THE GOVERNMENT OF

THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR

MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

TEXTBOOK
 2023-2024

Preface

This textbook is designed for the students at Government Technical High School Year

I with the foundation standards falling into the eleven chapters.

Each chapter includes relevant graphical representations and photographs, not to

mention the learner-friendly applications. What’s more, the contents cover not only the

learning objectives and outcomes but also relate to the conceptual questions, concept maps

and links to laboratory work, enabling the learners to acquire considerable knowledge of

traditional PC problems and creative thinking skills. Better still, it may also help the

students switch from the typical rote learning to the soft skills practiced commonly in the

modern classrooms today. Accordingly, this textbook meets the requirements for a

fundamental PC course both in terms of scope and sequence.

In addition, this textbook is intended to foster the 5C’s, the key to success in

developing 21st century skills for learning in the classrooms:

 Collaboration

o In lessons students will be working in groups, to share ideas with their

classmates and to find the solution together

 Communication

o Students will develop verbal and non-verbal communication skills in group

works

 Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

o Students will be given interesting problems to solve

o Finding and explaining solutions, looking for correcting errors

 Creativity and Innovation

o Thinking ‘outside the box’ is an important 21st century skill

 o Students will be encouraged to explore new ideas and solve problems in new

ways

 Citizenship

o Students will join the school community and develop fairness and conflict

resolution skills

Furthermore, it is organized in such a way that the topics are introduced

conceptually with the degree of intensity increased gradually. Besides, the development

progression is established with the help of the precise definitions and principles in addition

to the problems and their practical applications. Remarkably, the textbook also makes sure

that the students’ problem-solving skills in one topic are consolidated with the key concepts

before moving on to another topic. Thoroughly reviewed and revised, this edition bears

comparison with most of the contemporary textbooks aimed at the same target audience.

It goes without saying that Computer PC System is the study of the world around us.

With this textbook as the standard source of information on Computer PC System, the

students are expected to have greater awareness of what is happening around them every

day in the context of Computer PC System. Simultaneously, they are also expected to

develop superior skills when it comes to their concept formation, comprehension, analysis,

and evolution, thereby making themselves able to participate in all the lessons actively

through 5C’s, which constitute the integral part of 21st century skills for learning.
 CONTENTS

SEMESTER I
PAGE
CHAPTER 1 COMPUTER SYSTEM UNITS 1

1.1 Overall Function of Computer System 1

1.2 Common I/O Ports 1

1.3 Common Peripheral Devices 5

SUMMARY 8

EXERCISES 9

CONCEPT MAP 10

CHAPTER 2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT 11

1 Components
2.1 CPU Core 11

2.2 Modern CPUs 16

2.3 Selecting and Installing CPU 17

2.4 Heat Sink Installation 19

SUMMARY 20

EXERCISES 20

CONCEPT MAP 22

CHAPTER 3 RAM 23

3.1 Types of RAM 23

 3.2 Determining Current RAM Capacity 28

3.3 Installing DRAM 29

SUMMARY 31

EXERCISES 31

CONCEPT MAP 33

CHAPTER 4 BIOS AND CLI 34

4.1 Functions of BIOS 34

4.2 BIOS Settings Configuration 35

4.3 Fundamental Commands 38

4.4 Assorted Windows Commands 41

SUMMARY 43

EXERCISES 43

CONCEPT MAP 44

SEMESTER II

CHAPTER 5 MOTHERBOARD 45

5.1 Form Factors 45

5.2 Chipsets 48

5.3 PCI BUS 49

5.4 Upgrade and Install Motherboard 50

SUMMARY 52

EXERCISES 52

CONCEPT MAP 53
CHAPTER 6 POWER SUPPLY 54
6.1 Power Supply Connectors 54

6.2 Modular Power Supply 56

6.3 Installing and Removing Power Supply 57

SUMMARY 58

EXERCISES 58

CONCEPT MAP 59

CHAPTER 7 IMPLEMENTING MASS STORAGE 60

8.1 Hard Drive Partitions 60

8.2 Hard Drive Formatting 65
8.3 Disk Initialization in Disk Management 66
8.4 Installing Windows 10 69

SUMMARY 74

EXERCISES 74

CONCEPT MAP 75

CHAPTER 8 WIRED NETWORK 76

10.1 IP Address 76

10.2 Installing and Configuring a Wired Network 81

10.3 File and Printer Sharing 82

SUMMARY 83

EXERCISES 83

CONCEPT MAP 84

REFERENCES 86
SEMESTER I
Textbook Basic Computer Science GTHS Year I

CHAPTER 1
COMPUTER SYSTEM UNITS

In modern terms, a computer is an electronic device that can perform calculations.

The most common types use special programming languages that known as computer

programmers, have written and compiled to accomplish specific tasks.

Learning Outcomes

It is expected that students will be able to

• Identify the ports on a computer

• Identify common peripheral devices on a computer

• Connect the devices and ports on a computer

1.1 Overall Functions of Computer System

A modern computer consists of three major components:

• Hardware

• Operating system

• Applications

The hardware is the physical stuff that you can touch or hold in your hand. On a

typical personal computer, you touch the keyboard or view images on the monitor. The

operating system (OS) controls the hardware and enables to tell the computer what to do.

The operating system often appears as a collection of windows and little icons that can click

or touch. Collectively these are called the user interface (UI), which means the software

parts with which you can interact. The UI that offers images or icons to select (as opposed

to making commands) is called a graphical user interface (GUI).

1.2 Common I/O Ports

1.2.1 Serial Port

Recommended Standard 232 (RS-232) introduced in 1960 is to connect computer

using serial connection. A serial port manifests as a 9-pin, D-shell male socket, called a DB-9

or an RS-232.

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Figure 1.1 DB-9 Connector and Port

1.2.2 USB Port

Universal serial bus (USB) connects almost every type of peripheral today. The USB

standard has gone through several revisions:

• USB 1.1 was the first widely adopted standard and defined two speeds: Low-Speed

USB, running at a maximum of 1.5 Mbps (plenty for keyboards and mice), and Full-

Speed USB, running at up to 12 Mbps.

• The USB 2.0 standard introduced Hi-Speed USB running at 480 Mbps.

• USB 3.0 is capable of speeds of up to 5 Gbps and ten times faster than USB 2.0. USB

3.0 is marketed as SuperSpeed USB.

• USB 3.1 can handle speeds up to 10 Gbps. It’s marketed as SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbps

or USB 3.1 Gen 2.

Table 1.1 USB Standards

Figure 1.2 USB Type A and B Connectors

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Figure 1.3 USB Type-C Connector

Table 1.2 USB Connectors Colors

1.2.3 FireWire Port

FireWire, also known as IEEE 1394, looks and acts much like USB. FireWire has all the

features of USB, but it uses different connectors. FireWire has a variety of port and cable

types to accommodate full-size devices, such as external hard drives, and smaller devices,

such as camcorders. FireWire enjoyed a brief day in the sun, primarily in Apple devices, but

has been supplanted by Thunderbolt.

Figure 1.4 FireWire 800 Port and Cable above a FireWire 400 Port

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1.2.4 ThunderBolt Port

Intel and Apple developed Thunderbolt ports as a high-speed alternative to existing

technologies such as USB and FireWire, tapping the PCI Express bus for up to six external

peripherals. Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 connect computing devices with a Mini

DisplayPort (mDP) connector. Thunderbolt 3 uses a USB Type-C connector. Thunderbolt can

use copper or fibre cabling.

Figure 1.5 Thunderbolt and USB Logos

Thunderbolt 1 runs full duplex at 10 Gbps, so it compares to USB 3.1. Thunderbolt 2

combines internal data channels, enabling throughput at up to 20 Gbps. Thunderbolt 3

offers throughput up to 40 Gbps at half the power consumption of Thunderbolt 2.

1.2.5 Audio Port

Portable computers have a standard 3.5-mm audio-out port and some have a

similarly sized microphone-in port, though built-in microphones are increasingly common.

You can plug in headphones, regular PC speakers, or even a nice surround sound set to

enable the laptop to play music just as well as a desktop computer can.

Figure 1.6 Standard Audio Ports

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1.3 Common Peripheral Devices

Peripherals enhance the capabilities of computing devices. Common peripherals

include:

• Keyboards
• Mouse
• Touchpad
• Biometric devices
• Smart card readers
• Barcode scanners/QR scanners
• Webcams
• Headsets
1.3.1 Keyboards
The keyboard is both the oldest and still the primary way you input data into a PC.

Modern keyboards connect via USB port, whether wired or wireless.

Figure 1.7 Keyboards Comparison

1.3.2 Mouse and Touchpad
There are two common pointing devices, mice and touchpads. A mouse moves the cursor
as you move the mouse; a touchpad moves the cursor as you move your fingers over its surface.

Figure 1.8 Touchpad on a Laptop

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1.3.3 Biometric devices

Biometric devices scan and remember unique aspects of various body parts, such as

your iris, face, head image, or fingerprint, using some form of sensing device. This

information is used as a key to prevent unauthorized people from accessing whatever the

biometric device is securing.

Figure 1.9 Laptop with Built-in Fingerprint Scanner

1.3.4 Smart Card Readers

Many enterprise-level businesses use a smart-card system to enable employees to

access company resources and display proper credentials so they have proper levels of

access too. A smart card reader comes in many forms, from small devices that can attach to

a laptop computer to a panel next to a secure door. The smart card reader scans the chip

embedded in such devices as ID badges to enhance access and security.

Figure 1.10 Smart Card Reader

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1.3.5 Barcode/QR Scanners

Barcode scanners read standard Universal Product Code (UPC) barcodes or Quick Response

(QR) codes.

Figure 1.11 UPC Code (Left) and QR Code (Right)

Two types of barcode scanners are commonly found with personal computers: pen

scanners and hand scanners. Pen scanners look like an ink pen and must be swiped across

the barcode. Hand scanners are held in front of the UPC code while a button is pressed to

scan. All barcode scanners emit a tone to let you know the scan was successful.

Figure 1.12 Barcode Hand Scanner

1.3.6 Webcams

Cameras in or on computer monitors, often called webcams because their most

commons use is for Internet video communication, enable people to interact over networks

with both voice and video. Webcams range greatly in quality and price. Webcams vary in

both image and sound capture quality. Because webcams are mostly used for video chat,

they tend to be marketed similar to other video cameras using terms like 720p, HD, and 4K.

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Figure 1.13 Webcam

Biometric – the measurement and analysis of unique physical or behavioural characteristics

Thunderbolt - relatively new technology that supports high-resolution displays and high-

performance data through one single port, but the connectivity allows you to add several

devices to your computer through a daisy chain of cords.

FireWire - also called IEEE 1394, is a connecting device used primarily for adding peripherals

to a computer. FireWire is often used for connecting external hard drives and digital

camcorders that benefit from a high transfer rate. These transfer rates are often up to 800

Mbps.

Operating System - is system software that manages computer hardware, software

resources, and provides common services for computer programs.

Applications - also referred to as an application program or application software, is a

computer software package that performs a specific function directly for an end user or, in

some cases, for another application.

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1. Which port type offers the fastest transfer speed?

A. IEEE 1394a

B. SuperSpeed USB

C. Full-Speed USB

D. Hi-Speed USB

2. What is the fastest speed that Hi-Speed USB 2.0 can go?

A. 12 Mbps

B. 120 Mbps

C. 400 Mbps

D. 480 Mbps

3. What means the SuperSpeed?

A. USB 1.0

B. USB 2.0

C. USB 3.0

D. USB 3.1

4. Which of the following is not a input device?

A. Mouse

B. Keyboard

C. Printer

D. Card Reader

5. Biometric devices scan which of the following?

A. QR Code

B. Documents

C. Photos

D. Face

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CONCEPT MAP

Personal Computer

Hardware Operating System Application

I/O Devices Ports Microsoft Microsoft Office

Linux Adobe Premier
Apple Adobe Acrobat Reader
Keyboard Serial port
Mouse USP port
Fingerprint FireWire port
Scanner Thunderbolt
port
Touchpad
Card Reader Audio port

Printer HDMI port

Monitor

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CHAPTER 2

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The central processing unit (CPU), also called the microprocessor, is a single silicon-

based electronic chip. Although the computer might seem to act quite intelligently,

comparing the CPU to a human brain hugely overstates its capabilities. A CPU functions

more like a very powerful calculator than like a brain. Today’s CPUs add, subtract, multiply,

divide, and move billions of numbers per second. Processing that much information so

quickly make any CPU look intelligent. It’s simply the speed of the CPU, rather than actual

intelligence that enables computers to perform feats such as accessing the Internet, playing

visually stunning games, or editing photos.

Learning Outcomes

It is expected that students will be able to

• Identify the CPU core components

• Specify and Install CPU

• Install Heat sink

2.1 CPU Core Components

A good technician needs to understand some basic CPU functions to support

computing devices, so start with an analysis of how the CPU works. CPU with the

granddaddy of all PC CPUs: the Intel 8088, invented in the late 1970s defined the idea of the

modern microprocessor and contains the same basic parts used in the most advanced CPUs

today.

2.1.1 External Data Bus

By visualizing the CPU as a man in a box is one clever guy. He can perform virtually

any mathematical function, manipulate data, and give answers very quickly.

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Figure 2.1 Imagine the CPU as a Man in a Box.

This guy is potentially very useful, but there’s a catch—he lives in a tiny, closed box.

Before he can work with us, we must come up with a way to exchange information with

him.

Figure 2.2 How do We talk with the Man in the Box?

Imagine that we install a set of 16 light bulbs, 8 inside his box and 8 outside his box.

Each of the 8 light bulbs inside the box connects to one of the 8 bulbs outside the box to

form a pair. Each pair of light bulbs is always either on or off. You can control the 8 pairs of

bulbs by using a set of 8 switches outside the box, and the Man in the Box can also control

them by using an identical set of 8 switches inside the box. This light-bulb communication

device is called the external data bus (EDB).

Now that the EDB enables to communicate with the Man in the Box, need to see how

it works by placing voltages on the wires. This brings up a naming problem. It’s a hassle to

say something like “on-off-on-off-on-on-off-off” when talking about which wires have

voltage. Rather than saying that one of the EDB wires is on or off, use the number 1 to

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represent on and the number 0 to represent off. That way, instead of describing the state of

the lights as “on-off-on-off-on-on-off-off,” can describe them by writing “10101100.”

Figure 2.3 Here 1 means on and 0 means Off

2.1.2 Registers

The Man in the Box provides good insight into the workspace inside a CPU. The EDB

gives a way to communicate with the Man in the Box so you can give him work to do. But to

do this work, he needs a worktable; in fact, he needs at least four worktables. Each of these

four worktables has 16 light bulbs. These light bulbs are not in pairs; they’re just 16 light

bulbs lined up straight across the table. Each light bulb is controlled by a single switch,

operated only by the Man in the Box. By creating on/off patterns like the ones on the EDB,

the Man in the Box can use these four sets of light bulbs to work math problems. In a real

computer, these worktables are called registers and store internal commands and data.

Figure 2.4 The Four General-Purpose Registers

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Figure 2.5 CPU Codebook

2.1.3 Clock

Okay, so you are ready to put the Man in the Box to work. You can send the first

command by lighting up wires on the EDB. How does he know when you have finished

setting up the wires and it is time to act? Imagine there is a bell inside the box activated by

a button on the outside of the box. Each time you press the button to sound the bell, the

Man in the Box reads the next set of lights on the EDB. Of course, a real computer does not

use a bell. The bell on a real CPU is a special wire called the clock wire (most diagrams

label the clock wire CLK). A charge on the CLK wire tells the CPU that another piece of

information is waiting to be processed. For the CPU to process a command placed on the

EDB, a certain minimum voltage must be applied to the CLK wire. A single charge to the CLK

wire is called a clock cycle. Actually, the CPU requires at least two clock cycles to act on a

command, and usually more. In fact, a CPU may require hundreds of clock cycles to process

some commands.

The maximum number of clock cycles that a CPU can handle in a given period of

time is referred to as its clock speed. The clock speed is the fastest speed at which a CPU

can operate, determined by the CPU manufacturer. The Intel 8088 processor had a clock

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speed of 4.77 MHz (4.77 million cycles per second), extremely slow by modern standards,

but still a pretty big number compared to using a pencil and paper. High-end CPUs today

run at speeds in excess of 5 GHz.

2.1.4 Address Bus

Some type of chip between the RAM and the CPU is needed to make the connection.

The CPU needs to be able to say which row of RAM it wants, and the chip should handle the

mechanics of retrieving that row of data from the RAM and putting it on the EDB. This chip

comes with many names, but for right now just call it the memory controller chip (MCC).

The MCC contains special circuitry so it can grab the contents of any line of RAM and place

that data or command on the EDB. This in turn enables the CPU to act on that code.

Once the MCC is in place to grab any discrete byte of RAM, the CPU needs to be able

to tell the MCC which line of code it needs. The CPU therefore gains a second set of wires,

called the address bus, with which it can communicate with the MCC. Different CPUs have

different numbers of wires (which, you will soon see, is very significant). The 8088 had 20

wires in its address bus.

Figure 2.6 Address Bus

Mathematics can answer the first question. Each wire in the address bus exists in

only one of two states: on or off. If the address bus consisted of only one wire, that wire

would at any given moment be either on or off. Mathematically, that gives you (pull out

your old pre-algebra books) 21 = 2 different combinations. If you have two address bus

wires, the address bus wires create 22 = 4 different combinations. If you have 20 wires, you

would have 220 (or 1,048,576) combinations. Because each pattern points to one line of

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code and each line of RAM is one byte, if you know the number of wires in the CPU’s

address bus, you know the maximum amount of RAM that a particular CPU can handle.

1 kilo = 210 = 1024 (abbreviated as “K”)

1 kilobyte = 1024 bytes (abbreviated as “KB”)

1 mega = 220 = 1,048,576 (abbreviated as “M”)

1 megabyte = 1,048,576 bytes (abbreviated as “MB”)

1 giga = 230 = 1,073,741,824 (abbreviated as “G”)

1 gigabyte = 1,073,741,824 bytes (abbreviated as “GB”)

1 tera = 240 = 1,099,511,627,776 (abbreviated as “T”)

1 terabyte = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes (abbreviated as “TB”)

2.2 Modern CPUs

Intel and AMD differentiate product lines by using different product names, and these

names have changed over the years. For a long time, Intel used Pentium for its flagship

model, just adding model numbers to show successive generations—Pentium, Pentium II,

Pentium III, and so on. AMD used the Athlon brand in a similar fashion. Most discussions on

PC CPUs focus on four end-product lines: desktop PC, budget PC, portable PC, and server

computers.

Table 2.1 Current Intel and AMD Product Lines and Names

2.2.1 Deciphering Processor Numbers

Intel processor numbers follow a very clear pattern. An Intel Core i7 7500 U

processor, for example, maps out like this:

 Intel Core = brand

 i7 = brand modifier

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 7 = generation

 500 = SKU numbers

 U = alpha suffix (U indicates that it’s a desktop processor using ultralow power)

AMD processor nomenclature is similar. Here’s the breakdown for an AMD Ryzen 7

2700X:

 AMD Ryzen = brand

 7 = market segment

 2 = generation

 7 = performance level

 00 = model number

 X = power suffix (X indicates high-performance)

2.3 Selecting and Installing CPUs

When selecting a CPU, you need to make certain you get one that the motherboard

can accommodate. First, does the motherboard support Intel CPUs or AMD CPUs? Second,

what socket does the motherboard have?

When installing a CPU, you need to exercise caution not to bend any of the tiny pins.

The location of the pins differs between Intel and AMD. With Intel based motherboards, the

sockets have hundreds of tiny pins that line up with contacts on the bottom of the CPU.

Intel CPUs use a land grid array (LGA) package for socketed CPUs, where the underside of

the CPU has hundreds of contact points that line up with the socket pins.

Figure 2.7 Intel-based Socket with Pins

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AMD CPUs have the pins; the sockets have holes. The pins on the AMD pin grid array
(PGA) CPUs align with the holes in the sockets.

Figure 2.8 AMD-based Socket without Pins

All CPUs and sockets are keyed so can’t (easily) insert them incorrectly. Note that the
pins do not make a perfect square, because a few are missing.

Figure 2.9 Underside and Top of a CPU

In both socket styles, you release the retaining mechanism by pushing the little lever
down slightly and then away from the socket. You next raise the arm fully, and then move
the retaining bracket.

Figure 2.10 Moving the Release Arm

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Figure 2.11 Fully Opened Socket

Align the processor with the socket and gently drop the processor into place. If it
doesn’t go in easily, check the orientation and try again. These sockets are generically
called zero insertion force (ZIF) sockets, which mean you never have to use any force at all.

2.4 Heat Sink Installation

Almost every CPU uses a combination of a heat sink and fan assembly to wick heat

away from the CPU. A heat sink is a copper or other metal device designed to dissipate heat

from whatever it touches.

Figure 2.12 Intel Stock Heat-Sink and Fan Assembly

Stock Intel heat sinks have four plungers that you simply push until they click into
place in corresponding holes in the motherboard. AMD stock heat sinks generally have a
bracket that you secure to two points on the outside of the CPU socket and a latch that you
swivel to lock it down.

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External Data Bus - a type of data bus that enables external devices and components to

connect with a computer

Register - one of a small set of data holding places that are part of the computer processor

Address Bus - The address bus allows the CPU to send the address to RAM, and the data bus

allows the actual data transfer to the CPU

Clock - measures the number of cycles your CPU executes per second, measured in GHz

(gigahertz)

AMD – Advanced Micro Devices

1. What do registers provide for the CPU?

A. Registers determine the clock speed.

B. The CPU uses registers for temporary storage of internal commands and data.

C. Registers enable the CPU to address RAM.

D. Registers enable the CPU to control the address bus.

2. What function does the external data bus have in the PC?

A. The external data bus determines the clock speed for the CPU.

B. The CPU uses the external data bus to address RAM.

C. The external data bus provides a channel for the flow of data and commands between

the CPU and RAM.

D. The CPU uses the external data bus to access registers.

3. What is the function of the address bus in the PC?

A. The address bus enables the CPU to communicate with the memory controller chip.

B. The address bus enables the memory controller chip to communicate with the RAM.

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C. The address bus provides a channel for the flow of data and commands between the CPU

and RAM.

D. The address bus enables the CPU to access registers.

4. Which of the following terms are measures of CPU speed?

A. Megahertz and gigahertz

B. Megabytes and gigabytes

C. Megahertz and gigabytes

D. Frontside bus, backside bus

5. Which feature enables a single-core CPU to function like two CPUs?

A. Hyper-Threading

B. SpeedStep

C. Virtualization

D. x64

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CONCEPT MAP

CPU

CPU Core Components Types of CPUs

External Data Bus Single Core (Intel 4044 in 1971)

Address Bus Dual Core (Intel Pentium D in 2005)
Register Quad Core (Athlon II X4 in 2009)
Clock Hexa Core (Intel core i7-980X in 2010)

Octa Core (Intel Core i7-5960X in 2014)

Deca Core (Intel Xeon Silver 4114T in 2017)

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CHAPTER 3

RAM

When not in use, programs and data are held in a mass storage device such as a

solid-state drive (SSD), USB thumb drive, optical drive, or some other device that can hold

data while the computer is off. When you load a program in Windows, your PC copies the

program from the mass storage device to RAM and then runs it.

Learning Outcomes

It is expected that students will be able to

• Identify the different types of DRAM

• Explain the varieties of RAM

• Select and Install RAM

3.1 Types of RAM

CPU uses dynamic random access memory (DRAM) as RAM for all PCs. Just like

CPUs, DRAM has gone through evolutionary changes over the years, resulting in improved

DRAM technologies such as SDRAM, RDRAM, and DDR RAM.

3.1.1 DRAM

DRAM functions like an electronic spread sheet, with numbered rows containing cells

and each cell holding a one or a zero. Because of its low cost, high speed, and capability to

contain a lot of data in a relatively small package, DRAM has been the standard RAM used in

all computers not just PCs since the mid-1970s. DRAM can be found in just about everything,

from automobiles to automatic bread makers.

3.1.2 SDRAM

Most modern systems use some form of synchronous DRAM (SDRAM). SDRAM is still

DRAM, but it is synchronous tied to the system clock, just like the CPU and MCC, so the MCC

knows when data is ready to be grabbed from SDRAM. This results in little wasted time.

SDRAM made its debut in 1996 on a stick called a dual inline memory module (DIMM). The

early SDRAM DIMMs came in a wide variety of pin sizes. The most common pin sizes found

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on desktops were the 168-pin variety. Laptop DIMMs came in 68-pin, 144-pin, or 172-pin

micro-DIMM packages; and the 72-pin, 144-pin, or 200-pin small-outline DIMM (SO-DIMM)

form factors.

Figure 3.1 A (168-pin) DIMM Above a (144-pin) SO-DIMM

3.1.3 RDRAM

When Intel was developing the Pentium 4, they knew that regular SDRAM just wasn’t

going to be fast enough to handle the quad-pumped 400-MHz front side bus. Intel

announced plans to replace SDRAM with a very fast, new type of RAM developed by

Rambus, Inc., called Rambus DRAM, or simply RDRAM. RDRAM could handle speeds up to

800 MHz, which gave Intel plenty of room to improve the Pentium 4.

Figure 3.2 RDRAM

3.1.4 DDR SDRAM

AMD and many major system and memory makers threw their support behind an

alternative to RDRAM, double data rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM). DDR SDRAM basically copied

Rambus, doubling the throughput of SDRAM by making two processes for every clock cycle.

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Figure 3.3 DDR SDRAM

Table 3.1 DDR Speeds

3.1.5 DDR2 SDRAM

DDR2 is DDR RAM with some improvements in its electrical characteristics, enabling

it to run even faster than DDR while using less power. The big speed increase from DDR2

comes by clock doubling the input/output circuits on the chips. This does not speed up the

core RAM the part that holds the data but speeding up the input/output and adding special

buffers makes DDR2 run much faster than regular DDR. DDR2 uses a 240-pin DIMM that’s not

compatible with DDR.

Figure 3.4 240-Pin DDR2 DIMM

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Table 3.2 DDR2 Speeds

3.1.6 DDR3 SDRAM

DDR3 boasts higher speeds, more efficient architecture, and around 30 percent lower

power consumption than DDR2 RAM. Just like its predecessor, DDR3 uses a 240-pin DIMM.

DDR3 I/O speeds are quadruple the clock speeds, whereas DDR2 I/O speeds are only double

the clock.

Figure 3.5 DDR2 DIMM on Top of a DDR3 DIMM

Table 3.3 DDR3 Speeds

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3.1.7 DDR4 SDRAM

DDR4 arrived on the scene in late 2014 with much fanfare and slow adoption,

although it’s the mainstream memory now. DDR4 offers higher density and lower voltages

than DDR3, and can handle faster data transfer rates. DDR4 uses a 288-pin DIMM, so they

are not backwardly compatible with DDR3 slots. DDR4 SO-DIMMs have 260 pins that are not

compatible with DDR3 240-pin SO-DIMM slots.

Table 3.4 DDR4 Speeds

Figure 3.6 DDR4 SDRAM

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3.2 Determining Current RAM Capacity

Windows displays this amount in the System Control Panel applet. You can also

access the screen with the WINDOWS-PAUSE/BREAK keystroke combination on standard

keyboards.

Figure 3.7 Windows 10 System only has 8 GB of RAM

Windows also includes the handy Performance tab in the Task Manager. The

Performance tab includes a lot of information about the amount of RAM being used by your

PC. Access the Task Manager by pressing CTRL-SHIFT-ESC and selecting the Performance

tab.

Figure 3.8 Performance Tab in Windows 10 Task Manager

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3.3 Installing DRAM

Installing DRAM is so easy that it is one of the very few jobs. First, attach an anti-

static wrist strap or touch some bare metal on the power supply to ground yourself and

avoid ESD. Then swing the side tabs on the RAM slots down from the upright position. Pick

up a stick of RAM don’t touch those contacts and line up the notch or notches with the

raised portion(s) of the DIMM socket. A good hard push down is usually all you need to

ensure a solid connection. Make sure that the DIMM snaps into position to show it is

completely seated. Also, notice that the one or two side tabs move in to reflect a tight

connection. Motherboard can detect and automatically set up any DIMM you install.

Figure 3.9 Inserting DRAM

3.4 Installing SO-DIMMs in Laptops

It wasn’t that long ago that adding RAM to a laptop was either impossible or

required you to send the system back to the manufacturer. Long ago, laptop makers used

expensive, proprietary, custom-made RAM packages that were hard to handle. Wide

acceptance of SO-DIMMs solved these problems for a time—until ultra-thin laptops started

turning up with soldered-on RAM. Most larger laptops still provide relatively convenient

access to their SO-DIMMs, making it easy to add or replace RAM.

Access to RAM usually requires removing a panel or lifting up the keyboard—the

procedure varies among laptop manufacturers. Figure 3-10 shows a typical laptop RAM

access panel. You can slide the panel off to reveal the SO-DIMMs. Slide the pins into position

and snap the SO-DIMM down into the retaining clips.

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Figure 3.10 A RAM Access Panel on a Laptop

Figure 3.11 Snapping in a SO-DIMM

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Bandwidth - the amount of data that can be moved to or from a given destination

ESD - Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a sudden and momentary flow of electric current

between two electrically charged objects caused by contact, an electrical short or dielectric

breakdown.

SDRAM - Static random access memory (SRAM) is a form of memory in a computer system.

SRAM provides low-latency, high speed data access. It is a volatile memory technology,

meaning that its data is lost when power is turned off.

S0-DIMM - (Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module) is a memory module with a smaller

outline and thickness than standard DIMM modules and designed primarily for notebook

computers.

HDD/SSD - An HDD (hard disk drive) is a traditional storage device that uses mechanical

spinning platters and a moving read/write head to access data. SSDs (solid state drive) are

newer, faster drives that store data on instantly accessible memory chips

1. What is the primary reason that DDR4 RAM is faster than DDR3 RAM?

A. The core speed of the DDR4 RAM chips is faster.

B. The input/output speed of the DDR4 RAM is faster.

C. DDR3 RAM is dual-channel and DDR4 RAM is quad-channel.

D. DDR3 RAM uses 240-pin DIMMs and DDR4 uses 288-pin DIMMs.

2. What is the best way to determine the total capacity and specific type of RAM your

system can handle?

A. Check the motherboard book.

B. Open the case and inspect the RAM.

C. Check the Device Manager.

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D. Check the System utility in the Control Panel.

3. What is the most common pin size found on desktop of SDRAM?

A. 120

B. 168

C. 240

D. 288

4. What is the maximum speed of RDRAM?

A. 300 MHz

B. 400 MHz

C. 500 MHz

D. 800 MHz

5. How many pins use on DDR4 SDRAM?

A. 120

B. 168

C. 240

D. 288

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CONCEPT MAP

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CHAPTER 4

BIOS AND CLI

The CPU doesn’t magically or otherwise automatically know how to talk with any

device; it needs some sort of support programming loaded into memory that teaches it

about a particular device. This programming is called basic input/output services (BIOS).

Learning Outcomes

It is expected that students will be able to

• Explain the function of BIOS

• Distinguish among various CMOS setup utility options

• Explain the operation of command line interface

• Describe fundamental and additional Windows commands

4.1 Functions of BIOS

Every system BIOS has two types of hardware to support. First, the system BIOS

supports all of the hardware that never changes, such as the keyboard. The system ROM

chip stores the BIOS for these and other devices that never change. Second, the system

BIOS supports all of the hardware that might change from time to time. This includes RAM

and hard drives with a larger drive or a solid state drive (SSD). The system ROM chip stores

the BIOS for these devices.

Motherboards store the keyboard controller support programming, among other

programs, on a special type of device called a read-only memory (ROM) chip. A ROM chip

stores programs, services, exactly like RAM. ROM differs from RAM in two important ways.

First, ROM chips are non-volatile, meaning that the information stored on ROM isn’t erased

when the computer is turned off. Second, traditional ROM chips are read-only, meaning that

once you store a program on one, you can’t change it.

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4.2 BIOS Settings Configuration

Modern systems use firmware programming called the Unified Extensible Firmware

Interface (UEFI). Here are a few advantages of UEFI over the original BIOS in PCs:

 UEFI supports booting to partitions larger than 2.2 TB.

 UEFI firmware is native 32- or 64-bit; this lets the manufacturers include lots of

features for setup and diagnoses.

 UEFI handles all boot-loading duties; no more jumping from boot sector to boot

sector.

 UEFI is portable to other chip types, not just 16-bit x86.

4.2.1 Graphical UEFI System Setup Utility

This system setup utility has two modes: EZ and Advanced. You can’t do much in this

first EZ Mode screen except view information about installed components, select one of

three pre-set System Performance optimization options, and change the boot priority.

Figure 4.1 ASUS UEFI System Setup Utility

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Click the option to go into Advanced Mode for changing the interface configurations.

The Main tab offers some BIOS component information, such as surface details on amount

of RAM and speed of CPU, plus a couple of options to modify the language and date and

time. The Main tab also enables you to configure modest BIOS security by setting an

administrator or user password.

Figure 4.2 Main Tab

The Advanced tab gives component information about CPUs, hard drives and optical
drives, and all the built-in components, such as USB ports. In this tab, as you drill down to
each subcategory, you can configure drive settings, enable and disable devices, and more.

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Figure 4.3 Advanced Tab

The Monitor tab shows monitoring information for CPU and motherboard
temperatures, fan speeds, and voltages. You can modify the behaviour of the chassis fans
here too. All of this monitoring information is considered some of the built-in diagnostics for
both the motherboard and the full system.

Figure 4.4 Monitor Tab

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The Boot tab enables you to adjust boot settings. You can select devices to boot by
priority, setting the boot sequence used by the motherboard.

Figure 4.5 Boot Tab

4.3 Fundamental Commands (CLI)

It’s time to try using the command line, but before you begin, a note of warning is in

order: the command-line interface is picky and unforgiving. It will do what you say, not

what you mean, so it always pays to double-check that those are one and the same before

you press enter and commit the command.

4.3.1 Viewing Directory Contents: dir

The Windows dir command shows you the contents of the working directory. If a lot

of text scrolls quickly down the screen in Windows, try typing dir /p (pause). The dir /p

command is a lifesaver when you’re looking for something in a large directory. Just press

SPACEBAR to display the next screen.

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Figure 4.6 DIR Command

4.3.2 Changing Directory Focus: cd

You can use the cd command to change the focus of the command prompt to a

different directory. To use the cd command, type cd followed by the name of the directory

on which you want the prompt to focus.

C:\>cd Obiwan

C:\Obiwan>cd my

C:\Obiwan\my>cd hope

Or

C:\>cd Obiwan\my\hope

C:\Obiwan\my\hope>

If you want to go up a single directory level, you can type cd followed immediately

by two periods or a space and two periods.

C:\Obiwan\my>cd ..

C:\Obiwan>

4.3.3 Moving Between Drives

To get the prompt to point to another drive, just type “d:” you want.

C:>d:

D:>

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4.3.4 Making Directories: md

To make a directory, use the md command in Windows. Alternatively, you can use

the mkdir command.

C:\Users\mike>md practice

C:\Users\mike>cd practice

C:\Users\mike\practice>

4.3.5 Removing Directories: rd

C:\Users\mike>rd practice

C:\Users\mike>dir

4.3.6 Deleting Files

To delete files, you use the del (or erase) command in Windows. To delete a single

file in Windows, type the del command followed by the name of the file to delete.

del report.docx

4.3.7 Copying and Moving Files

Let’s try an example using Windows. The directory Jedi (in my \Users folder) contains

the file notes.txt. Copy this file to a USB thumb drive (E:).

1) Type cd Jedi to point the command prompt to the Jedi directory. C:\Users\mike>cd

Jedi

2) Type copy and a space. C:\Users\mike\Jedi>copy

3) Type notes.txt and a space. C:\Users\mike\Jedi>copy notes.txt

4) Type e:\. C:\Users\mike\Jedi>copy notes.txt e:\

5) Press ENTER.

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4.4 Assorted Windows Commands

As a proficient IT technician in the field, you need to be familiar with a whole slew of

command-line tools and other important utilities.

4.4.1 chkdsk (/f /r)

The chkdsk (checkdisk) command scans, detects, and repairs file system issues and

errors. You can run the chkdsk utility from a command prompt with the switches /f and /r.

The /f switch attempts to fix file system–related errors, while the /r switch attempts to

locate and repair bad sectors.

Figure 4.7 The chkdsk /f /r Utility and Switches on a Locked Drive

4.4.2 Format

The format command, you may have guessed, enables you to format volumes from

the command line.

Figure 4.8 The Format Command in Action

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4.4.3 Hostname

The hostname command is the most straightforward of all command-line

commands. If you type hostname at the command prompt, it will display the name of your

computer, also known as the hostname.

4.4.4 Gpupdate

Group policies define various security settings for Windows systems, such as

password complexity, logon attempts, and permissions for users to install software.

4.4.5 Gpresult

If you need a quick overview of all security policies applied to a single user or

computer, the gpresult tool is for you. You can run gpresult for any user or computer on

your network (assuming you have a valid username and password) and you can ask for

detailed or summary information.

4.4.6 Sfc

The Windows sfc (System File Checker) command scans, detects, and restores

important Windows system files, folders, and paths. Techs often turn to sfc when Windows

isn’t quite working correctly and use it to find and fix critical Windows system files that have

become corrupt.

Figure 4.9 Checking sfc Options with sfc /? at a Command Prompt

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4.4.7 Shutdown

The shutdown command enables you to do exactly that to a local or remote

computer namely, shut it down (or reboot it).

BIOS – a set of computer instructions in firmware which control input and output

operations

CLI – A command-line interface (CLI) is a text-based user interface (UI) used to run

programs, manage computer files and interact with the computer.

UEFI – Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is a specification for a software program

that connects a computer's firmware to its operating system (OS). UEFI is expected to

eventually replace basic input/output system (BIOS) but is compatible with it.

Directory – Directory Also known as a "folder", a directory is a collection of files typically

created for organizational purposes.

Hostname - A host name is a unique name or label assigned to any device that is connected

to a specific computer network.

Kernel - The kernel is the essential center of a computer operating system (OS). It is the

core that provides basic services for all other parts of the OS. It is the main layer between

the OS and hardware, and it helps with process and memory management, file systems,

device control and networking.

1. The dir command shows the contents of the working directory. (True/False)

2. The dir command uses to make a new directory. (True/False)

3. The del command uses to remove a file. (True/False)

4. BIOS provide the physical interface for various devices such as USB and FireWire ports.

(True/False)

5. All hardware needs BIOS. (True/False)

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CONCEPT MAP

BIOS

Legacy BIOS UEFI BIOS

Master Boot Record EFI Boot Record

Boot Loader Kernel

Kernel OS

OS

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CHAPTRE 5

MOTHERBOARD

The motherboard provides the foundation for the personal computer. Every piece of

hardware, from the CPU to the lowliest expansion card, directly or indirectly plugs into the

motherboard. The motherboard contains the wires called traces that make up the buses of

the system. It holds the vast majority of the ports used by the peripherals, and it distributes

the power from the power supply.

Learning Outcomes

It is expected that students will be able to

• Explain how motherboard work

• Recognize modern expansion buses

• Specify and install motherboard

5.1 Form Factors

Motherboard form factors are industry-standardized shapes and layouts that enable

motherboards to work with cases and power supplies. A single form factor applies to all

three components. All motherboards come in a basic rectangular or square shape but vary

in overall size and in the layout of built-in components.

5.1.2 AT Form Factor

The AT form factor invented by IBM in the early 1980s, was the predominant form

factor for motherboards through the mid-1990s. AT is now obsolete.

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Figure 5.1 AT-Style Motherboard

5.1.2 ATX Form Factor

There continued to be a tremendous demand for a new form factor, one that had

more standard connectors and also was flexible enough for possible changes in technology.

This demand led to the creation of the ATX form factor in 1995. the full-sized ATX form

factor is 12 by 9.6 inches.

Figure 5.2 Early ATX Motherboard

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Figure 5.3 ATX Ports

The micro ATX motherboard floats in at a svelte 9.6 by 9.6 inches (usually), or about

30 percent smaller than standard ATX, yet uses the standard ATX connections. A micro ATX

motherboard fits into a standard ATX case or in the much smaller micro ATX cases.

Figure 5.4 Micro ATX Motherboard

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5.2 Chipset

Every motherboard has a chipset one or more discrete integrated circuit chips that

support the CPU’s interfacing to all the other devices on the motherboard. The chipset

determines the type of processor the motherboard accepts, the type and capacity of RAM,

and the sort of internal and external devices that the motherboard supports. Chipsets vary

in features, performance, and stability, so they factor hugely in the purchase or

recommendation of a particular motherboard. The chipset facilitates communication

between the CPU and other devices in the system, its component chips are relatively

centrally located on the motherboard.

Figure 5.5 Chipset hidden under Cooling Fins on Modern Motherboards

The north-bridge chip handled RAM, while the south-bridge handled some expansion

devices and mass storage drives, such as hard drives. Some motherboard manufacturers

added (or still add) a third chip called the Super I/O chip to handle these chores, especially

in dealing with legacy devices. The system ROM chip provides part of the BIOS for the

chipset.

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You have to load the proper drivers for the specific OS to support all of the features

of today’s chipsets. Without software drivers, you’ll never create a stable, fully functional

PC. Most motherboards ship with an optical disc with drivers.

Figure 5.6 Driver Disc for ASUS Motherboard

5.3 PCI Bus

Intel introduced the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus architecture in the

early 1990s, and the PC expansion bus was never again the same. Intel made many smart

moves with PCI, not the least of which was releasing PCI to the public domain to make PCI

very attractive to manufacturers. PCI provided a wider, faster, more flexible alternative than

any previous expansion bus.

Figure 5.7 PCI Expansion Bus Slots

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PCI Express (PCIe) is still PCI, but it uses a point-to-point serial connection instead of

PCI’s shared parallel communication. Consider a single 32-bit chunk of data moving from a

device to the CPU. In PCI parallel communication, 32 wires each carry one bit of that chunk

of data. In serial communication, only one wire carries those 32 bits.

Figure 5.8 PCIe× 16 slot (Center) with PCI Slots (Top and Bottom)

5.4 Upgrading and Installing Motherboards

To most techs, the concept of adding or replacing a motherboard can be extremely

intimidating. Motherboard installation is a common and necessary part of PC repair. It is

inexpensive and easy, although it can sometimes be a little tedious and messy because of

the large number of parts involved.

If you are replacing a motherboard, first remove the old motherboard. Begin by

removing all of the cards. Also remove anything else that might impede removal or

installation of the motherboard, such as a hard drive. Keep track of your screws—the best

idea is to return the screws to their mounting holes temporarily, at least until you can

reinstall the parts. Sometimes you even have to remove the power supply temporarily to

enable access to the motherboard.

Unscrew the motherboard. It will not simply lift out. The motherboard mounts to the

case via small connectors called standoffs that screw into the bottom of the case. Screws

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then go into the standoffs to hold the motherboard in place. Be sure to place the standoffs

properly before installing the new motherboard.

Figure 5.9 Standoff in a Case, Ready for the Motherboard

The next part of motherboard installation is connecting the LEDs, buttons, and front-

mounted ports on the front of the box. These usually include the following:

 Soft power button

 Reset button

 Speaker

 Hard drive activity light

 Power light

 USB

 Sound

Figure 5.10 Motherboard Wire Connections Labelled on the Motherboard

You need to follow a few rules when installing these wires. First, the lights are LEDs,

not light bulbs; they have a positive side and a negative side. If they do not work one way,

turn the connector around and try the other. Second, when in doubt, guess. Incorrect

installation only results in the device not working; it won’t damage the computer. Refer to

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the motherboard book for the correct installation. The third and last rule is that, with the

exception of the soft power switch on an ATX system, you do not need any of these wires

for the computer to run.

Figure 5.11 Sample of Case Wires

AT – (Advanced Technology motherboard) A motherboard that follows the same design and

12x13" form factor that was in the original IBM AT.

ATX – (Advanced Technology EXtended motherboard) The PC motherboard that superseded

the Baby AT design. The ATX layout rotated the CPU and memory 90 degrees, allowing full-

length expansions to be plugged into all sockets.

Chipset – the traffic controller between the CPU, GPU, RAM, storage, and peripherals

PCI – Peripheral Component Interconnect, or PCI, is the most common way to attach add-

on controller cards and other devices to a computer motherboard.

PCIe - PCIe is short for “peripheral component interconnect express” and it's primarily used

as a standardized interface for motherboard components including graphics, memory, and

storage.

1. ATX form factor dominates the PC industry. (True/False)

2. The expansion bus runs at the speed of the system clock. (True/False)

3. If Windows recognizes a device, where will it will appear in Device Manager. (True/False)

4. AMD and Intel companies dominate the chipset market. (True/False)

5. ATX form factor was developed in 1992. (True/False)

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CONCEPT MAP

MOTHERBOARD

TYPES SIZES

Extended ATX 12”x13”

Standard ATX 12”x9”

Micro ATX 9.6”x9.6”

Mini ITX 6.7”x6.7”

Nano ITX 4.7”x4.7”

Pico ITX 3.9”x2.8”

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CHAPTER 6

POWER SUPPLY

Computers need electricity to run. Where this electricity comes from depends on the

device. Mobile devices use batteries. Desktop computers need a special box—the power

supply unit (PSU) that takes electricity from the wall socket and transforms it into electricity

your computer can use.

Learning Outcomes

It is expected that students will be able to

• Describe the details of powering the PC

• Install and remove power supply

6.1 Power Supply Connectors

The power supply unit converts public utility voltage AC into several DC voltages

(notably, 3.3, 5.0, and 12.0 V) usable by the delicate interior components. Power supplies

come in a large number of shapes and sizes, but the most common size by far is the

standard 150 mm × 140 mm × 86 mm desktop PSU.

Figure 6.1 Desktop PSU

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6.1.1 Motherboard Connectors

Modern motherboards use a 20- or 24-pin P1 power connector. Some motherboards

may require special 4-, 6-, or 8-pin connectors to supply extra power.

Figure 6.2 Motherboard Power Connectors

6.1.2 Molex Connectors

The Molex connector supplies 5-V and 12-V current for fans and older drives. The

Molex connector has notches called chamfers that guide its installation. The tricky part is

that Molex connectors require a firm push to plug in properly.

Figure 6.3 Molex Connector

6.1.3 Mini Connectors

A few power supplies still support the mini connector or Berg connector. The mini

supplies 5 V and 12 V to peripherals.

Figure 6.4 Mini Connector

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6.1.4 SATA Power Connector

Serial ATA (SATA) drives need a 15-pin SATA power connector. The larger pin coun’t

supports the SATA hot-swappable feature and 3.3-, 5-, and 12-V devices. The 3.3-V pins are

not used in any current iteration of SATA drives and are reserved for possible future use. All

three generations of SATA use the same power connectors. SATA power connectors are L

shaped, making it almost impossible to insert one incorrectly into a SATA drive.

Figure 6.5 SATA Power Connector

6.2 Modular Power Supplies

It’s getting more and more popular to make PCs look good on both the inside and

the outside. Unused power cables dangling around inside PCs creates a not-so-pretty

picture and can impede airflow. To help stylish people, manufacturers created power

supplies with modular cables.

Figure 6.6 Modular-Cable Power Supply

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6.3 Installing and Removing Power Supply

The typical power supply connects to the PC with four standard computer screws,

mounted in the back of the case. Unscrew the four screws and the power supply lifts out

easily. Insert a new power supply that fits the case and attach it by using the same four

screws.

Figure 6.7 Mounting Screws for Power Supply

Figure 6.8 Removing Power Supply from System Unit

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AC – Alternating Current is used to refer to an electric current that continually changes

direction as it flows.

DC – Direct Current is used to refer to an electric current that always flows in the same

direction.

Regulated Power Supply - A regulated power supply converts unregulated AC (Alternating

Current) to a constant DC (Direct Current).

Linear Power Supply - Linear power supplies are designed for low noise and are often

considered quiet since there is no high-frequency switching.

UPS - (Uninterruptible Power Supply) A device that provides battery backup when the

electrical power fails or drops to an unacceptable voltage level.

1. The proper voltage for a Myanmar electrical outlet is 120 V. (True/False)

2. ATX12V P1 connector provides 3.3 and 5 V for the motherboard. (True/False)

3. Molex power connector do better video cards require. (True/False)

4. SATA power connector has 9 pins. (True/False)

5. SATA connector is used for older drive power supply. (True/False)

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CONCEPT MAP

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CHAPTER 7

IMPLEMENTING MASS STORAGE

After successfully installed a hard drive, it must perform two more steps to translate

a drive’s raw media into something the system can use: partitioning and formatting.

Partitioning is the process of electronically subdividing a physical drive into one or more

units called partitions. After partitioning, you must format the drive. Formatting installs a

file system onto the drive that organizes each partition in such a way that the operating

system can store files and folders on the drive. Several types of file systems are used by

Windows.

Learning Outcomes

It is expected that students will be able to

• Explain the partitions available in Windows

• Discuss hard drive formatting options

• Partition and format hard drives

• Install Windows

7.1 Hard Drive Partitions

Before a magnetic disk drive leaves the factory, it is magnetically preset with millions

(hundreds of millions on really big drives) of storage areas known as sectors.

Figure 7.1 Sectors on an HDD

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Solid-state drives come from the factory with each NAND chip storing millions

(hundreds of millions on really big drives) of 4096-byte storage areas known as pages. A

group of pages are combined into a block.

Figure 7.2 SSD Pages and Blocks

The CPU and operating system never talk to these internal structures. Instead, the

controller on the HDD or SSD uses logical block addressing (LBA) to present all these

storage chunks as nothing more than a number that starts at LBA0 and goes until every

sector or page has an LBA number.

Figure 7.3 LBA in Action

LBA makes addressing any form of mass storage easy, and that’s how the operating

system interacts with the mass storage, via blocks. The operating system presents to the

user files and folders, not LBA addresses. We must organize mass storage in a way that

enables us to store and retrieve files, create folders, etc. The first step to doing this is

partitioning.

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Figure 7.4 Partitions on an SSD

You can partition a hard drive to store more than one operating system: store one

OS in one partition and create additional partitions for another OS.

Windows supports three different partitioning methods: the older master boot record

(MBR) partitioning scheme, Windows proprietary dynamic storage partitioning scheme, and

the GUID partition table (GPT).

7.1.1 Master Boot Record

The first sector of an MBR hard drive contains the master boot record (MBR), code

that informs the system about installed operating systems. To clarify, hard drives that use

the MBR partitioning scheme have a tiny bit of data that is also called the master boot

record. While your computer boots up, BIOS looks at the first sector of your hard drive for

instructions. At this point, it doesn’t matter which OS you use or how many partitions you

have. Without this bit of code, your OS will never load.

The master boot record also contains the partition table, which describes the

number and size of partitions on the disk. MBR partition tables support up to four partitions

the partition table is large enough to store entries for only four partitions. The instructions

in the master boot record use this table to determine which partition contains the active

operating system.

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Figure 7.5 The Master Boot Record

After the MBR locates the appropriate partition, the partition boot sector loads the

OS on that partition. The partition boot sector stores information important to its partition,

such as the location of the OS boot files.

Figure 7.6 Using the Master Boot Record to Boot an OS

MBR partition tables support two types of partitions: primary partitions and

extended partitions. Primary partitions are designed to support bootable operating systems.

Extended partitions are not bootable. A single MBR disk may have up to four primary

partitions or up to three primary partitions and one extended partition. Primary partitions

are usually assigned drive letters and appear in Windows Explorer/File Explorer. The first

lettered primary partition in Windows is always C (because early PCs had one or two floppy

drives installed and they got the A and B labels). After that, you can label the partitions D

through Z.

Every primary partition on a single drive has a special setting stored in the partition

table called active that determines the active partition. During boot up, the BIOS/POST

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reads the MBR to find the active partition and boots the operating system on that partition.

Only one partition can be active at a time because you can run only one OS at a time.

Figure 7.7 The Active Partition containing Windows

7.1.2 Dynamic Disks

With the introduction of Windows 2000, Microsoft defined a type of partitioning

called dynamic storage partitioning, better known as dynamic disks. Still in use today,

Microsoft calls a drive structure created with a dynamic disk a volume. There is no dynamic

disk equivalent to primary versus extended partitions. A dynamic disk volume is still

technically a partition, but it can do things a regular partition cannot do.

First when you turn a hard drive into a dynamic disk, you can create as many

volumes on it as you want. You’re not limited to four partitions. Second, you can create in

software new drive structures that you can’t do with MBR drives. Specifically, you can

implement RAID, span volumes over multiple drives, and extend volumes on one or more

drives.

Table 7.1 Dynamic Disk Compatibility

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7.1.3 GUID Partition Table

The GUID partition table (GPT) partitioning scheme shares a lot with the MBR

partitioning scheme, but most of the MBR scheme’s limitations have been fixed. Here are

the big improvements:

 While MBR drives are limited to four partitions, a GPT drive can have an almost

unlimited number of primary partitions. Microsoft has limited Windows to 128

partitions.

 MBR partitions can be no larger than 2.2 TB, but GPT partitions have no such

restrictions. Well, there is a maximum size limit, but it’s so large, we measure it in

zetta bytes. A zetta byte, by the way, is roughly a billion terabytes.

7.2 Hard Drive Formatting

Once you’ve partitioned a hard drive, that partition is nothing more than a large

number of blocks. Your operating system needs to store files. Every version of Windows

comes with a built-in formatting utility with which to create one or more file systems on a

partition or volume. The versions of Windows in current use support three Microsoft file

systems: FAT32, NTFS, and exFAT (for removable media). All Windows file systems organize

blocks of data into groups called clusters. The size of each cluster varies according to the

file system and the size of the partition.

Table 7.2 FAT32 Cluster Sizes

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Table 7.3 NTFS Cluster Sizes

The newer file system, called exFAT, breaks the 4-GB file-size barrier, supporting files

up to 16 exabytes (EB) and a theoretical partition limit of 64 zetta bytes (ZB). An exabyte is

260 bytes; a zetta byte is 270 bytes. For comparison, a terabyte is 240 bytes.

7.3 Disk Initialization

Every hard drive in a Windows system has special information placed onto the drive

through a process called disk initialization. All new drives must be initialized before you can

use them. When you install an extra hard drive into a Windows system and start Disk

Management, it notices the new drive and starts the Hard Drive Initialization Wizard.

Figure 7.8 Unknown Drive in Disk Management

To initialize a disk, right-click the disk icon and select Initialize. You will get the

option to select MBR or GPT as a partition style.

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Figure 7.9 Initializing a Drive

To create partitions or volumes, right-click the unallocated part of the drive and

select New Simple Volume. Disk Management runs the New Simple Volume Wizard.

Figure 7.10 Specifying the Simple Volume Size in the New Simple Volume Wizard

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Specify a volume size and click Next. The wizard will ask if you want to assign a drive

letter to the volume.

Figure 7.11 Assigning a Drive Letter to a Volume

The last screen of the New Simple Volume Wizard asks for the type of format you

want to use for this partition.

Figure 7.12 Choosing a File System Type

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7.4 Installing Windows 10

Windows installation has two steps. First, boot the system from the OS installation

media. Second, answer the installation wizard’s initial queries and let it do its thing. At the

most basic level, installing any operating system follows a standard set of steps. You turn on

the computer, insert an operating system disc/disk into the optical drive or USB port, or

access the media some other way, and follow the installation wizard until you have

everything completed. Along the way, you’ll accept the End User License Agreement (EULA)

the terms and conditions for using the OS and enter the product key. When you’ve booted

into the installer, the first screen you see asks you if you want 32-bit or 64-bit Windows.

Figure 7.13 Windows 64-bit or 32-bit Selection Screen

Your next screen asks for language, time and currency, and keyboard settings. These

are sometimes called regional settings. Click Next to proceed.

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Figure 7.14 Windows Regional Settings

The next screen starts the installation process, but note the lower-left corner. This

screen also enables techs to start the installation disc’s repair tools.

Figure 7.15 The Windows Setup Welcome Screen

The next screen prompts you to enter your product key before you do anything else.

The product key comes with the installation media.

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Figure 7.16 The Windows Product Key Screen

Every Windows installation disc/disk contains all of the available editions within a

version. The product key not only verifies the legitimacy of your purchase; it also tells the

installer which edition you purchased.

Figure 7.17 Choosing the Edition of Windows You want to Install

On the next page, you get to decide whether you’d like to do an upgrade installation

or a clean installation. Custom installation enables customization of various items, such as

partitions.

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Figure 7.18 Choose Your Installation Type

The next screen shows how you can partition hard drives and choose a destination

partition for Windows.

Figure 7.19 The Partitioning Screen

Once you’ve partitioned drives and selected a destination partition for install

Windows, the installation process takes over, copying files, expanding files, installing

features, and just generally doing lots of computerish things. When Windows has finished

unpacking and installing itself, you have to configure a system to work in a workgroup

(personal use) or in an organization.

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Figure 7.20 Choosing Personal or Organization

This following screen asks you to set up a user name and password for your main

user account. All operating systems require the creation of this account.

Figure 7.21 Choosing a User Name

Once you’re past that screen, Windows gets to work on the installation and warns

you that it may take some time.

Figure 7.22 Okay, Windows, Thanks for the Warning

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MBR - Master Boot Record disks use the standard BIOS partition table.

GPT - GUID Partition Table disks use Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI).

GUID - Globally Unique IDentifier is a 128-bit value consisting of one group of 8 hexadecimal

digits, followed by three groups of 4 hexadecimal digits each followed by one group of 12

hexadecimal digits.

FAT32 - (File Allocation Table32) The 32-bit version of the FAT file system. The FAT32 format

is widely used for USB drives, flash memory cards and external hard drives for compatibility

between all platforms.

exFAT - (Extensible File Allocation Table) is a file system introduced by Microsoft in 2006

and optimized for flash memory such as USB flash drives and SD cards.

NTFS - New Technology File System is a process that the Windows NT operating system uses

for storing, organizing, and finding files on a hard disk efficiently. NTFS was first introduced

in 1993.

1. The most complete list of file systems Windows can use is ________.

2. Disk Management console program include with Windows to ________ and ________ a

drive.

3. Microsoft defined a type of partitioning called dynamic storage partitioning is introduced

in Windows ________.

4. To make your files unreadable by others, should you should use ________.

5. MBR partitions can be no larger than ________ TB.

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CONCEPT MAP

Hard Disk

HD Partitions HD Formatting

FAT32
Primary Partitions
exFAT
Extended Partitions
NTFS

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CHAPTER 8

WIRED NETWORK

Networks dominate the modern computing environment. Because networks are so

common today, every good tech needs to know the basics of networking technology,

operating systems, implementation, and troubleshooting. Accordingly, this chapter teaches

how to build and troubleshoot a basic network.

Learning Outcomes

It is expected that students will be able to

• Explain the basic of IP addressing

• Install and configure wired networks

• Troubleshoot wired networks

The Ethernet hardware protocol does a fine job of moving data from one machine to

another. Network protocol software takes the incoming data received by the network card,

keeps it organized, send it to the application that needs it, and then takes outgoing data

from the application and hands it to the NIC to be sent out over the network. All networks

use some network protocol. Over the years there have been many network protocols, most

combining multiple simple protocols into groups, called protocol stacks or protocol suites.

This led to some crazily named network protocols, such as TCP/IP. The Transmission

Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the primary protocol of most modern

networks, including the Internet.

8.1 IP Address

The IP address is the unique identification number for your system on the network.

Most systems today rely on the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) addressing scheme. IPv4

addresses consist of four sets of eight binary numbers (octets), each set separated by a

period. This is called dotted-decimal notation. So, instead of a computer being called

SERVER1, it gets an address like so:

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202.34.16.11

Written in binary form, the address would look like this:

11001010.00100010.00010000.00001011

To make the addresses more comprehensible to users, the TCP/IP folks decided to

write the decimal equivalents:

00000000 = 0

00000001 = 1

00000010 = 2

...

11111111 = 255

8.1.1 Subnet Mask

Let’s look at a typical subnet mask: 255.255.255.0. When you compare the subnet

mask to the IP address, any part that’s all 255s is the network ID. Any part that’s all zeros is

the host ID. Look at the following example:

IP address: 192.168.4.33

Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0

Because the first thee octets are 255, the network ID is 192.168.4 and the host ID is 33.

Every computer on a single local area network (LAN) must have the same network ID

and a unique host ID. That means every computer on the preceding network must have an

IP address that starts with 192.168.4. Every computer on the network must have a unique IP

address. If two computers have the same IP address, they won’t be able to talk to each

other, and other computers won’t know where to send data. This is called an IP conflict.

Originally, subnets fell into “classes,” such as A, B, or C, determined by the

corresponding octet in the subnet mask. A Class C address, like the one just discussed, had

a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0. A Class B address, in contrast, had a subnet mask of

255.255.0.0. The latter class left two full octets (16 bits) just for host numbers. That meant a

single Class B network ID could have 216 – 2 unique host IDs = 65,534 addresses. For

completeness, note that a Class A address subnet mask was 255.0.0.0.

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The current system is called Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) and it works

easily in binary, but a little less prettily when you show the numbers in the octets. A quick

example should suffice to illustrate this point. A subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 translates

into binary as such:

11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

Count the ones. (There are 20.) The ones mask the network ID. That leaves 12 digits

for the host IDs. Do the binary math: 212 – 2 = 4094 unique addresses in a single /20 network

ID. When you change the binary number 11110000 to an octet, you get the following:

255.255.240.0

Figure 8.1 A LAN Showing the Network ID and Subnet Mask

8.1.2 Interconnecting Networks

IP addressing enables interconnecting of network IDs, making larger networks called

wide area networks (WANs). Switches interconnect systems on a LAN—the switch filters and

forwards by MAC address. Interconnecting LANs requires a device a router that filters and

forwards by IP address.

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Figure 8.2 Typical SOHO Router

A router will have at a minimum two connections to enable it to connect to two

different LANs. Every LAN that connects to the Internet must have a router. One port on the

router connects to your LAN’s switch and receives an IP address that’s part of your network

ID. The other port on the router connects to the next network, usually your Internet service

provider (ISP), which in turn connects to millions of other routers and billions of other

computers. The IP address of the“LAN” side of your router (the port connected to your LAN)

is the address your computer uses to send data to anything outside your network ID. This is

called the default gateway.

Figure 8.3 Default Gateway

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8.1.3 Domain Name Service (DNS)

Knowing that users could not remember lots of IP addresses, early Internet pioneers

came up with a way to correlate those numbers with more human-friendly designations.

The system they came up with is called the Domain Name Service (DNS). Special

computers, called DNS servers, keep databases of IP addresses and their corresponding

names.

Figure 8.4 Domain Name Service

8.1.4 Entering the IP Information

When you’re configuring a computer to connect to a network, the operating system

must provide you an interface to enter the IP address, the subnet mask, the default

gateway, and at least one DNS server. Let’s review:

• IP address-Your computer’s unique address on the network

• Subnet mask-Identifies your network ID

• Default gateway-IP address on the LAN side of your router

• DNS server-Tracks easy-to-remember DNS names for IP addresses

There are two ways to enter IP information on system: statically or dynamically.

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Figure 8.5 IP Settings on a Windows 10 System

8.1.5 Ping

The ping command provides a really great way to see if you can talk to another

system. Here’s how it works. Get to a command prompt or terminal and type ping followed

by an IP address or by a DNS name, such as ping www.google.com.

8.1.6 Ipconfig

Windows offers the command-line tool ipconfig for a quick glance at your network

settings. From command prompt, type ipconfig/all to see all of your TCP/IP settings.

8.2 Installing and Configuring a Wired Network

To have network connectivity, you need to have three things in place:

1. Connected NIC The physical hardware that connects the computer system to the

network media.

2. Properly configured IP addressing Your device needs correct IP addressing for your

network, either via DHCP or static.

3. Switch Everything connects to a switch in a wired network.

If you want to share resources on your PC with other network users, you also need to

enable Microsoft’s File and Printer Sharing. When you install a NIC, by default Windows

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installs upon setup the TCP/IP protocol, the Client for Microsoft Networks, and File and

Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks.

8.3 Sharing Files and Printer with the Sharing Wizard

All personal computers can share folders and printers out of the box. Sharing a folder

in Windows is easy, for example, because the Sharing Wizard is enabled by default. Just

right-click on the folder and select Share with Specific people (in Windows 7), or Give access

to Specific people (Windows 8/8.1/10) to get to the Choose people to share with dialog box.

Figure 8.6 Folder Sharing in Windows 10

The following list describes the permissions:

 Read You can see what’s in the folder. You may open files in the folder, but you can’t

save anything back into the folder.

 Read/Write Same as Read but you can save files into the folder.

 Owner Same as Read/Write plus you can set the permissions for other users on the

folder.

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IP address - a unique string of characters that identifies each computer using the Internet

Protocol to communicate over a network.

Subnet mask - is a 32-bit number created by setting host bits to all 0s and setting network

bits to all 1s.

Default Gateway - is the path used to pass information when the device doesn't know where

the destination is.

DNS Server - is a server that is specifically used for matching website hostnames (like

example.com) to their corresponding Internet Protocol or IP addresses.

ISP - Internet service provider (ISP) company that provides Internet connections and

services to individuals and organizations.

1. What command would you use to view the IP address of your computer?

A. ping

B. ipconfig

C. tracert

D. nslookup

2. What command would you use to test connection with other computer?

A. ping

B. ipconfig

C. tracert

D. nslookup

3. Which service keeps databases of IP addresses and their corresponding names?

A. ping

B. ipconfig

C. dns

D. nslookup

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4. Which of the following is the correct subnet mask of class B?

A. 255.0.0.0

B. 255.255.0.0

C. 255.255.255.0

D. 255.255.255.255

5. Which of the following is the network ID of 192.168.0.10?

A. 192.0.0.0

B. 192.168.0.0

C. 192.168.10.0

D. 0.0.0.0

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CONCEPT MAP

NETWORK

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REFERENCES

➢ Nurul Sakar, Computer Networking and Hardware Concepts

➢ David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy, Computer Organization and Design

➢ Mike Meyers, CompTIA A+ Certification, Tenth Edition

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