section G / Conclusion and recommendation

When it comes to a most advanced form of academic writing done in a wider perspective during the end of
each academic programme in the tertiary level of education “research project”; the format looks like the
following.
Claim = Chapter One / Introduction
Proof 1 = Chapter Two / Review of related literature
Proof 2 = Chapter Three / Research methodology
Proof 3 = Chapter Four / Data presentation and aAnalysis
Conclusion = Chapter Five / Summary, conclusion & recommendation

Most students use one common category of deductive thinking i.e. “if” ... “then”. The “if” refers to the
“proof” while the “then” refers to the “conclusion”. This can also be seen as the process of “cause and
effect” or “trial and success”. This form of argument presentation (statement-premises-proof-conclusion)
is the simplest way of reasoning that is why it is so popular in academic writing especially among student
writers. Students use solid, logical and accurate deductive reasoning by outlining major points (thesis
statement); support them with evidences and proofs using various techniques as: definition, explanation,
elaboration, highlighting, exemplification, instances, comparison, contrast, illustration, analysis, synthesis,
qualifying, negating, describing, narrating, evaluating, etc; and then conclude with a strong assertion or
objection of their claims. However one should be cautious as erroneous claims (false) supported by
erroneous evidences (premises) leads to false conclusion (logical fallacy).
Deductive reasoning only works when both major and minor premises are true. When using deductive
technique, one should avoid making generalisations in the premises by using terms such as “only, all,
every, must, etc”. This is because there is high tendency for falsifying one’s statement especially when
one’s evidences are weak to justify one’s claim. However if a student uses words as “most, almost,
majority, etc” his propositions run less risk of being rejected but could be criticise of being weak,
uncertain, and vague.
b. Inductive argument:
This is a form of reasoning where the arguer begins with a specific piece of information and then proceeds
to form a larger generalised conclusion. In this argument the premises provided intends to be strong so
that the truth of the conclusion is only supported on probability or possibility of being true. The premises
provide that if the proof is true then it is highly unlikely that the conclusion would be false. Take the
following examples:

The grass got wet when it rains

Therefore, the grass always gets wet when it rains.
Susan is a member of the Williams’ family
Nathan is a member of the Williams’ family
Alexander is a member of the Williams’ family
Susan wears glasses
Nathan wears glasses
Alexander wears glasses
Therefore, all members of the Williams family wear glasses.
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Hassan is mortal
Hassan is a human being
All human beings are creatures
All creatures are living things
Therefore, all living things are mortal

In all the three arguments above, there is no adequate supporting evidence to the conclusions made. The
proof can only provide strong possibilities for the conclusion. In inductive logic the presenter begins with
the proof (examples, or instances) and proceeds to the conclusion before he makes his claim.
Inductive reasoning takes very wide range of forms including: arguments dealing with statistical data,
generalisation from past experiences, appeals to signs, evidence or authority and casual relationships.
Therefore, inductive reasoning requires a lot of data/information adequate for generalisations. The more
data you provide, the easier it is for your audience to make necessary conclusion from the points you are
trying to make.

Facts versus Opinion

Many students when faced with rather simple question they stumbled, startled and get amusingly
confused. For example stop some students and ask them “what is fact?” or ask “what is opinion?” you will
be surprised to many responses. One of the most difficult tasks in studentship is the ability to distinguish
facts from fables, facts from opinions, true from untrue.
Facts are true, real and established information, events or situations while opinion is one’s feeling, belief,
view, perception or thought about event, situation, thing or subject matter. One of the most difficult tasks
in comprehension is to be able to distinguish facts from the writer’s opinion; true from un-established
facts. Of course do not be surprised if your facts are someone’s opinions. The way we view life differs
but, on the whole, certain facts remain facts regardless of age, ideology, class, and experience.
Read the following texts and analyse its arguments as to:
i. What form of reasoning does the writer use?
ii. Does the premises provide guarantee for that conclusion or is it just possibility?
iii. Which sentence present fact?
iv. Which presents opinion?
v. What proof could you find from the texts that will support your judgment?
vi. How do you differentiate between fact and opinion?

Class activity 3: study the passage and differentiate facts from opinion.
Subsidising Education: Francis Sackitey, Aksombo, Ghana.
That formal education is the bedrock for the development of every nation cannot be overemphasised.
Almost every class of people in Ghana desires to see their children reach the highest rungs of the
education ladder. Unfortunately, the cost of education in Ghana has become so expensive that only the
rich are able to send their children to school. Fees that parents pay each academic term, especially at the
tertiary level, are higher than five months salary of a well paid civil servant in Ghana. The majority of the
country’s youth are therefore slouching on the streets, unable to go to school. The frustration that many of
the youth go through compels them to turn to crime. If Ghana is going to catch up with the rest of the
world, then the government must subsidise education for the people of Ghana.

ESSAY
You need to be versed in writing different kinds of essays because of both current academic challenges
and future societal expectations of a person of your calibre. Much is expected of you in the labour market
and socially as a citizen of any community. As a student, at one time or another, you will be required to
write something ranging from jotting down lecture notes, writing a seminar paper, assignment, letter,
 Page 17 of 26

essay, report, test or examination. The ability to communicate through writing is a skill which takes time
and effort to master. The mastery involves specific skills, methods and techniques on planning, outlining,
organisation, paragraph development, vocabulary building, sentence patterns and structure, punctuations,
spellings, tenses and logical presentation i.e. chronological, spatial, general-specific, specific-general, etc.
Generally, essays have various purposes: to inform, to persuade, to entertain, to narrate, to clarify, to
describe, etc. Essays are basically divided into three segments:

A. The introduction presents the thesis statement; delimitations of the topic; composition’s structure and
organisation; instructional statements; and purpose and objectives of the essay in such a way that it will
spark, arose and retain the interest of the readers. Most introductions involve stating empirical studies,
citing references, presenting statistics, given illustrations, raising a claim, presenting a problem, describing
methods of investigation or discussion, recounting history, allusion or parable, presenting main issues to
be discussed in the essay as well as the style adopted i.e. exposition, argumentation, description or
narration.
B. The body reflects and develops the introduction by containing all the background details as evidences
to support the writer’s argument or possible counter-arguments. Paragraphs are well developed; ideas are
connected and details are presented through discussions, commentaries, exemplification, illustrations,
demonstrations, explanations, comparison, contrast, etc. The writer may exhibit some methods in the
essay - collection, description, analysis, cause-effect, problem-solution, and comparison which eventually
leads to the desired purpose.
C. The conclusion is a statement of the fulfilment of an obligation executed with a sense of subtlety. It
ends the essay by either summarising points, emphasising point, commenting opinion on the topic,
drawing connections shown in form of rhetoric question; and strong statement of intent or belief.

Expository Essay
The expository essay is any type of essay or writing that is used to describe, explain or inform the reader
on a specific or particular aspect of a topic. You may be required to give in-depth information or
demonstrate in-depth knowledge of the circumstances surrounding a particular thing or situation. It is
mush expected that you bring to the fore some verifiable facts, elaborate further, detailed in accurate
explanation about the topic discussed. For example, how certain machine operates how things are made,
or how certain equipments works. Since the writer is explaining things, then most of the essay should
centred on analyses, classification, exemplification, comparisons, and contrast. Depending on the topic
tenses are chosen but the dominant tense is usually the simple present tense using the active voice. Below
are some of the steps we need to take while planning to write an expository essay. Some c haracteristics
are:
1. Expository texts are more formal devoid of informal features.
2. Expository texts discuss issues, things, objects, concepts and plans.
3. Expository texts are organized in logical, sequential order.
4. Expository texts explain vividly and interestingly.
5. Expository texts are purely factual. Truths are to be guarded very jealously.
6. All points are to be supported with concrete evidences.
7. They should not contain exaggerations, lies, illogicality and clumsiness in expository texts.

Passage 1: Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.
Probably the most significant discovery in all chemistry, aside from the atomic nature of matter, was that
of the periodic properties of the elements, now depicted in the familiar periodic table of the elements. The
chemical properties of this table are probably familiar to most readers; the physical properties will be
discussed later. The table was proposed independently by Meyer and by Mendeleev in 1869. Its
usefulness lay both its regularities and in its irregularities. One interesting irregularity in the original table
was that in order to have the element fall in positions consistent with their chemical properties, it was
 Page 18 of 26

necessary to leave numerous spaces unoccupied. Mendeleev suggested that these spaces would be filled
with as yet undiscovered element: Using his table, he was able to describe in considerable detail the
properties these elements could be expected to have when they were discovered. It was nearly one
hundred years before all these predictions of Mendelee were fulfilled.
Reflect, for a moment, on the vast simplification that the atomic view of matter provides. Looking about
us, we see innumerable kinds of materials. The atomic view indicates that these materials are of discrete
kinds whose number, however large, is not infinite. The discovery of elements is a further simplification i
that the many materials we encounter are shown to be composed of only about one hundred chemically
distinguishable materials, many of which are rare. It turns out that even these elements are not a
heterogeneous group but are subject to further classification into a periodic table. The problems of
chemistry are many, but it is easy to see that things are much simpler than might at first appear.
(Source: Richards, J. et. al. (1977) Modern University Physics. Reading: Addison Wesley Publishing Co.)

Questions
1. Identify the components of a periodic table.
2. Why is periodic table a useful chemical tool?
3. Describe the periodic table as presented on the passage.
4. Comment on the language of science as presented in the article titled periodic table.

Class Activity 2: Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.
Organizational structure is a powerful determinant of organizational behavior where executives are
constantly wrestling with how to structure the various functions in their firms i.e. whether or not to
centralize or decentralize. Despite what many executives seem to think, there is much more to
organizational design than just rearranging its structure. It is worth knowing that the organization chart
does not necessarily reflect actual reporting or decision-making relationships in an organization.
Organizational structure reflects the way in which work in an organization is divided which includes the
nature of an organization’s leadership, the various systems operating in it, and organizational culture.
Organizational structure is the framework or design of reporting relationships in an organization usually
diagrammed in form of an “organization chart”. It is the system or processes that attempt to coordinate
divisions of work; defines the spatial relationships; influences power relationships among its various
parts; and provides the framework within which the body organizes its resources to accomplish its task.
In the organization these might include the recruiting, management development, reward, information
processing, performance appraisal and promotion, purchasing, materials handling, grievance,
communications, production, accounting, and financing systems (and others).
When one thinks about how to structure an organization, either creating a new one or attempting to
change an existing one, knowledge of a number of design principles helps to shed light on the problem.
These principles include (but not exclusively) fit, differentiation and integration, technology, size, span of
control (centralization or decentralization), staffing, unity of command, and line vs. staff. Obviously, the
synergy between a skeleton and its various dynamic systems is critical to the organism’s success; this is
also true of organizations. If the structure does not fit the strategy of the organization and the various
systems operating within it, organizational effectiveness will be compromised.
Structures that do not fit their environments or series of internal systems will be much less effective; like
bodies in which the muscles have been attached to the skeleton in random fashion—producing
unnecessary tension and counter-effort where none is needed. For example, if an organization is
structured around self-directed teams but the reward system only recognizes individual performance,
employees will waste time and energy trying to reconcile the two. The wisdom and judgment required in
assessing whether and how organizational environment, structure, and systems might be aligned or
misaligned comes with theoretical understanding and application, experience, and creativity.
 Page 19 of 26

Organizational structures reveal much about the way senior management thinks about the nature and key
activities of its business. Insights into senior management’s thinking about strategic direction lie in an
analysis of the structure—and the changes therein—that they built.
Questions:
1. Suggest a suitable title for the passage.
2. Discuss the organasition of the passage.
3. What is the structural type of the underlined sentence?
4. How can businessman organise or improve his organisational structure?
5. Why would you have the knowledge of organisational structure?
6. Why does the writer feels that it is important to know much about organisations structure?
7. Identify statements in the text as:
a. facts
b. opinion
8. Identify ths following sentence structure in the passage:
a. Two simple sentences
b. Two complex sentences
c. One compound sentences
d. Compound-complex sentences.
9. Summarise the passage by identifying key points in the passage.

Homework: Read the passage and answer same questions as above or create other questions to
answer.
Food preparation is an important step in meeting the nutritional needs of the family. Food has to be
pleasing in appearance and taste in order to be consumed. Foods like fruits, vegetables and nuts can be
eaten raw but most foods are cooked to bring about desirable changes. The process of subjecting food to
the action of heat is termed as cooking. Heat is transferred to the food during cooking by conduction,
convection, radiation or microwave energy. Cooking takes place by moist and dry heat. Moist heat
involves water and steam. Air or fat are used in dry heat. Boiling is a method of cooking foods by just
immersing them in water at 100C and maintaining the water at that temperature till the food is tender.
Rice, egg, dhal, meat, roots and tubers are cooked by boiling. Stewing refers to the simmering of food in
a pan with a tight fitting lid using small quantities of liquid to cover only half the food. This is a slow
method of cooking. The liquid is brought to boiling point and the heat is reduced to maintain simmering
temperatures (82C - 90C). The food above the liquid is cooked by the steam generated within the pan.
Apple, meat along with roots, vegetables and legumes are usually stewed. Steaming is a method of
cooking food in steam generated from vigorously boiling water in a pan. The food to be steamed is
placed in a container and is not in direct contact with the water or liquid. Idli, custard and idiappam are
made by steaming. Vegetables can also be steamed. Pressure cooking is when steam under pressure is
used the method is known as pressure cooking and the equipment used is the pressure cooker. In this
method the temperature of boiling water can be raised above 100C. Rice, dhal, meat, roots and tubers
are usually pressure cooked. Poaching involves cooking in the minimum amount of liquid at temperatures
of 80C - 85C that is below the boiling point. Egg and fish can be poached. Blanching, in meal
preparation, it is often necessary only to peel off the skin of fruits and vegetables without making them
tender. This can be achieved by blanching. In this method, food is dipped in boiling water for 5 seconds
to 2 minutes depending on the texture of the food. This helps to remove the skin or peel without softening
food. Blanching can also be done by pouring enough boiling water on the food to immerse it for some
time or subjecting foods to boiling temperatures for short periods and then immediately immersing in
cold water. The process causes the skin to become loose and can be peeled off easily.
Persuasive/Argumentative Essay
 Page 20 of 26

The writer tries to present an idea that argues convincingly so as to persuade the reader to share his
values. The writer may try to prove a point so as to solve a problem or balance both side of the argument.
The use of specific statements rather than general, constructive analysis, logical and relevant presentation
of points is highly required. Sometimes writers begin with a thought- provoking statement/question, a
pleasant joke, a declaration or claim, etc. and then build up to elicit the interest, concern and compassion
of the audience. Unlike narratives and descriptive essays which can be based on fiction, argumentative
writings are hooked on facts. Therefore, you must research on your topic to dig up accurate facts, figures,
instances, examples so that your essay would be verifiable. Your reasoning must sound logical to the
human mind and your motive achievable.

Class activity : Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.
The Rich and the Poor
Can the rich become richer without making the poor poorer as a result? Can someone be poor and not
suffer? What purpose is served by the rich showing charitable kindness towards the poor? How do people
get rich?
According to one line of thinking, God has created people with differing abilities and skills; the ability to
become rich is like any other special skill; and he who becomes rich does so by his own exceptional
talent and also by the help of God who has blessed him with wealth; and the poor are poor because they
lack innate ability to improve themselves; the rich have a moral and religious duty to promote the
security and wellbeing of the poor by giving alms generously to ease their sufferings. Poverty is thus
hypothesized as an objective hereditary phenomenon to be pitied, and it exists because God created man
in that way.
Contrary to this view, we will argue that the prosperity of the rich cannot be sustained except by
continued impoverishment of the majority; that the art of making yourself rich is also the art of keeping
your neighbours poor; that whatever is obtained by one is denied to many. The only exceptional ability
that the rich possess is the ability to organize labour as cheaply as possible in order to maximize profit.
For rich labour is a threat to the rich man's profit.
The main way in which the rich fulfill their obligation to relieve suffering is by making gift to improve
the welfare of some of the poor. This is inevitable selective and discriminatory generosity which compels
the favoured few lobes grated as the loyal, while the omitted majority are divided and more effectively
controlled as they scram for the master’s favours. This paternalistic manipulation splinters the oppressed
poor into factions, hoping and straggling to get a few more benefits than the other. Alms and aids are like
a rope that ties the receiver to the donor who benefits. Gifts and welfare are merely leftovers from the
master's table, superficially redistributive gestures which leave inequality intact. The exploitative social
order is a source of false generosity nourished by poverty.
(Source: P. Heincke, popular Fallacies in the Nigerian Social Sciences Mimeographed)

Questions:
1. Identify the topic sentence in each paragraph.
2. Identify main points from details.
3. Discuss the organisation of the passage (paragraphs).
4. Differentiate between fact from opinion in the sentences presented.
5. Interpret the message of the passage.
6. Identify and interpret meaning of new words (contextual and denotation).
7. Identify colloquialism, jargon and slangs in the passage.
8. What form of argument does the writer presented? How convincing are they?

LITERATURE IN ENGLISH
 Page 21 of 26

Literature refers to an imaginative and creative writing or oral presentation in form of fiction that imitated
or represents our world using an ‘enstranged language’ that displays aesthetics and artistic qualities
which tells stories.
The purpose of literature is essentially the enhancement of life (entertainment) and the propagation of
human values (education). Literature has basically three genres: Play, Poetry and Prose.
Poetry is a form of writing in verse with rhythmic effect that creates emotional responses. In other words,
It is a spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings which takes its origin from emotion recollected in
tranquillity. The emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranquillity gradually
disappears, and an emotion, kindred to that which was the subject of contemplation, is gradually
produced, and does itself actually exist in the mind.
A poem is an artistic composition written in verse containing aesthetic qualities of language to suggest
differential meanings through the use of imagery, symbolism, sound, sign and other poetic devices to
evoke emotive responses. A poem begins with a lump in the throat, a home-sickness or a love-sickness. It
is a reaching-out toward expression; an effort to find fulfilment. A complete poem is one where the
emotion has found its thought and the thought has found the words.
Hence, we can see Poetry as any kind of verbal or written language that is structured rhythmically and is
meant to tell a story or express any kind of emotion, idea, or state of being. Poetry is used to achieve this
artistic expression, forms and patterns that were birthed out of separate artistic and cultural movements:
romanticism, reader-response, structuralism, deconstruction, colonialism, feminism, etc. Poetic texts have
the following characteristics:
 relative brevity (with some notable exceptions)
 specialised and sensory appeal in the use of language which deviate from everyday language
 dense expression – structurally and phonologically overstructured
 express subjectivity (emotions) more than other texts
 display a musical or songlike quality
 aesthetic self-referentiality (art and beauty in form and structure).

Since the 1960s, political, economic, and cultural events have begun to shape not only Nigerian poetry
but Africa’s. Gone are the days when slavery, colonialism, imperialism, protest, and struggle for
independence were an unending preoccupation of poets.
The first generation Nigerian poets include J. P. Clark, Denis Osadebey, Gabriel Okara, Christopher I.
Okigbo, Wole Soyinka, Frank I. Imokudo, Magret Segu, Abiola Arere, etc. This period covered the years
1948-1966. They were occupied with imitating the abstractions, British orientation in arts and culture,
and later to agitation for independence and identity.
The second generation period starts from 1967 to late 1970s; poets include Hary Garuba, Niyi Osundare,
Mabel Segun, Remi Raji, Onokone Okonoor, Tanure Ojaide, among others. Their main occupations were
military dictatorship, political competition, social injustice, nationalism, civil war, feminism, poverty,
corruption, etc.
The third or contemporary poets include Mamman Batsa, Abubakar Uthman, Idris Amali, Imam Shehu,
Sicilia Kato, Victoria Sylvia Kankara, among others. They concentrate on questioning authority-
governance, feminism, family ties, marital problems, socio-political and economic injustice, corruption in
management, socio-political insecurity, political unrest, social disorder, lost of cultural values, clash of
cultural identity, etc.

Literature and Communication

1. It communicates and addresses philosophical, social and economic questions by
evoking a debate about a subject matter; communicates to us the truth and
realities of experiences in both its singularity and its universality (intersubjectivity).
2. Poetry facilitates communication within the separations (space, time, culture,
race, religion, etc.) that exist in everyday communication – perspective intersects.
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3. The poem is a reference point through where the writer subjects the reader to
undergo imaginary experiences beyond the original source (poet, narrator, and
persona).
4. A Poem is a beacon of human freedom where “poetic license” guarantees our
freedom of thought and expression.
5. A poem describes a dimension of existence that is beyond “words” and “reach”
i.e. the subconscious and consciousness.
6. Poetry helps us communicate what is the most solitary in us (anguish,
excitement, fear) which is most difficult to access; breach the barriers that hinders
inherent in everyday communication – pain, threat, loneliness, shame etc.
7. Poetry communicate to us others horrific realities – i.e. accidents, mental issues,
death – so that we make our tolerable.

Literary Terms in Poetry

Verse: lines in a poem.
Stanza (verse): a group of lines that feature as a single unit – a monostich, couplet, triplet, quatrain,
quintain, sestet, heptastich, and octave.
Meter (measure): a pattern of accented (stressed) and unaccented (unstressed) syllables in a line. The
metre could be regular or irregular.
Rhyme (rime): the regular or matching of the same vowel sound, usually, at the end of the last words of
a verse for pleasurable, mnemonic, structural and rhetorical purpose.
Rhythm: regular occurrence or alternation of stressed and unstressed syllable.
Context: verbal or physical surroundings of a text.
Point of view: the angle of vision from which the story is viewed or told.
Narrator: the person telling the story who may or may not be a character in the
story.
Persona: a character in a poem.
Theme: the unifying subject or idea that contains the actual message in a work.
Setting: The location and time of a story.
Diction: word choice, structure and usage that convey and emphasise meaning or theme of a poem-
abstract or concrete; simple or complex; archaic or current; etc.
Plot: the causal sequence of events in the poem from start to finish.
Poetic license: the liberty taken by poets to ignore grammar of a language in order to achieve special
effects.
Tone: implied attitude, emotions and feelings of the writer toward the subject and the audience conveyed
through words elements i.e. hopeful, pessimistic, worried, incredulous, despair, solemn, mockery,
sympathy, longing, amusement, shock, sarcasm or reverent.
Poetic devices:
i. Imagery: the use of language to appeal to or affects the senses of the reader or audience for emotions,
beauty, communication of thoughts, concreteness, vividness and clarity. Types of imagery includes:
Auditory (hearing – onomatopoeia); Olfactory (smell- sweet, pungent, fragrant); Tactile (touch);
Gustatory (taste); Visual (sight or vision); Kinaesthetic (movement).
ii. Figures of speech: the use of words to express meaning beyond their literal meaning e.g. metaphor,
hyperbole, personification, irony, paradox, metonymy, euphemism, etc.
iii. Symbolism: a conventional or personal sign that represents an idea or concept greater than the sign
(object) itself – i.e. Logo. Examples: Cross, Owl, Crescent, Skull; the general association of a peacock
with pride; an eagle with heroic endeavour; rising sun with birth and the setting sun with death; climbing
with effort or progress and descent with surrender or failure etc.
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iv. Allusion: a brief, often implicit and indirect reference to a text, myth, painting, music, event, person,
place, or thing that is the literary text in a literary work.

It is not possible to analyse samples of all types of poems discussed in the class.
For literary criticism or appreciation of poetic works, you should follow the outline
presented below:
1. The Subject matter (theme) – here we attempt to answer some basic questions
such as: Why is the poem written (i.e. circumstances leading to)? What is the
message of the poem? What/Who is the poem addressing?
2. The background setting: What is the setting of the poem? What type of life is the
poem trying to portray? On which background is the poem based?
3. The form or structure: What type of verse form? What type of lines? Any rhyming
scheme or rhythmic pattern? What kind of stanzas? How is the stanza structured,
divided or linked?
4. The Language and style: What is the interesting language or stylistic features
such as the use of symbolism, imagery, sounds, allusion, figures of speech, and
appropriateness of diction and so on?
5. Tone and mood: what is the attitude of the poet to the subject matter? What is
the poet’s reaction to the topic or persona? What condition or situation is the poet
indicating?

Epistle: On My Grave Yard by Sicilia Kato

On my grave yard
Plant white roses
Each thorn for the pain I felt
And each rose for the love I missed

Plant them round

Plant them wide
Let them be enough to keep off hypocrites
Who say what they should have told me
Water them with words
Words of comfort and peace
Lay my trophies by them
That every glow by their blossom
May anchor my feelings
Where I am.

Nana A’isha’s Acrostic poem “Fatima Raji (My Love)”

F ar away
A nd in my homeland
T ime’s wind blows directly
I nto my heart, a cold breeze
M ixed with potions of love
A nd I am no longer same.

R ain, come rain

A nd wash away these love melodies
J ourneying ceaselessly
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I n my heart hearts

M y mind is now an abode of

Y our overwhelming love.

L et me be myself again
O r my heart will burst
V owing to remain in love
E very second of my life.

Victoria Wisely Kankara’s Ballad “Amina”

Pearl of the North
Wake of history in an array of wars so ultimately won;
Honoured with majestic pomp,
Surrounded by subjects with unflinching allegiance
Even in the face of death, where victory is hardest, yet won.

“Piano and Drums” by Gabriel Okara

When at break of day at a riverside
I hear jungle drums telegraphing
the mystic rhythm, urgent, raw
like bleeding flesh, speaking of
primal youth and the beginning,
I see the panther ready to pounce,
the leopard snarling about to leap
and the hunters crouch with spears poised;

And my blood ripples, turns torrent,

topples the years and at once I’m
in my mother’s laps a suckling;
at once I’m walking simple
path with no innovations,
rugged, fashioned with the naked
warmth of hurrying feet and groping hearts
in green leaves and wild flowers pulsing.

Then I hear a wailing piano

solo speaking of complex ways
in tear-furrowed concerto;
of far away lands
and new horizons with
coaxing diminuendo, counterpoint,
crescendo. But lost in the labyrinth
of its complexities, it ends in the middle
of a phrase at a daggerpoint.

And I lost in the morning mist

of an age at a riverside keep
wandering in the mystic rhythm
of jungle drums and the concerto.
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W. H. Auden “Funeral Blues” (Dirge / Elergy)

Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone,
Prevent the dog from barking with a juicy bone,
Silence the pianos and with muffled drum
Bring out the coffin, let the mourners come.

Let aeroplanes circle moaning overhead

Scribbling on the sky the message He is Dead.
Put crepe bow round the white necks of the public doves,
Let the traffic policemen wear black cotton gloves.

He was my North, my South, my East and West,

My working week and my Sunday rest,
My noon, my midnight, my talk, my song;
I thought that love would last forever: I was wrong.

The stars are not wanted now; put out every one,
Pack up the moon and dismantle the sun,
Pour away the ocean and sweep up the woods;
For nothing now can ever come to any good.

W. H. Auden’s Villanelle “If I Could Tell You”

Time will say nothing but I told you so,
Time only knows the price we have to pay;
If I could tell you I would let you know.

If we should weep when clowns put on their show,

If we should stumble when musicians play,
Time will say nothing but I told you so.

There are no fortunes to be told, although,

Because I love you more than I can say,
If I could tell you I would let you know.

The winds must come from somewhere when they blow,

There must be reasons why the leaves decay;
Time will say nothing but I told you so.

Perhaps the roses really want to grow,

The vision seriously intends to stay;
If I could tell you I would let you know.

Suppose all the lions get up and go,

And all the brooks and soldiers run away;
Will Time say nothing but I told you so?
If I could tell you I would let you know.

William Shakespeare “Sonnet 18” (Sonnet poem)

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
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Thou art more lovely and more temperate:

Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimmed,
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance, or nature's changing course untrimmed:

But thy eternal summer shall not fade,

Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,
Nor shall death brag thou wand'rest in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.