MT-225

Theory of Metal Machining,

Machining Operations and
Machine Tools

Lecture : 8

Monday, December 30, 2024 Manufacturing Processes 1

 METAL MACHINING

• Theory of Metal Machining

• Machining Operations

• Machine Tools & Cutting-Tool Technology

• Grinding and other Abrasive Processes

THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

• Overview of Machining Technology

• Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
• Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
• Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
• Cutting Temperature
 Material Removal Processes
• A family of shaping operations, the common feature
of which is removal of material from a starting
workpart so the remaining part has the desired shape
• Categories:
– Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
– Abrasive processes – material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
– Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
 Machining
• Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
• As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process

(b) Tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle
Why Machining is Important

• Variety of work materials can be machined

– Most frequently applied to metals
• Variety of part shapes and special geometry features
possible, such as:
– Screw threads
– Accurate round holes
– Very straight edges and surfaces
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages with Machining
• Wasteful of material
– Chips generated in machining are wasted material
• Time consuming
– A machining operation generally takes more time to
shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or
forming
 Machining in the Manufacturing
Sequence
• Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing
– Other processes create the general shape of the starting
workpart
– Machining provides:
• The final shape

• Dimensions

• Finish

• Special geometric details other processes cannot create

 Machining Operations
• Most important machining operations:
– Turning
– Drilling
– Milling
• Other machining operations:
– Shaping and planing
– Broaching
– Sawing
Machining Operations : Turning
• Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
 Machining Operations : Drilling

• Used to create a round

hole, usually by means of
a rotating tool (drill bit)
that has two cutting
edges
 Machining Operations : Milling
• Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved slowly relative
to work to generate plane or straight surface
• Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

(c) peripheral milling (d) face milling

 Cutting Tool Classification
• Single-Point Tools
– One cutting edge
– Turning uses single point tools
– Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
• Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
– More than one cutting edge
– Motion relative to work usually achieved by rotating
– Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools.
 Cutting Tool Classification

(a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point;
(b) A helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges
Cutting Conditions in Machining
• The three dimensions of a machining process:
– Cutting speed v : primary motion
– Feed f : secondary motion
– Depth of cut d : penetration of tool below original work
surface
• Material Removal Rate can be found as:
– MRR = v f d

Cutting speed, feed, and depth of

cut for a turning operation
 Roughing vs. Finishing
in Machining
• In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken on the
part, followed by one or two finishing cuts
• Roughing - removes large amounts of material from the
starting workpart
– Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves some
material for finish cutting
– High feeds and depths, low speeds

• Finishing - completes part geometry

– Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
– Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
 Machine Tools
• A power-driven machine that performs a machining
operation, including grinding
• Functions in machining:
– Holds workpart
– Positions tool relative to work
– Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that have been set
• The term is also applied to machines that perform metal
forming operations
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
• A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the
mechanics of machining fairly accurately

Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process

 Chip Thickness Ratio

Where:
to
r= r = chip thickness ratio;
to = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation;
tc tc = chip thickness after separation

• Chip thickness after cut is always greater than

chip thickness before cut
– So chip ratio is always less than 1.0
 Shear during Chip Formation
Shear strain during chip formation:

a) Chip formation depicted as a series of

parallel plates sliding relative to each
other

b) One of the plates isolated to show shear

strain

c) Shear strain triangle used to derive strain

equation
Shear Plane Angle & Shear Strain
• Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal
model, the shear plane angle  can be determined as:
r cos  Where:
tan  = r = chip ratio
1 − r sin 
 = rake angle

• While Shear strain in machining can be computed from

the following equation, based on the preceding parallel
plate model:
Where:
 = tan ( −  ) + Cot ( )  = shear strain
 = shear plane angle
 = rake angle of cutting tool
 Shear during Chip Formation
• More realistic view of chip
formation, showing shear
zone rather than shear
plane.
• Shown are:
– Primary Shear Zone
resulting from
workpiece-chip friction
– Secondary Shear Zone
resulting from
tool-chip friction
 Four Basic Types of Chip in
Machining
1. Discontinuous or Segmented chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
 Segmented Chip

• Brittle work materials (e.g., cast irons)

• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of cut
• High tool-chip friction
 Continuous Chip

• Ductile work materials

(e.g., low carbon steel)
• High cutting speeds
• Small feeds and depths
• Sharp cutting edge on the tool
• Low tool-chip friction
 Continuous with
Built-Up-Edge

• Ductile materials
• Low-to-medium cutting speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes portions
of chip to adhere to rake face
• BUE formation is cyclical; it
forms, then breaks off
 Serrated Chip
• Semi-continuous, saw-tooth
appearance
• Cyclical chip formation of
alternating high shear strain then
low shear strain
• Most closely associated with
difficult-to-machine metals at
high cutting speeds
 Forces Acting on Chip
• F - Friction force
• N - Normal force to friction
• Fs - Shear force
• Fn - Normal force to shear

Resultant Forces
• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
• Forces acting on the chip must be in balance thus:
– R’ must be equal in magnitude to R
– R’ must be opposite in direction to R
– R’ must be collinear with R
 Coefficient of Friction
F
• Coefficient of friction  between tool and chip:  =
N
and

• Friction angle  is related to coefficient of

friction  as:  = tan 
 Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs
S= Where:
As = area of the shear plane
As
to w
As =
sin 

Shear stress = shear strength of work material during

cutting
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force

• Forces F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured

• Forces acting on the tool that can be measured are:
– Cutting force Fc
– Thrust force Ft
 Forces in Metal Cutting

• Following Equations relate the non-measureable forces

to the measurable forces:
– F = Fc Sin + Ft Cos
– N = Fc Cos - Ft Sin
– Fs = Fc Cos - Ft Sin
– Fn = Fc Sin + Ft Cos
• Based on these calculated forces, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined
 The Merchant Equation
• Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation could
occur, the work material will select a shear plane angle 
which minimizes energy, and is given by:
 
 = 45 + −
2 2
• Derived for orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to 3-D
machining
• To increase shear plane angle  :
– Increase the rake angle 
– Reduce the friction angle  (or coefficient of friction)
 Effect of Shear Plane Angle
• Higher shear plane angle  means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force
• The rake angle  is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear
angle according to the Merchant equation
• Result:
• Lower
- Cutting forces
- Power
- Temperature
• All of which mean easier
machining
Power and Energy Relationships

• A machining operation requires power

• The power to perform machining is computed as:
Pc = Fc v
Where:
- Pc = cutting power
- Fc = cutting force
- v = cutting speed
Power and Energy Relationships
• In U.S. customary units, power is traditional expressed as
horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)

Fc v
HPc =
33,000
Where:
- HPc = cutting horsepower, hp
Power and Energy Relationships

• Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg

is given by:
Pc
Pg = or HPg = HPc
E E
Where:
E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
Typical E for machine tools =  90%
 Unit Power in Machining

• Generally it is useful to convert power into power per unit

volume rate of metal cut
• This is called the unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu

Pc HPc
Pu = or HPu =
MRR MRR

Where:
- MRR = material removal rate
Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the Specific Energy, ‘U’

Pc Fc v Fc
U = Pu = = =
MRR vto w to w
Units for specific energy are typically:
N-m J in-lb
, or
mm3 mm3 in3
 Cutting Temperature

• Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is

converted into heat
• This can cause temperatures to be very high at the
tool-chip
• The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic
energy in the chip
 Cutting Temperature
• There are several analytical methods to calculate cutting
temperature
• Following method is derived from dimensional analysis
using experimental data for various work materials
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T=  
C  K  Where:
T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface;
U = specific energy;
v = cutting speed;
to = chip thickness before cut;
C = volumetric specific heat of work material;
K = thermal diffusivity of the work material
 Cutting Temperature
• Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
• Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip
thermocouple
• Using this method, the speed-temperature relationship is
of the form:
T = K vm
Where:
T = measured tool-chip interface temperature
K and m parameters depend on cutting conditions (other than v)
and work material.
Cutting Temperature
 Example : Orthogonal Cutting
Problem:
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting,
the cutting tool has a rake angle  = 10°. The chip thickness
before the cut to = 0.50 mm and the chip thickness after the cut
tc = 1.125 in.
Calculate the shear plane angle  and the shear strain  in
the operation.
 Example : Orthogonal Cutting
Solution: The chip thickness ratio can be determined from Eq.
to 0.50
r= or r = = 0.444
tc 1.125
r cos 
The shear plane angle is given by: tan  =
1 − r sin 
0.444 Cos 10
tan = = 0.4738 or  = 25.4
1−0.444 Sin 10
Now  = tan ( −  ) + Cot ( )  = tan (25.4 -10) + Cot 25.4
or  = 0.275+2.111 = 2.386
Example : Shear Stress in Machining

Problem:
Suppose in above Example that cutting force and thrust force
are measured during an orthogonal cutting operation:
Fc = 1559 N and Ft = 1271 N.
The width of the orthogonal cutting operation w = 3.0 mm.
Based on these data, determine the shear strength of the
work material.
Example : Shear Stress in Machining

Solution:
From above Example rake angle =10°, and shear plane angle =25.4°.
Shear force can be computed from:
Fs = Fc Cos - Ft Sin
Fs = 1559 Cos 25.4 - 1271 Sin 25.4 = 863 N
Now The shear plane area is given by:
to w (0.5)(3.0)
As = = = 3.497 mm 2
sin  sin 25.4 s
Therefore, Shear Stress equivalent to the material Shear strength becomes:
Fs 863
 =S= = = 247 N mm 2 = 247 MPa
As 3.497
Example : Estimating Friction Angle

Problem:
Using the data and results from our previous examples,
determine:
a) The friction angle 
b) The coefficient of friction 
 Example : Estimating Friction Angle

Solution:
From above Examples rake angle =10°, and shear plane angle =25.4°.
 
From equation:  = 45 + −
2 2
 
We get:  = 2(45) + 2  − 2( )
2
or the friction angle  = 90 + 10 − 2(25.4 ) = 49.2
o

Now the coefficient of friction  = tan 

Therefore:  = tan  = tan 49.2o = 1.16
 Example : Power in Machining
Problem:
Continuing with our previous examples, if the cutting speed =
100 m/min, for the machining operation determine
a) cutting power
b) specific energy
Summarizing the data and results from previous examples:
to = 0.50 mm, w = 3.0 mm and Fc = 1557 N.
 Example : Power in Machining
Solution:
Power in the operation is given Eq: Pc = Fc v

Pc =(1557 N)(100 m/min) =155,700 N-m/min

= 155,700 J/min = 2595 J/s
or Pc= 2595W
Fc
Specific energy is calculated from Eq: U =
to w
155,700 155,700
U= =
100(103 )(3.0 )(0.5) 150,000

U = 1.038 Nm min 3
Example : Cutting Temperature

Problem:
For the specific energy obtained in Example above,
calculate the increase in temperature T above
ambient temperature of 20°C.
Use the given data from the previous examples in this
chapter: v=100 m/min, to=0.50mm.
The volumetric specific heat C = 3.0 (10-3) J/mm3-°C,
for the work material; and
Thermal diffusivity K = 50 (10-6) m2/s (or 50 mm2/s).
Example : Cutting Temperature

Solution:
Converting Cutting speed to mm/s:
v = (100 m/min)(103 mm/m)/(60 s/min) = 1667 mm/s.
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
We can now be use Eq. T =   to compute the mean
C  K 
temperature rise:

0.4(1.038)  1667(0.5) 
0.333

T =  
3.0(10 ) 
3
50 

T = (138.4 )(2.552 ) = 353o C

 MT-225

Cutting-Tool Technology

Monday, December 30, 2024 Manufacturing Processes 54

CUTTING TOOL TECHNOLOGY

• Tool Life
• Tool Materials
• Tool Geometry
• Cutting Fluids
 Cutting Tool Technology

Two principal aspects:

• Tool material
• Tool geometry
Three Modes of Tool Failure

• Fracture failure
– Cutting force becomes excessive and/or dynamic,
leading to brittle fracture
• Temperature failure
– Cutting temperature is too high for the tool material
• Gradual wear
– Gradual wearing of the cutting tool
Preferred Mode of Tool Failure:
Gradual Wear
• Fracture and temperature failures are premature failures
• Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest
possible use of the tool
• Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
– Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
– Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)
Tool Failure : Gradual Wear

Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and

types of wear that occur
Tool Failure : Gradual Wear

Tool wear as a function of cutting time

Flank wear (FW) is used here as the measure of tool wear
Crater wear follows a similar growth curve
 Tool Failure : Gradual Wear

Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting
speeds, using a tool life criterion of 0.50 mm flank wear
 Taylor Tool Life Equation
vT = C
n

Where:
• v = cutting speed;
• T = tool life; and
• n (the slope of the plot) and C are parameters that depend on
feed, depth of cut, work material, tooling material, and the tool
life criterion used
 Problem 23.5

Monday, December 30, 2024 Manufacturing Processes 63

 Solution

Monday, December 30, 2024 Manufacturing Processes 64

Tool Life Criteria in Production
• Complete failure of cutting edge
• Visual inspection of flank wear (or crater wear) by the
machine operator
• Changes in sound emitted from operation
• Chips become stringy
• Degradation of surface finish
• Increased power
• Workpiece count
• Cumulative cutting time
 Tool Materials

• Tool failure modes identify the important properties that

a tool material should possess:
– Toughness - to avoid fracture failure
– Hot hardness - ability to retain hardness at high
temperatures
– Wear resistance - hardness is the most important
property to resist abrasive wear
 Tool Materials
• Typical hot hardness
relationships for selecting
tool materials.
– Plain carbon steel shows a
rapid loss of hardness as
temperature increases.
– High speed steel is
substantially better,
– while cemented carbides
and ceramics are
significantly harder at
elevated temperatures.
 Typical Values of n and C in
Taylor Tool Life Equation
Tool material n C (m/min) C (ft/min)
High speed steel
Non-steel work 0.125 120 350
Steel work 0.125 70 200
Cemented carbide
Steel work 0.25 900 2700
Non-steel work 0.25 500 1500
Ceramic
Steel work 0.6 3000 10,000
 High Speed Steel (HSS)

• Highly alloyed tool steel capable of maintaining hardness

at elevated temperatures better than high carbon and
low alloy steels
• One of the most important cutting tool materials
• Especially suited to applications involving complicated
tool geometries, such as drills, taps, milling cutters, and
broaches
• Two basic types (AISI)
– Tungsten-type, designated T- grades
– Molybdenum-type, designated M-grades
High Speed Steel Composition

• Typical alloying ingredients:

– Tungsten and/or Molybdenum
– Chromium and Vanadium
– Carbon, of course
– Cobalt in some grades
• Typical composition:
– Grade T1: 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, and 0.9% C
 Cemented Carbides

• Class of hard tool material based on tungsten carbide

(WC) using powder metallurgy techniques with cobalt
(Co) as the binder
• Two basic types:
– Non-steel cutting grades - only WC-Co
– Steel cutting grades - TiC and TaC added to WC-Co
 Cemented Carbides – General
Properties
• High compressive strength but low-to-moderate tensile
strength
• High hardness (90 to 95 HRA)
• Good hot hardness
• Good wear resistance
• High thermal conductivity
• High elastic modulus - 600 x 103 MPa (90 x 106 lb/in2)
• Toughness lower than high speed steel
Non-steel Cutting Carbide Grades

• Used for nonferrous metals and gray cast iron

• Properties determined by grain size and cobalt content
– As grain size increases, hardness and hot hardness
decrease, but toughness increases
– As cobalt content increases, toughness improves at the
expense of hardness and wear resistance
Steel Cutting Carbide Grades

• Used for low carbon, stainless, and other alloy steels

– For these grades, TiC and/or TaC are substituted for some
of the WC
– This composition increases crater wear resistance for steel
cutting, but adversely affects flank wear resistance for
non-steel cutting applications
 Cermets

• Combinations of TiC, TiN, and titanium carbonitride

(TiCN), with nickel and/or molybdenum as binders.
• Some chemistries are more complex
• Applications: high speed finishing and semifinishing of
steels, stainless steels, and cast irons
– Higher speeds and lower feeds than steel-cutting carbide
grades
– Better finish achieved, often eliminating need for grinding
 Coated Carbides

• Cemented carbide insert coated with one or more

thin layers of wear resistant materials, such as TiC,
TiN, and/orAl2O3
• Coating applied by chemical vapor deposition or
physical vapor deposition
• Coating thickness = 2.5 - 13 m (0.0001 to 0.0005
in)
• Applications: cast irons and steels in turning and
milling operations
• Best applied at high speeds where dynamic force and
thermal shock are minimal
 Ceramics

• Primarily fine-grained Al2O3, pressed and sintered at

high pressures and temperatures into insert form with no
binder
• Applications: high speed turning of cast iron and steel
• Not recommended for heavy interrupted cuts (e.g. rough
milling) due to low toughness
• Al2O3 also widely used as an abrasive in grinding
 Synthetic Diamonds

• Sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD) - fabricated

by sintering very fine-grained diamond crystals under
high temperatures and pressures into desired shape
with little or no binder
• Usually applied as coating (0.5 mm thick) on WC-Co
insert
• Applications: high speed machining of nonferrous
metals and abrasive nonmetals such as fiberglass,
graphite, and wood
– Not for steel cutting
 Cubic Boron Nitride

• Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is hardest

material known
• Fabrication into cutting tool inserts same as SPD:
coatings on WC-Co inserts
• Applications: machining steel and nickel-based alloys
• SPD and cBN tools are expensive
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