ST JOSEPH’S INDIAN COMPOSITE PU COLLEGE

II PUC Physics Remedial Material

Electric Charges and Fields

1) Mention the fundamental/basic properties electric charges.
 Charges are additive
 Charges are conserved
 Charges are quantised
2) Mention the methods of charging.
 Charging by contact
 Charging by induction
3) State and explain Coulomb’s law.
The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude
of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; and the force
acts along the line joining the two charges.
That is,
𝑞 𝑞
𝐹 ∝ 12 2
𝑟
𝑞1 𝑞2
 𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
where, ‘𝑘′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, which is given
1
by, 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑜
𝜀𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦.
4) Define one coulomb (1C).
1C is the charge that when placed at a distance of 1m from another identical charge in vacuum experiences
an electrical force of repulsion of magnitude 9 × 109 𝑁.
5) Mention any three properties of electric field lines.
 A tangent drawn to an electric field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that
point.
 Field lines always start from a positive charge and end on a negative charge.
 In a region containing a single charge,
 If the charge is positive, then field lines starts from the positive charge and ends at infinity.
 If the charge is negative, then field lines starts from infinity, and ends on the negative
charge.
 In a charge-free region, electric field lines are continuous curves without breaks.
 Field lines never intersect each other.
 Field lines do not form closed loops.
 Field lines are always normal to the surface of a conductor.
6) Derive the expression for electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the dipole axis.
Consider an electric dipole, whose dipole moment is given by,
𝑝⃗ = 𝑞(2𝑎)𝑝̂
The net electric field at point P on the axis of the dipole is given
by,
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗+ + 𝐸⃗⃗−
where, 𝐸⃗⃗+ is the electric field at point P due to the charge +q
and, 𝐸⃗⃗− is the electric field at point P due to the charge –q
 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = − 2
+
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝑞 1 1
 𝐸⃗⃗ = ( 2 −
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟+𝑎) 2) (𝑟−𝑎)
𝑞 (𝑟−𝑎)2 −(𝑟+𝑎)2
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 ( (𝑟+𝑎)2 (𝑟−𝑎)2 )
𝑜
𝑞 (𝑟−𝑎+𝑟+𝑎)(𝑟−𝑎−𝑟−𝑎)
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 ( (𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 )2
)
𝑜
𝑞 (2𝑟)(−2𝑎)
 𝐸⃗⃗ = ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 )2
1 (−2𝑟𝑝)
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 ((𝑟2 −𝑎2 )2 )
𝑜
where, 𝑝 = 𝑞(2𝑎), is the magnitude of the electric dipole moment.
Therefore,
2𝑟𝑝𝑝̂
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 2 2 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 −𝑎 )
2𝑟𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 )2
Note:
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, or for a short dipole, ‘𝑎’ can be neglected. Therefore, we get,
2𝑟𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 4
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
2𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 3
𝑜𝑟
7) Derive the expression for electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the equatorial plane.

METHOD-1:
Consider an electric dipole, whose dipole moment is given by,
𝑝⃗ = 𝑞(2𝑎)𝑝̂
The net electric field at point P on the equatorial plane of the
dipole is given by,
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗+ + 𝐸⃗⃗−
where, 𝐸⃗⃗+ is the electric field at point P due to the charge +q
and, 𝐸⃗⃗− is the electric field at point P due to the charge –q
We see that the magnitudes of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− are the same, but their
directions are different as shown in the diagram.
1 𝑞
𝐸+ = = 𝐸−
4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 + 𝑎2
2

The net electric field is given by,

𝐸 = √𝐸+ 2 + 𝐸− 2 + 2𝐸+ 𝐸_ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜃

 𝐸 = √2𝐸+ 2 + 2𝐸+ 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜃

 𝐸 = √2𝐸+ 2 (1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜃)

 𝐸 = √2𝐸+ 2 (1 + 2𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1)

 𝐸 = √4𝐸+ 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
 𝐸 = 2𝐸+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
1 𝑞
 𝐸 = 2( 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2
 𝑎 𝑎
But 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = 1
√𝑟 2 +𝑎2 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
1 𝑞 𝑎
 𝐸 = 2 (4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 +𝑎2 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )1⁄2
)
𝑂
𝑝
 𝐸= 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
Since the net electric field opposes the electric dipole moment, we get,
−𝑝𝑝̂
𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
−𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
Note:
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, or for a short dipole, ‘𝑎’ can be neglected. Therefore, we get,
−𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 ) ⁄2
−𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 3
𝑜𝑟

METHOD-2:
Consider an electric dipole, whose dipole moment is given by,
𝑝⃗ = 𝑞(2𝑎)𝑝̂
The net electric field at point P on the equatorial plane of the dipole is given by,
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗+ + 𝐸⃗⃗−
where, 𝐸⃗⃗+ is the electric field at point P due to the charge +q
and, 𝐸⃗⃗− is the electric field at point P due to the charge –q
We see that the magnitudes of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− are the same, but their directions are different as shown in the
diagram.
1 𝑞
𝐸+ = = 𝐸−
4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 + 𝑎2
2

The vertical components of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− are equal and opposite. Hence they cancel each other.
The horizontal components of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− add up, that is, the net electric field is given by,
𝐸 = 𝐸+ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝐸− 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑂
1 𝑞
 𝐸 = 2(4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑂
𝑎 𝑎
But 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = 1
√𝑟 2 +𝑎2 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
1 𝑞 𝑎
 𝐸 = 2 (4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 +𝑎2 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )1⁄2
)
𝑂
𝑝
 𝐸= 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
Since the net electric field opposes the electric dipole moment, we get,
−𝑝𝑝̂
𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
−𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 ) ⁄2
Note:
If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, or for a short dipole, ‘𝑎’ can be neglected. Therefore, we get,
−𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 ) ⁄2
 −𝑝⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟3
𝑜
8) What are polar and non polar molecules? Give an example for each.
Non polar molecules:
 In these molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges coincide. In the presence of
external electric field, the centres of positive and negative charges may be separated.
Ex: 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐶𝐻4 , 𝑁2 , 𝐻2 , 𝑂2
 They do not have a permanent electric dipole moment.
Polar molecules:
 In these molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges are separated, even in the absence
of an external electric field.
Ex: 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝐶𝑂, 𝑁𝐻3 , 𝐻𝐶𝑙
 They have a permanent electric dipole moment.
9) Derive the expression for torque acting on an electric dipole in a uniform electric field.
Consider a permanent electric dipole moment 𝑝⃗ placed in a uniform external electric field as shown.
The net force on the dipole is the vector sum of forces acting on the charges, +q and –q, that is,
𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗+ + 𝐹⃗−
 𝐹⃗ = (+𝑞𝐸) + (−𝑞𝐸)
 𝐹⃗ = 0
But the net torque acting on the dipole is not zero.
Here, the torque is measured about the centre of the dipole.
𝜏⃗ = 𝜏⃗+ + 𝜏⃗−
 𝜏⃗ = (𝑎𝐹+ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̂) + (𝑎𝐹− 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̂)
 𝜏⃗ = 𝑎(𝑞𝐸)𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̂ + 𝑎(𝑞𝐸)𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̂
 𝜏⃗ = 2𝑎(𝑞𝐸)𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̂
But 𝑞(2𝑎) = 𝑝, is the magnitude of the dipole
moment.
 𝜏⃗ = 𝑝𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛̂
 𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗
10) State and explain Gauss’ law.
1
Statement: The total electric flux over a closed, hypothetical surface in vacuum is equal to 𝜀 times the total
𝑜
charge enclosed by the surface.
(This closed, hypothetical surface is called the Gaussian surface).
If 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, then according to Gauss’s law,
𝑞
𝜑𝐸 = 𝜀𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝑜
11) Using Gauss’ law, derive the expression for electric field due to an
infinitely long, straight uniformly charged wire.
Consider an infinitely long, straight uniformly charged wire, whose linear
charge density is 𝜆.
Let Δ𝑞 be the charge contained in a finite length ′𝐿′ of the wire. Therefore,
Δq
𝜆=
L
 ∆𝑞 = 𝜆𝐿
To find the electric field at a point ′𝑃′ at a distance ′𝑟′ due the charged wire,
we consider a Gaussian cylinder of length ′𝐿′ passing through the point ‘P’.
According to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the electric field due to the charged wire is radially
outwards, and always perpendicular to the Gaussian cylinder.
The electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
Δ𝜑𝐸 = Δ𝜑1 + Δ𝜑2 + Δ𝜑3
 Δ𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(Δ𝑆1 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 90𝑜 + 𝐸(Δ𝑆2 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 90𝑜 + 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜
 Δ𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )
Therefore, the total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is,
𝜑𝐸 = ∑ Δ𝜑𝐸
 𝜑𝐸 = ∑ 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )
The magnitude of the electric field at all points on the curved surface of the Gaussian cylinder is the same.
Therefore,
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 ∑(Δ𝑆3 )
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝐿)
Using Gauss’s law,
∆𝑞
𝜑𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜
𝜆𝐿
 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = 𝜀𝑜
𝜆
 𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
Note:
If 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed radially outwards, then,
𝜆
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟̂
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
12) Using Gauss’s law, derive the expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.

Consider a uniformly charged, infinite plane sheet whose

surface charge density is ′𝜎′.
If ∆𝑞 is the charge on a small area element ∆𝑆 on the sheet,
then,
∆𝑞
𝜎=
∆𝑆
 ∆𝑞 = 𝜎(∆𝑆)
To find the electric field at a point very close to the sheet,
imagine a Gaussian pillbox (a small cylinder) at that point,
piercing through the sheet.
According to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the
electric field due to the uniformly charged sheet will be perpendicular and outwards to the sheet.
The electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
𝜑𝐸 = 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 + 𝜑3
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(∆𝑆1 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜 + 𝐸(∆𝑆2 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜 + 𝐸(Δ𝑆3 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 90𝑜
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(∆𝑆1 ) + 𝐸(∆𝑆2 )
Since ∆𝑆1 = ∆𝑆2 = ∆𝑆 (say), we get,
𝜑𝐸 = 2𝐸(∆𝑆)
Using Gauss’s law,
∆𝑞
𝜑𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜
 𝜎(∆𝑆)
 2𝐸(∆𝑆) =
𝜀𝑜
𝜎
 𝐸 = 2𝜀
𝑜
Note:
If 𝑛̂ is the unit vector directed perpendicular and outwards the plane of sheet, then,
𝜎
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑛̂
2𝜀𝑜
13) Using Gauss’s law, derive the expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell.
Case (i): Electric field outside the spherical shell:
Consider a uniformly charged, thin spherical shell of radius ‘R’. Let the total charge on the shell be ′𝑄′.
To find the electric field at a point ‘P’ outside the sphere at a distance ′𝑟′ from the centre of the shell:
Imagine a Gaussian sphere of radius ′𝑟′ passing throu
gh the point ‘P’.
According to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the electric field is directed radially outwards,
perpendicular to all the points on the sphere.
The total electric flux through the Gaussian sphere is given by,
𝜑𝐸 = ∑ ∆𝜑𝐸
 𝜑𝐸 = ∑ 𝐸(∆𝑆)𝐶𝑜𝑠 0𝑜
where, ∆𝑆 is a small patch of area on the Gaussian sphere. The
magnitude of the electric field is a constant at all points on the
Gaussian sphere. Therefore,
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝑆)
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
2
where, ∑(∆𝑆) = 4𝜋𝑟 is the surface area of the Gaussian sphere.
Using Gauss’s law,
𝑄
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝜀
𝑜
2) 𝑄
 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 =𝜀
𝑜
𝑄
 𝐸 = 𝜀 (4𝜋𝑟2 )
𝑜
1 𝑄
 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟2 )
𝑜
If 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed radially outwards, then,
1 𝑄
𝐸⃗⃗ = ( 2 ) 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
Thus, for points outside the uniformly charged, thin spherical shell, the electric field is as if the entire
charge was concentrated at the centre of the shell.
Case (ii): Electric field inside the spherical shell:
Consider a uniformly charged, thin spherical shell of radius ‘R’. Let the total
charge on the shell be ′𝑄′.
To find the electric field at a point P’ inside the sphere at a distance 𝑟′ from the
centre of the shell:
Imagine a Gaussian sphere of radius 𝑟′ passing through the point P’.
Using Gauss’s law,
𝑞
 𝜑𝐸 = 𝜀𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝑜
Here, since the Gaussian sphere does not enclose any charge, that is, 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0.
Therefore, 𝜑𝐸 = 0
Since, 𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝑆), we get,
𝐸=0
Therefore, electric field inside a uniformly, charged thin spherical shell is zero.
Case (iii): Electric field just outside the spherical shell
If ′𝜎′ is the surface charge density of the uniformly charged spherical shell, then,
𝑄
𝜎=
4𝜋𝑅 2
2
where, (4𝜋𝑅 ) is the area of the spherical shell.
Using case (i) we get the electric field just outside the spherical shell, that is,
1 𝑄
 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑅2 )
𝑜
𝜎
 𝐸=𝜀
𝑜
If 𝑟̂ is the unit vector directed radially outwards, then,
𝜎
 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜀 𝑟̂
𝑜

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

1) State and explain Ohm’s law.

The current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its
ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant.
𝐼∝𝑉
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
Where, I is the current in the conductor, V is the potential difference and R
is the resistance of the conductor.
2) Define 1 ohm.
The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm, if 1A of current flows through it when a potential
difference of 1V is applied across its ends.
3) Mention the limitations of Ohm’s law.
 Ohm’s law is not applicable to superconductors.
 It is not applicable to semiconductors.
 It is not applicable for metallic conductors at very low and high temperatures.
4) What are ohmic and non-ohmic devices? Give examples.
The device which obeys Ohm’s law is called an ohmic device. That is, the graph of current versus voltage for
the device should be linear.
Example: Metallic conductors.
The device which does not obey Ohm’s law is called a non-ohmic device. That is, the graph of current versus
voltage for the device should be non - linear.
Example: Semiconductors.
5) How does the resistance of a conductor vary with its length and its area of cross section?
The resistance of a conductor is
 Directly proportional to length of the conductor.
 Inversely proportional to area of cross- section of the conductor.
6) Represent graphically the variations of resistivity with absolute temperature for
a) copper b) nichrome, and c) silicon (semiconductor).
7) Derive the relation 𝑱⃗ = 𝝈𝑬 ⃗⃗ or derive Ohm’s law in vector form.
In the figure, ′𝑙′ is the length of the cylindrical metallic wire,
‘A’ is the area of cross -section of the wire, ‘V’ is the potential difference applied across the wire, ‘E’ is the
electric field set up in the wire ,′𝑣𝑑 ′ is the drift velocity of the electrons, ‘I’ is the current in the wire,

𝑉
We have 𝐼 = 𝑅 -----(1)
𝜌𝑙
But 𝑅 = 𝐴
𝑣 𝑉𝐴
From equation 1, 𝐼 = =
𝜌𝑙/𝐴 𝜌𝑙

𝐼 1 𝑉
𝐴
= 𝜌( 𝑙 ) --------(2)

𝐼
But 𝐴
=J,
𝑉 1
𝑙
= E, and 𝜌 = 𝜎
From equation (2)
𝐽⃗ = 𝜎𝐸⃗⃗
In the above relations,
R is the resistance of the wire, J is the current density, ρ is the resistivity of metal of the wire, σ is the
conductivity of the wire.
8) Derive an expression for drift velocity of free electrons in a conductor.
Let ‘m’ be the mass of an electron, ‘-e’ be the charge of the electron, ‘u’ be the average
initial velocity of all the free electrons, ‘E’ be the field in the conductor, ‘v’ be the
average final velocity of all the free electrons, ‘a’ be the acceleration of the electrons,
‘τ’ be the relaxation time of the electrons.
We have the average velocity of all the electrons 〈𝑣〉 = 〈𝑢〉 + 〈𝑎𝜏〉 -------------(1)
In the absence of electric field, 〈𝑢〉 = 0
In the presence of electric field, 〈𝑣〉 = drift velocity = 𝑣𝑑
From equation (1), 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎𝜏 ------(2)
But, F = ma
𝐹
 a=𝑚
−𝑒𝐸
 a= 𝑚
(Since,F = qE = -eE)
−𝑒𝐸𝜏
From equation (2) 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚
Where negative sign indicates that the direction of 𝑣𝑑 and E are opposite to each other.
9) Derive an expression for conductivity of a material in terms of relaxation time.
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
(Or derive σ = )
𝒎

In the figure,
′𝑙′ is the length of the cylindrical metallic wire, ‘A’ is the area of cross-section of the wire, ‘V’ is the
potential difference applied across the wire, ‘E’ is the electric field set up in the wire, ′𝑣𝑑 ′ is the drift
velocity of the electrons, ‘I’ is the current in the wire.
 The current through the wire is given by,
𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝐸𝑒𝜏
But 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚
Therefore,
𝐸𝑒𝜏
𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒( )
𝑚
𝐼 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
 =( )𝐸
𝐴 𝑚
𝐼
where, 𝐴 = 𝐽. Therefore,
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝐽=( )𝐸
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
where, ( 𝑚
) is called the conductivity (𝜎) of the material of the wire. Hence,
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=( )
𝑚
(‘J’ is the current density, ‘n’ is the number of electrons per unit volume, ‘τ’ is the relaxation time, ‘e’ is the
charge on the electron, ‘m’ is the mass of an electron).
10) Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in series. Derive the expression for the
equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the combination.

In the above figure,

P and Q are the two cells connected in series, E1 and E2 are the emfs of P and Q respectively, r1 and r2 are the
internal resistances of P and Q respectively,
𝐼 is the current flowing through the the two cells.
Let VAB, VBC and VAC be the potential differences between the points A & B, B & C and A & C respectively
By the definition, emf of the cell, E = V + Ir
 V = E - Ir
For the cell P => 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸1 -𝐼𝑟1 ------------(1)
For the cell Q => 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝐸2 -𝐼𝑟2 -------------(2)
But 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐶 -------------(3)
From equation (1) and (2) in (3)
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = (𝐸1 -𝐼𝑟1 ) + (𝐸2 -𝐼𝑟2 )
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 - 𝐼𝑟1 - 𝐼𝑟2
𝑉𝐴𝐶 =(𝐸1 + 𝐸2 ) -𝐼(𝑟1 +𝑟2 ) --------------(4)
When the combination is replaced by an equivalent cell of emf Es and an equivalent internal resistance rs
We get 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = Es - I rs --------------(5)
On comparing (4) and (5) , we get ,
𝐸𝑠 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 and 𝑟𝑠 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
11) Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in parallel. Derive the expression for the
equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the combination.

𝑬𝟐
 In the above figure,
P and Q are the two cells connected in parallel, E1 and E2 are the emfs of P and Q respectively, r1 and r2 are the
internal resistances of P and Q respectively,
I1 and I2 are the currents through the cells of P and Q respectively,
I is the main current send by the two cells (𝐼 = 𝐼1 +𝐼2 ),
V is the potential difference between the points A & B. It is same for both P & Q.
By the definition, emf of the cell, E = V + Ir
Ir = E-V
𝐸−𝑉
𝐼= ----------(1)
𝑟

-------(2)

- ---------(3)

On putting the values of and in equation (i) ,we get

𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1 𝑟 +𝑟
𝐼=( 𝑟1 𝑟2
)− 𝑉( 𝑟1 𝑟 2 )
1 2

𝑟 +𝑟 𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1
𝑉 ( 𝑟1 𝑟 2 ) = ( 𝑟1 𝑟2
)− 𝐼
1 2

Now, comparing with,

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑃 − 𝐼𝑟𝑃

On comparing we get,

𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1
𝐸𝑃 = 𝑟1 +𝑟2

𝑟 𝑟
and, 𝑟𝑃 = 𝑟 1+𝑟2
2 2
Note:
 For ‘n’ cells in series,
𝐸𝑠 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4 +……..𝐸𝑛
𝑟𝑠 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 +…….+𝑟𝑛
 For ‘n’ cells in parallel,
𝐸𝑃 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
= 1 + 2 + 3 +………..+ 𝑛
𝑟𝑃 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛
 1 1 1 1 1
𝑟𝑃
= 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 +………+𝑟
1 2 3 𝑛

12) State and explain Kirchhoff’s junction/current rule of electrical network.

The sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.

In the figure, i1 and i2 are the currents entering the junction O, and i3 and i4 are the currents leaving the
junction O. From Kirchhoff’s junction rule, i1 + i2 = i3 + i4
13) State and explain Kirchhoff’s loop/voltage rule of electrical network.
The algrbraic sum of the IR products is equal to the algebraic sum of the emfs in an electrical loop.

On applying the loop rule to the loop ABCD, we get, E1 - I1R1 + I2R2 - E2 = 0
 E1 - E2 = I1R1 - I2R2
14) What is the significance of Kirchhoff’s junction rule?
Law of conservation of charge.
15) What is the significance of Kirchhoff’s loop rule?
Law of conservation of energy.
16) Deduce the condition for balance of a Wheatstone bridge using Kirchhoff’s rules.

Wheatstone’s bridge is a device used to determine unknown resistance. It consists of 4 arms of resistances P, Q, R &
S, a galvanometer of resistance ‘G’ & a battery with plug key. Let ‘I’ be the main current & splits into branch current
I1 & I2 as shown. Ig is the current flowing through the galvanometer.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage rule to the mesh ABDA
-𝐼1 𝑃 - 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 + 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0………..(1)
Similarly applying the voltage rule to the mesh BCDB
-(𝐼1 – 𝐼𝑔 ) Q + (𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑔 ) S + 𝐼𝑔 G = 0 ….(2)
The Wheat stone bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current flowing through the galvanometer. i.e., 𝐼𝑔 =
0

Equation (1) becomes, -𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 => 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 …………(3)

Equation (2) becomes, -𝐼1 Q + 𝐼2 S = 0 => 𝐼1 Q = 𝐼2 S ………….. (4)

𝐸𝑞𝑛.(3) 𝐼 𝑃 𝐼 𝑅 𝑃 𝑅
𝐸𝑞𝑛.(4)
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠, 𝐼1Q = 𝐼2 S => Q
=S
1 2
This is the condition for balance of a Wheatstone bridge/network.

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

1. State and explain Biot-Savart’s law.

Biot – Savart’s law states that the magnetic field dB due to a current element 𝑑𝑙 at any point would be as
follows,
dB  I
dB  𝑑𝑙
dB  sin 
1
dB  r2
I dl sin
Combining all the above conditions, we get dB  r2
0 I dl sin
or dB =
4π r2
where, 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑚−1
2. Derive the expression for magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular current loop.
Consider a circular loop carrying a steady current 𝐼. The loop is placed in the y-z plane with its centre at the
origin O and has a radius R. The x-axis is the axis of the loop. Let x be the distance of P from the centre O of
the loop. Consider a conducting element dl of the loop. The magnitude dB of the magnetic field due to the
current element 𝐼dl is given by the Biot-Savart law.
0 I dl sin
dB = 4π r2
……………(1)
Here 𝜃 = 90 => sin 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = 1
𝑜

Now r2 = x2 + R2. Hence, eqn(1) becomes,

0 I dl
dB = 4π x2 + R2……………(2)

dB has an x-component dBx and a component perpendicular

to x-axis, 𝑑𝐵⊥ . When the components perpendicular to the x-
axis are summed over, they cancel out.
The net contribution along x-direction can be obtained by
integrating dBx = dB cos 𝛼 over the loop, where, cos 𝛼 =
R
1
(x2 + R2 ) ⁄2

0 I dl R
Therefore, dBx = dB cos 𝛼 = 4π x2 + R2 . 1
(x2 + R2 ) ⁄2
0 I dl R
dBx = . 3
4π (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2
Hence, the magnetic field due to the entire loop is given by,
 0 I ∑ dl R
∑dBx = . 3
4π (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2
But, ∑ 𝑑𝑙 = 2πR, the circumference of the loop. Thus,
0 I (2πR) R
B= . 3
4π (x2 + R2 ) ⁄2
By solving we get,
𝜇𝑜 2𝜋𝐼𝑅 2
𝐵=
4𝜋 (x 2 + R2 )3⁄2
0 iR2
or, B = 3
2(x2 + R2 ) ⁄2
Note:
 Magnetic field at the centre of the circular loop is given by substituting x = 0, and we obtain,
0 i
B0 =
2R
 If there are ‘N’ turns of the circular loops, then the magnetic flux is given by,
𝜇𝑜 2𝜋𝑁𝐼𝑅 2
𝐵=
4𝜋 (x 2 + R2 )3⁄2
3. State Ampere’s circuital law
The line integral ∮ 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ for a closed curve enclosing an area is equal to  times the net current I through
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙
0
the area bounded by the curve.
i.e., ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 =  I
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
0
4. Derive an expression for magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight conductor carrying current using
ampere circuit law.
Consider a straight conductor of infinite length in the plane of the
paper. Let I be the current through it.
The magnetic field 𝑩⃗⃗⃗at point P due to the current in the wire is along
the tangent to the circle. Hence the magnetic field 𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗is parallel to the
line element ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍at P.
Applying Ampere’s circuital law to the circular loop of radius r,
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 =  I
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
0
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0 I
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = 0 I
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0 I
B ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 0 I
B (2r) = 0 I
0  I
B =2r
5. What is a solenoid? Derive the expression for the magnetic field at the centre, along the axis of the solenoid.
A solenoid consists of a long wire wound in the form of a helix where the neighbouring turns are closely spaced
so that each turn can be regarded as a circular loop and the
net magnetic field is the vector sum of the fields due to all
the turns.

Consider an ideal solenoid where the magnetic field

outside the solenoid approaches zero. The magnetic field
inside, at the centre of the solenoid becomes almost
parallel to the axis.
 To find the magnetic field (B) at point ‘P’ inside the solenoid:
Consider a rectangular Amperian loop abcd. Along cd the field is zero. Along transverse sections bc and da, the
field component is zero. Thus, these two sections make no contribution. Let the field along ab be ‘B’.
Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then the total number of turns in the length ab is nh.
The current enclosed is, Ienc = nhI, where I is the current in the solenoid.
From Ampere’s circuital law, we know that,
⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
∫𝐵
 ∫ 𝐵 (𝑑𝑙) cos 0𝑜 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛ℎ𝐼)
 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛ℎ𝐼)
 𝐵ℎ = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛ℎ𝐼)
 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼
5. Derive the expression for the force between two long straight parallel conductors carrying currents and
hence define an ampere.
Consider two long parallel conductors ‘a’ and ‘b’ separated by a distance‘d’ and carrying (parallel) currents
Ia and Ib, respectively.
The magnetic force acting on conductor ‘b’ of length ‘L’ due to the current in conductor ‘a’ is given by,
𝐹𝑏𝑎 = 𝐵𝑎 𝐼𝑏 𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝜇 𝐼
 𝐹𝑏𝑎 = ( 2𝜋𝑑
𝑜 𝑎
) 𝐼𝑏 𝐿 sin 90𝑜
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑏 𝐿
 𝐹𝑏𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑑
where, 𝐵𝑎 is the magnetic field produced by the current carrying conductor ‘a’ at
the conductor ‘b’.
The force acting per unit length of the conductor is,
𝐹𝑏𝑎 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑏
𝑓𝑏𝑎 = = …………….(1)
𝐿 2𝜋𝑑
Similarly, the magnetic force acting on conductor ‘a’ of length ‘L’ due to the
current in conductor ‘b’ is given by,
𝐹𝑎𝑏 = 𝐵𝑏 𝐼𝑎 𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝜇 𝐼
 𝐹𝑎𝑏 = ( 2𝜋𝑑
𝑜 𝑏
) 𝐼𝑎 𝐿 sin 90𝑜
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑏 𝐿
 𝐹𝑎𝑏 =
2𝜋𝑑
where, 𝐵𝑏 is the magnetic field produced by the current carrying conductor ‘b’ at the conductor ‘a’.
The force acting per unit length of the conductor is,
𝐹𝑎𝑏 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑏
𝑓𝑎𝑏 = 𝐿
= 2𝜋𝑑
…………….(2)
From equations (1) and (2), we see that the magnetic force exerted by one conductor on the other has the same
magnitude, but are in opposite direction to each other.
Parallel conductors attract and anti-parallel conductors repel.

One Ampere is that steady current which, when maintained in each of the
two very long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible cross-section, and
placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce on each of these
conductors a force equal to 2 × 10–7 newtons per metre of length.

7. With neat labeled diagram, explain the working of a moving coil

galvanometer.{OR} Give the theory of moving coil galvanometer.

A galvanometer is a device to check the presence of current.

The galvanometer consists of a coil, with ‘N’ turns, free to rotate about a fixed axis in a uniform radial magnetic
field. The coil will be aligned with ⃗B⃗ such that the angle between the area vector ⃗A⃗ and the field is always 900

When current flows through the coil, a magnetic torque acts on it.
This torque is  = N I A B
(Because,  = N I A B sin ,  = 90o = N I A B)
This magnetic torque NIAB tends to rotate the coil.
A spring Sp provides an equal and opposite torque (counter torque) given by r = k 
where, k is the torsional constant of the spring (the restoring torque per unit twist), and  is the angle of deflection.
In equilibrium, 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑟
 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘
𝑁𝐴𝐵
 =( 𝑘
)𝐼
Note:
Current sensitivity of the galvanometer is the deflection per unit current.
 NAB
Current sensitivity is given by, =
I k
8. Explain how to convert a given galvanometer into an ammeter.
A galvanometer can be converted to an ammeter by connecting a suitable low
resistance in parallel with the galvanometer. The low resistance in parallel is
called the Shunt resistance.

Let Ig be the current required to produce full scale deflection in a galvanometer

having a coil of resistance G. Let ‘I’ be the maximum current to be measured by
the instrument.
Let S be the shunt resistance which is connected in parallel with the
galvanometer. From the diagram we get,
The potential difference across the galvanometer = potential difference across S
Ig G = (I- Ig) S

g I G
 S = (I−I
g)

This gives the required value of shunt resistance to be connected in parallel to the galvanometer to make it work
like an ammeter.
NOTE: The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.
9. Explain how to convert a given galvanometer into a voltmeter.
A galvanometer is converted to a voltmeter by connecting a suitable high
resistance in series with it.
Let Ig be the current required for full scale deflection in a galvanometer
having a coil of resistance G.
Let R be a suitable high resistance to be connected in series with the
galvanometer. Since R and G are in series,
V = Ig R + I g G
V = Ig (R + G)
V
Ig
=R+G
V
R=I -G
g

This gives the value of resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer to make it work like a voltmeter.
Note: The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.
 Magnetism and Matter
1. Mention the properties of magnetic field lines.
Properties of magnetic field lines are:
 The magnetic field lines of a magnet or a solenoid form continuous closed loops.
 The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic field ‘B’ at that
point.
 The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger the magnetic field B. Hence, the
magnetic field is strongest at the poles.
 Magnetic field lines do not intersect. For if they did intersect, the direction of the field would not be
uniquely specified at the point of intersection
2. Define the terms: (1) magnetization of a magnetic material, (2) magnetic intensity and (3) magnetic
susceptibility.
m
 Magnetisation ‘M’ of a sample is its net magnetic moment per unit volume: M = Vnet
 The magnetic intensity (H) is defined,
𝐵
𝐻= −𝑀
𝜇𝑂
where, ‘B’ is the magnetic field, ‘M’ is the magnetization, and 𝜇𝑜 is absolute permeability.
 Magnetic susceptibility (𝜒) is defined as the ratio of magnetization M of the substance to the magnetic
intensity H of the magnetizing field in which it is placed.
M
χ=H

3. Define magnetic permeability and relative magnetic permeability. Write a relation between them.
 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY (𝛍)
It is the ability of the material to allow the passage of magnetic lines of force through it.
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction to the magnetic intensity.
B
𝛍=H
 RELATIVE MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY (𝛍r)
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic permeability of the material to the magnetic permeability of free space.
μ
𝛍r = μ
0

4. Derive the relation between magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility.

The net magnetic field B in the interior of a solenoid is expressed as B = Bo + Bm
B = 0 H + 0M
B = 0 (H + H)
B = 0 (1 + ) H
B = 0r H
B=H i.e.,  = 0r
Where r = 1 +  is a dimensionless quantity called the relative magnetic permeability of the substance.
 magnetic permeability of the substance
 = 0r = 0 (1 + )
5. State and explain Gauss’ law for magnetism.
The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.
 That is,

6. Mention the expression for torque acting on a magnetic dipole placed in a uniform magnetic field.
The torque acting is given by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ = 𝒎
𝝉 ⃗⃗
where, 𝜏⃗ is the torque
𝑚
⃗⃗⃗ is the magnetic dipole moment
𝐵⃗⃗ is the uniform magnetic field
7. Mention the expression for the magnetic potential energy of a magnetic moment place in a uniform magnetic
field.
It is given by,
𝑼=𝒎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗
where, ‘U’ is the magnetic potential energy
𝑚⃗⃗⃗ is the magnetic dipole moment
𝐵⃗⃗ is the uniform magnetic field

8. Mention the differences between diamagnetic, paramagnetic materials and ferromagnetic materials.

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

1) The substances 1) The substances which get 1) The substances which get
which have tendency weakly magnetized when strongly magnetized when
to move from placed in an external placed in an external
stronger to the magnetic field and have magnetic field and have
weaker part of the tendency to move from strong tendency to move
external magnetic weak to strong magnetic from a region of weak
field are called field, i.e they get weakly magnetic field to strong
diamagnetic. attracted to a magnet are magnetic field are called
called paramagnetic Ferromagnetic substances.
substances.
2) When a bar of
2) When the 2) When a bar of paramagnetic
diamagnetic material material placed in an
placed in an external

ferromagnetic material
placed in an external field,
magnetic field. The external field, the field lines the field lines get strongly
field lines are get concentrated in the concentrated in the
repelled (or) material as shown. material as shown.
expelled.

3) Magnetic moment of 3) Magnetic moment of each

3) Magnetic moment of each
each atom is zero. domain is non-zero.
atom is non- zero.
 4) Susceptibility is 4) Susceptibility is positive
negative 4) Susceptibility is positive and and high. (𝜒 ≫ 1)
(−1 ≤ 𝜒 < 0) low. (0 < 𝜒 < 𝜀)

5) Relative permeability 5) Relative permeability is 5) Relative permeability is

is slightly less than slightly more than one. very large. (𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1)
one. (0 ≤ 𝜇𝑟 < 1) (1 < 𝜇𝑟 < 1 + 𝜀)

6) Susceptibility ( 𝜒 ) 6) Susceptibility ( 𝜒 ) inversely

6) Susceptibility ( 𝜒 ) inversely proportional to temperature
does not change with proportional to temperature. above the Curie temperature.
temperature.

Ray optics & Optical instruments

1) Mention the Cartesian sign conventions used in mirror/lens.

 All the distances are measured from the pole/optic centre and along the principal axis.
 Distances measured in the direction of incident light is taken positive and distances measured in the
direction opposite to the incident light is taken negative.
 Heights measured above the principal axis are taken positive and heights measured below the principal
axis are taken negative.

2) Obtain relation between focal length and radius of curvature in case of concave mirror.
Angle incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r) = θ
𝑀𝐷
From ∆ MCD, tan θ = …….1
𝐶𝐷
𝑀𝐷
From ∆ MFD, tan 2θ = 𝐹𝐷 …...2
For paraxial ray, θ is small, and FD ≅ FP and CD ≅ CP. ∴ tan θ ≅ θ and, tan 2 θ ≅ 2
θ, hence
𝑀𝐷
Equation 1 becomes, θ = 𝐶𝑃
….. 3
𝑀𝐷
and equation 2 becomes, 2θ = …… 4
𝐹𝑃
Dividing equation 4 by 3,
𝑀𝐷
2𝜃 𝐹𝐷 𝑀𝐷 𝐶𝑃
𝜃
= 𝑀𝐷 = x
𝐹𝑃 𝑀𝐷
𝐶𝑃
𝐶𝑃
2= 𝐹𝑃 , but FP = - f and CP = -R (by sign convention)
−𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
∴ 2 = −𝑓 = 𝑓 or f = 2

3) Derive the mirror equation.

The relation between the object distance (u), image distance (v) and the focal length (f ) in a spherical mirror.
 Two paraxial rays AM and AP are incident on a concave
mirror from the object. A real image AB is formed as shown
in the diagram.
ABF and MPF are similar triangles. (since the rays are
paraxial and ‘M’ is close to ‘P’, MP may be approximated to
be a straight line)
AB 𝐵′ 𝐹
=
𝑀𝑃 𝐹𝑃
But MP=AB
AB 𝐵′ 𝐹
𝐴𝐵
= 𝐹𝑃 (1)

ABP and ABP are also similar triangles.

AB 𝐵′ 𝑃
 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝑃
(2)

Comparing (1) and (2)

𝐵′ 𝐹 𝐵′ 𝑃
𝐹𝑃
= 𝐵𝑃

𝐵′ 𝑃−𝐹𝑃 𝐵′ 𝑃
𝐹𝑃
= 𝐵𝑃

𝐵′ 𝑃= -v, FP= -f, BP= -u

−𝑣+𝑓 −𝑣
=
−𝑓 −𝑢

𝑣 𝑣
–1=
𝑓 𝑢
Dividing throughout by ‘v’, we get,
1 1 1
- =𝑢
𝑓 𝑣

1 1 1
𝑓
=𝑢+𝑣 This is mirror equation.

4) Derive the relation between u, v, n and R for a spherical refracting surface.

Consider a spherical refracting surface as shown. Real image ‘I’ of an object ‘O’ is formed after refraction.
𝑃𝑁
From ∆ OPN, tan α = 𝑂𝑃
𝑃𝑁
From ∆ NPC, tan β = 𝐶𝑃

𝑃𝑁
From ∆ NPI, tan 𝛾 = 𝐼𝑃
If α, β and γ are small angles, we use small angle approximation
𝑃𝑁
tan α ≅ α, i.e α ≅ 𝑂𝑃
𝑃𝑁
tan β ≅ β, i.e β ≅ 𝐶𝑃
𝑃𝑁
tan 𝛾 ≅ 𝛾, i.e 𝛾 ≅ 𝐼𝑃
From ∆ ONC,
i=α+β
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
i.e i = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝐶𝑃 …..(1)
From ∆ NCI,
 β= r + 𝛾
or r = β – 𝛾
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
r = 𝐶𝑃 - 𝐼𝑃
………(2)
From Snell’s law,
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
Since i and r are small angles, sin i ≅ I and sin r ≅ r
Hence, n1 i = n2 r
Substituting for i and r from equation 1 and 2 we get,
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
n1 ( + )= n2( − )
𝑂𝑃 𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃 𝐼𝑃
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛
 + = 2- 2
𝑂𝑃 𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃 𝐼𝑃
By sign conventions, OP= - u, CP = R and IP = v
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
=> - 1 + 1 = 2 - 2
𝑢 𝑅 𝑅 𝑣
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛1
=> - 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑅 - 𝑅
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
Or - 𝑢1 + 𝑣2 = 2 𝑅 1
5) Derive lens makers formula for a thin lens.
Consider a thin lens as shown. Refraction occurs at two spherical surfaces, and a real image of an object ‘O’
is formed at ‘I’. Let n1 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium and n2 is the refractive index of
the lens medium. For refraction at a spherical surface, we know that,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
- 𝑢1 + 𝑣2 = 2 𝑅 1
Refraction through the surface AP1B:
I1 is the real image formed. Here, v = v1, R = R1. Thus,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
- 1 + 2 = 2 1 ………… (1)
𝑢 𝑣1 𝑅1
Refraction through the surface AP2B:
Here I1 is the virtual object. Hence, n1 = n2 and n2 = n1, u = v1
and R = R2, thus,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
- 2+ 1= 1 2
𝑣1 𝑣 𝑅2
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛 −𝑛
Or - 𝑣1
+ 𝑣 = - ( 2𝑅 1 ) ………. (2)
2
Adding equation 1 and 2,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
- 1+ 2- 2+ 1= 2 1- 2 1
𝑢 𝑣1 𝑣1 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1 1
n1(− 𝑢
+ 𝑣
) = (n2 – n1) (𝑅 − 𝑅2
)
1
1 1 1
(According to thin lens formula, − + = )
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1
∴ n1( ) = (n2 – n1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑛1 1 1
𝑓
= (n2 – n1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
1 2
1 𝑛2 1 1
Or 𝑓 = (𝑛 − 1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
1 1 2
1 1 1
 𝑓
= (𝑛21 − 1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
1 2
This is lens maker’s formula.
6) Derive the expression for the refractive index of the material of a prism in terms of the angle of the prism and
angle of minimum deviation.
 Consider a prism as shown. Let n1 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium and n2 is the
refractive index of the prism medium.
In quadrilateral APNQ,
𝐴̂ + 𝑁̂ =180o ………(1)
In ∆le PQN,
r1+ r2 + 𝑁̂ = 180o ……..(2)
From equation (1) and (2),
r1+ r2 + 𝑁̂ = 𝐴̂ + 𝑁 ̂
or r1+ r2 = 𝐴̂ ………….(3)
Angle of deviation at surface AB, δ1 = i1 – r1 and angle of
deviation at surface AC, δ2 = i2 – r2
∴ total deviation δ = δ1 + δ2 = (i – r1) + (i2 – r2)
or δ = i1 +i2 – (r1 + r2)
δ = i1 +i2 – 𝐴̂ ………..(4)
When the angle of incidence is increased gradually, the angle of
deviation decreases initially, reaches a minimum value and then
increases.
At angle of minimum deviation, we have i1=i2 = i; r1 = r2 = r and δ =
δm, where δm is called the angle of minimum deviation.
Substituting above conditions
𝐴
Equation (3) becomes 2r = A or r = 2 ……… (5)
𝐴+𝛿𝑚
Equation (4) becomes 2i = A + δm or i = 2
……… (6)
sin 𝑖
From Snell’s law, n21 =
sin 𝑟
𝐴+𝛿𝑚
sin( )
2
Substituting for i and r from equation (5) and (6), n21 = 𝐴
sin( )
2
This is called prism formula.
7) Derive the equivalent focal length of two thin lenses in contact.
Consider two thin lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 in contact as shown in the figure.
−1 1 1
For refraction through lens L1, 𝑢
+𝑣 = 𝑓1
…….(1)
1
For refraction through lens L2, I1 acts as virtual object.
Here, u = v1. Hence we get,
−1 1 1
𝑣
+ 𝑣 = 𝑓 …… (2 )
1 2
Adding equation (1) and (2), we get,
−1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑢
+𝑣 -𝑣 +𝑣=𝑓 +𝑓
1 1 1 2
−1 1 1 1
or, 𝑢
+𝑣 =𝑓 + 𝑓2
……. (3)
1
If the combination of lenses is replaced by a single
equivalent lens whose focal length is ‘F’, then,
−1 1 1
𝑢
+ 𝑣 = 𝐹 …….. (4)
Substituting eqn. (4) in (3) we get,
1 1 1
𝐹
=𝑓 +𝑓
1 2
1
Note: Power of a lens, 𝑃 = 𝑓
Hence, power of the combination of two lenses in contact is 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 .

8) What is total internal reflection? Write the conditions for total internal reflection.
 When light travels from a dense medium to a rare medium, it is totally reflected back to the same medium if
it is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle for the pair of media.
Conditions:
a) Light must travel from a dense medium to a rare medium.
b) The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
9) Define critical angle? Mention any two applications of total internal reflection.
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90o is called critical angle.
Applications of total internal reflection:
 Sparkling of diamond
 Optical fiber
 Totally internal reflecting prism
10) What is the principle of Optical fiber? Write any three uses of optical fiber?
Optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection.
 Used in communication system.
 Used in night vision goggles.
 Used in endoscopy.
 Used in decorative lamps.
11) Draw a ray diagram for the formation of image in simple microscope. Write the expression for magnification
produced by when the object is at near point.
In this case, u < f, and ‘D’ is the least distance of distinct
vision.

𝐷
m = 1+
𝑓

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

1) Name the three types of electron emission.
 Thermionic emission
 Field emission
 Photo-electric emission
2) Explain Lenard’s experimental observations on photoelectric effect.
 Lenard observed that, when UV radiation was incident on the emitter plate, placed in an evacuated
glass tube, current flowed in the circuit.
 When UV radiations were stopped, the current in the circuit also stops.
(These observations indicate that when UV radiation falls on emitter plate, electrons are emitted
from it and these electrons are attracted towards the collector plate which is kept at positive
potential. The flow of electrons through evacuated glass tube results in the current in the external
circuit. When UV radiation was cut off, no electrons were emitted from the emitter, hence no
photoelectric current.)
3) Explain Hallwachs’ experimental observations on photoelectric effect.
 Hallwachs connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope and observed that the zinc
plate lost its charge, and became less negatively charged when it was illuminated by ultraviolet
radiation.
 He also observed that the uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it was exposed to
ultraviolet radiation.
  The positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate was further enhanced when it was
illuminated by ultraviolet radiation.
From these observations he concluded that negatively charged particles were emitted from the zinc
plate under the action of ultraviolet radiation.
4) Draw a neat labelled diagram to demonstrate photo electric effect.

T- evacuated glass/quartz tube

C – photosensitive plate (emitter)/cathode

A – collector/anode

K – commutator

S – Source of light

V - Voltmeter
5) Write the three experimental observations of photoelectric effect.
 For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident
radiation above the threshold frequency, the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light.

 For a given
photosensitive material, there exists
a certain minimum cut-off frequency
of the incident radiation, called the
threshold frequency, below which no emission of
photoelectrons takes place.
 Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic
energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly
with the frequency of the incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity of incident light.
 For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation current is found
to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity.
 The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag (∼10-9s or
less).
6) Define the following terms:
a) Threshold frequency – The minimum frequency of the incident radiation below which photoelectric
effect does not take place is called threshold frequency.
b) Work function - The minimum energy required by an electron to just escape from the metal surface
is called the work function of the metal.
c) Stopping potential - The negative potential or retarding potential applied to the collector for which
the photoelectric current becomes zero
d) Electron volt - One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has been accelerated by
a potential difference of 1 volt. (1𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽)
e) Photoelectric effect- Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface
of metals when radiation of suitable frequency is incident on them.
7) Write the Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain the terms.
hν = ϕo + Kmax
where,
h - Planck’s constant.
ν - Frequency of incident radiation.
hν = E, where ‘E’ is the energy of the incident photon
φo – Work function of the metal
Kmax – Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
8) Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation explain the experimental results of photoelectric effect.
Consider Einstein’s photoelectric equation, Kmax = hν – ф0.
 According to equation, Kmax depends linearly on frequency . As frequency of incident radiation increases,
the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the emitted electron also increases. But Kmax does not depend on
intensity.
 Kmax = hν -ϕo
We know, ϕo = ho
Kmax = hν - ho
Kmax= h (- o)
Here,  = frequency of incident radiation and o = threshold frequency
If >o
LHS becomes positive. Maximum velocity of photo electron is positive. Electrons are emitted and
has kinetic energy
If  = o. LHS = 0. Maximum velocity of photoelectron = 0. Electrons are just emitted, but without
any kinetic energy.
If <o. LHS = negative.
Maximum velocity of photo electron is negative which is impossible. Electrons are not emitted.
Hence for a given photo metal there is a minimum frequency of incident radiation below which no photo
electric emission takes place.
 During photoelectric effect, the photon and an electron in the metal is said to undergo an elastic collision,
transferring the entire energy from the photon to the electron instantaneously.
 According to Einstein, photoelectric effect arises from the absorption of a photon by a single electron.
Intensity of radiation is proportional to the number of photons per unit area per unit time. Greater the
intensity, greater is the number of photons available, therefore, greater is the number of photoelectrons
emitted. Thus, photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of light.
9) Mention the characteristics of a photon.
 In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles called photons.
hν
 Each photon has energy E and momentum p, where, E = hν, and p = 𝑐
.
 Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
 In a photon-particle collision, the total energy and total momentum are conserved. However, the number of
photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
 All photons of light of a particular frequency ν and wavelength λ, have the same energy and momentum,
whatever may be intensity of radiation.

10) a) What are de-Broglie waves/matter waves?

b) Write the expression for de Broglie wavelength.

 The waves associated with material particles in motion are called matter waves.
ℎ ℎ
 λ = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
1. Classify conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of band theory of solids.

a) In conductors, the valence and conduction band overlap with each other (Eg ≅ 0), or they may have a very
small energy gap. The electrons from valence band can easily move to the conduction band. Hence a large
number of electrons are available for electrical conduction. In conductors, conductivity is high and
resistivity is low. Ex: aluminium, copper etc.

b) In insulators, the valence band and conduction band are

separated by a large energy gap (Eg > 3eV). There are no electrons
in the conduction band, and therefore no electrical conduction is
possible. The energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be
excited from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal
excitation. Insulators have high resistivity and low conductivity.

c) In semiconductors, the valence and conduction band are

separated by a small energy gap (Eg < 3eV). At 0 K, valence band is full
and conduction band is empty. Hence, a semiconductor behaves like an
insulator.
At room temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire
enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band.
These electrons can move in the conduction band. Hence semiconductor
acquires low conductivity at room temperature.
In semiconductor, resistivity and conductivity is intermediate in
comparison with conductors and insulators

2. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors

 These are pure semiconductors.  These are doped semiconductors.

 Number of electrons and holes are  Number of electrons and holes are
equal. unequal.
 Conductivity is low.  Conductivity is high.
 Conductivity depends on the  Conductivity depends on the
temperature. temperature and also doping level.

3. Distinguish between n-type and p-type semiconductors.

 n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

 It is obtained by adding pentavalent  It is obtained by adding trivalent

impurity atoms to the pure impurity atoms to pure semiconductor.
semiconductor. Ex: indium (In), boron (B), aluminium
Ex: arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), (Al)
phosphorus (P).  Holes are the majority charge carriers
 Electrons are the majority charge and electrons are the minority charge
carriers and holes are the minority carriers.
charge carriers.  Impurity atom added is called acceptor
 Impurity atom added is called donor impurity.
impurity.  Conductivity is less.
 Conductivity is more.  Energy level of impurity atom is close to
 Energy level of impurity atom is close the valence band.
to the conduction band.

4. What is a p-n junction? Explain the formation of p-n junction.

The junction formed between p-type and n-type semiconductor
is called p-n junction.

The p-n junction is obtained by adding trivalent impurity atom

to one side of a pure semiconductor (p-type) and pentavalent
impurity atom to the other side (n-type).

Because of difference in the concentration of holes and electrons,

the diffusion of majority charge carriers takes place to the other
side. This results in the formation of fixed layer of negative ions
and fixed layer of positive ions at the junction. This develops a potential difference across the junction
and is called barrier potential. The region in which p-n junction contains only immobile ions is called
depletion region. The formation of the barrier (or depletion) region leads to a reduction in diffusion
current and to the drift of minority charge carriers across the junction. At equilibrium, the diffusion
current is equal to the drift current. Hence a stable p-n junction is formed.

5. Explain the working of p-n junction under forward and reverse bias.

Forward bias:
 When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to p-side and
negative terminal to n-side, p-n junction is said to be forward biased.
 The holes are repelled by the positive terminal and electrons are
repelled by the negative terminal of the battery.
 As the bias voltage increases, the width of the depletion region and
potential barrier decreases.
 When the bias voltage (that is, applied voltage) is slightly greater than
the barrier potential, holes and electrons move across the junction, i.e., the diode
allows the current to pass through it. Hence it offers low resistance and acts like a closed switch.

Reverse bias:
 When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-side and negative terminal to p-side, p-n
junction is said to be reverse biased.
 The holes are attracted by the negative terminal and electrons are attracted by
the positive terminal of the battery.
 As a result, the width of the depletion region and potential barrier increases
i.e., the p-n junction does not allow the majority charge carriers to flow across
the junction. Hence p-n junction offers very high resistance and acts as an open
switch.

6. Define the terms cut-in voltage, breakdown voltage and reverse saturation
current in the study of I-V characteristics of semiconductor diode.
i. The forward bias voltage at which the current through the diode starts to increase sharply even for
a small variation in voltage is known as cut in (or knee) voltage.
ii. The reverse bias voltage at which the reverse bias current through the diode increases sharply is
known as breakdown voltage.
iii. The reverse bias current through the diode which remains almost constant with increase in bias
voltage is known as reverse saturation current.

7. What is rectification? Explain the working of a semiconductor diode

as a half wave rectifier.
Rectification is the process of converting an alternating signal to a
direct signal.
 During the positive half cycle of input AC, point ‘A’ is positive and
point ‘B’ is negative. Hence the diode is forward biased and it
conducts current which flows through the load resistor RL from ‘X’ to
‘Y’.
 During the negative half cycle of input AC, point ‘A’ is negative and
point ‘B’ is positive. Hence the diode is reverse biased and it does not
conduct current.
 The rectified output comprises of only one half of the input ac signal.
Hence the circuit is called a half wave rectifier.
8. What is a rectifier? Explain the working of a full wave rectifier.
Rectifier is an electronic device which converts an alternating signal to a direct signal.
 During the positive half cycle of input ac, point ‘A’ is
positive with respect to the centre tap, while point ‘B’ is
negative. Hence
diode D1 is forward
biased and diode D2
is reverse biased.
Hence D1 conducts
and conducts
current through the
load resistor from
‘X’ to ‘Y’.
 During the negative half cycle of input ac, point ‘A’ is negative with
respect to the centre tap, while point ‘B’ is positive. Hence diode D1
is reverse biased and diode D2 is forward biased. Hence D2
conducts and conducts current through the load resistor from ‘X’
 to ‘Y’.
 The rectified output comprises of both the half cycles of the input ac signal. Hence the circuit is called a full
wave rectifier.
9. How can the conductivity of a pure semiconductor be increased?
Ans: By increasing the temperature.
10. What is meant by doping?
Ans: The process of adding impurities to the pure semiconductor is called doping.
11. Define the terms conduction band, valence band and energy gap.
Ans: The energy band formed by energy levels of conduction electrons is called conduction band.
The energy band formed by energy levels of valence electrons is called valence band.
The energy difference between conduction band and valence band is called energy gap.
12. How is a p-type semiconductor obtained?
Ans: It is obtained by adding trivalent impurities to a pure semiconductor.

13. In a good conductor, the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is zero.

14. Write any 2 conditions for doping?

 The size of the dopant atom must be equal to the size of the pure semiconductor atom (of Ge or Si atoms)
 Doping should not distort the pure semiconductor crystal structure.

ATOMS
1) Explain briefly the observations of Geiger Marsden’s experiment on scattering of α particles by a nucleus.
 Most of the alpha particles pass through the gold foil without any appreciable deflection or scattering
(deflection less than 10)
 Only about 0.14% of the incident 𝛼- particles are scattered by more than 10.
 About 1 in 8000 particles are deflected by more than 90o.

2) Define Ionisation energy and excitation energy of an atom?

Ionisation energy: The minimum energy required to remove the electron from an atom to infinite distance
from the atom is called the ionisation energy.
Excitation energy: The excitation energy is defined as the energy required to raise an electron in an atom
from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.

3) Mention any three spectral series of Hydrogen atom.

Lyman series, Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett series, Pfund series. (Any 3)

4) Draw the labelled diagram representing the schematic arrangement of Geiger-Marsden experiment for alpha
particle scattering.
5) Write the three postulates of Bohr model of the hydrogen atom.
a) Every electron in an atom revolves round the nucleus in certain stable orbits called the stationary states or
non-radiating states. Electrons in these states do not emit energy, hence remain stable.
b) The electrons revolve in only those orbits around the nucleus for which the angular momentum is an
ℎ
integral multiple of 2𝜋
.
ℎ
That is, L = n2𝜋, (where n = 1,2,3…., ‘n’ is called the principal quantum number)
This is called Bohr’s quantization condition.
c) When an electron makes a transition from a stationary orbit of a higher energy to a stationary orbit of a
lower energy, it emits a photon whose energy is equal to the energy difference between the initial and final
states.
That is, E2 – E1= hν
This is called Bohr’s frequency condition.
6) Mention any two limitations of Bohr’s atom model.
 Bohr’s model is applicable only to hydrogen and hydrogen-like atoms.
 The model can predict the wavelengths of light emitted by the hydrogen atom, but it cannot explain
the relative intensities of different wavelengths in the spectrum.
7) Mention the expression for the radius of nth stationary orbit of electron in hydrogen atom in Bohr’s model.
є0 𝑛 2 ℎ 2
r =
𝜋𝑚e2
where, r - radius of the nth orbit
є0 - absolute permittivity or permittivity of free space
n – principal quantum number of the orbit
h – Planck’s constant
m – mass of the electron
e – charge on the electron
8) Mention the expression for orbital speed of electron in a hydrogen atom in Bohr’s model.
𝑒2
𝑣=
2𝜀𝑜 𝑛ℎ
v – speed of the electron
e – charge on the electron
є0 - absolute permittivity or permittivity of free space
n – principal quantum number of the orbit
h – Planck’s constant
9) Derive the expression for energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom, using Bohr’s model.
Consider an electron revolving in an orbit in a hydrogen atom.
The total energy ‘E’ of an electron is the sum of its kinetic energy ‘K’ and electrostatic potential energy ‘U’.
E = K + U ---- (1)
The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron provides the necessary
centripetal force to keep the electron in its dynamically stable orbit.
Fc = FE
mv2 1 e2
r
= 4πє 2
0r
𝑒2
mv2 = 4πє
0𝑟
So, kinetic energy of the electron is given by,
1 1 𝑒2
K = 2 mv2 = 2 (4πє 𝑟 )
0
𝑒2
K= 8πє0 𝑟
 The electrostatic potential energy ‘U’ is given by, U = q V
1 (𝑒)(−𝑒)
U=-
4πє0 𝑟
1 𝑒2
U = - 4πє
0 𝑟
Substitute K and U in equation (1),
𝑒2 1 𝑒2
E= ( )+ (- )
8πє0 𝑟 4πє0 𝑟
𝑒2
E = - 8πє ----- (2)
0𝑟

є0 𝑛2 ℎ 2
We know that, r = substitute for ‘r’ in equation (2),
𝜋𝑚e2

𝑚𝑒 4
E=-
8є20 𝑛2 ℎ 2
10) Obtain Bohr’s quantisation condition on the basis of de Broglie’s hypothesis.
 According to Bohr’s quantisation condition, the electrons revolve only
in those orbits around the nucleus for which the angular momentum is
ℎ
an integral multiple of
2𝜋
 de Broglie proved this using his matter wave hypothesis.
 According to de Broglie, an electron around the nucleus is associated
with matter waves. Due to resonance, these waves form standing waves
as shown in the diagram.
Using de Broglie’s hypothesis,
ℎ ℎ
λ = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣–(1)
Also, from the diagram we get, 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛 λ
Substitute 1 in above equ,
ℎ
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛 𝑚𝑣
On rearranging,
ℎ
mvr =n
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
L = 2𝜋
Hence proving Bohr’s quantisation condition on the basis of de Broglie’s hypothesis.
NUCLEI
1) Mention the properties of nuclear force.
a) Nuclear forces are strongest forces in nature.
b) Nuclear forces are short range forces.
c) They are charge independent.
d) Nuclear forces do not obey inverse square law.
e) They have a saturation property.
2) What are isotopes? Give example.
Nuclei having same atomic number but different mass number are called isotopes.
Example 11𝐻 , 21𝐻
3) What are isobars? Give example.
Nuclei having same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars.
Ex: 31𝐻 , 32𝐻𝑒
4) What are isotones? Give example.
Nuclei having equal number of neutrons but different atomic number are called isotones.
Ex: 146𝐶 , 168𝑂
5) What is radioactivity or radioactive decay? Mention the types.
 Radioactivity is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus undergoes disintegration to form a
more stable nucleus by releasing energy in the form of radiation.
Three types:
a) Alpha (α) decay in which a helium nucleus is emitted.
b) Beta (β) decay in which an electron or a positron is emitted.
c) Gamma (ɣ) decay in which a high energy photon is emitted.
6) What is α decay? Explain with an example.
Alpha decay is a process in which a nucleus decays spontaneously emitting an alpha particle.
When a nucleus decays with the emission of alpha particle, the product nucleus has atomic number two
less and mass number four less than that of the decaying nucleus.
238 234 4
92𝑈 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒
7) Define mass defect and binding energy of a nucleus. Write the relation between them.
Mass defect: The difference between the sum of the masses of the constituent nucleons and the actual
mass of the nucleus is called mass defect (M).
M = [Z mp + (A-Z)mn] – M
where, mp is mass of the proton,
mn is mass of the neutron,
A is the mass number
Z is the atomic number.
Binding energy of a nucleus can be defined as the minimum energy required to split the nucleus into its
constituent nucleons.
Binding energy = M  c2 = [Z mp + (A-Z)mn – M] c2
8) What is nuclear fission? Explain with an example.
Nuclear fission is a process in which nucleus of an atom of a heavy element splits up into two or more
nuclei of comparable masses with the release of large amount of energy.
When 235 236
92𝑈 is bombarded with a thermal neutron, an unstable compound nucleus 92𝑈 is formed. This
nucleus undergoes fission, splitting into two fragments,
235 1 236 144 89 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛  92𝑈  56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + Q
where, ‘Q’ is the energy released during the reaction.
9) What is nuclear fusion? Explain with an example.
Nuclear fusion is a process of combining two lighter nuclei to form heavy nucleus with the release of large
amount of energy.
Ex: Two protons can fuse to form a deuteron.
1 1 2
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 1𝐻 + 𝑒
+
+  + 0.42 𝑀𝑒𝑉
10) Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fission is a process in which nucleus of Nuclear fusion is a process of combining two lighter
an atom of heavy element splits up into two or nuclei to form heavy nucleus with the release of large
more nuclei of comparable masses with amount of energy.
release of large amount of energy.

Slow neutrons are required. Slow neutrons not required.

Energy produced per unit mass is lower than Energy produced per unit mass is higher than in
in fusion. fission.

Radioactive waste is left behind. No radioactive waste is left behind.