Power Supply Voltage Regulation

Power supply regulation is the ability of a power supply to maintain an output voltage within
a specified tolerance as referenced to changing conditions of input voltage and/or load.

Most electronic equipment is powered from DC voltage derived from the unregulated AC
mains voltage. A rectifier circuit converts the AC to DC which is then conditioned to meet the
circuit or load requirements.

The rectified voltage follows the AC input and will vary as the mains vary. The variations may
affect the circuit performance and is undesirable in sensitive equipment such as computers,
sensor and precision circuits. In addition, components and circuits will only operate or perform
efficiently when the power supply is within a certain limit. Anything beyond the design limit
will either destroy the components and equipment or be insufficient to power the equipment
such that it will not turn on or simply malfunction.

The mains supply voltage is usually supposed to remain within certain limits and most
equipment are designed o accommodates these. However, these variations, sometimes beyond
limits, may cause problems in the sensitive equipment since they will cause variations in the
output voltage of the power supply.

Controlling the voltage variations are beyond the control of the equipment manufacturer and
the consumer. For this reason, the best the designers can do is to ensure that the power supply
output voltage remains fairly constant over a wide range of input voltages.

A power supply with regulation provides an output that remains constant irrespective of
variations in the input mains voltage. A typical power supply unit consists of several blocks
depending on the design and stability required. A simple linear supply will have a transformer,
rectifier, filter and a regulator. A switched mode supply contains the four building blocks and
additional blocks such as the inverters and feedback stages.
 Figure 1: Basic diagram block diagram of a linear power supply with regulation

In a regulated power supply, the input to the regulating device is usually higher than expected
output. This allows the circuit to work with a wide range of input voltages while giving out a
constant output. The regulating device is usually in series with the output. And since the input
is always higher than expected output, the device or circuit works in a way that a certain amount
of voltage is dropped across the regulating circuit.

Even with a low input AC voltage, the regulating circuit must receive a higher voltage;
however, in this case, a small amount of voltage is dropped. If the input AC is very high, the
regulating circuit drops a higher voltage. In switched power supplies, the regulation is achieved
by varying the switching of the series transistor.

There are different forms of regulating circuits, the type varies with the power supply design
and required level of stability. Typical regulating components include Zener diodes, series
transistors or switching devices, and fixed and reliable integrated circuit regulators.

There are also some situations where consumers use automatic voltage regulators to condition
the AC input voltage so that it remains within a specified limit. Some of these have bulky
transformers and may not be practical in some cases due to cost, convenience and other factors.
 The Zener Diode

A Semiconductor Diode blocks current in the reverse direction, but will suffer from premature
breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage applied across becomes too high

However, the Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too, are
basically the same as the standard PN junction diode exept that they are specially designed to
have a low and specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which takes advantage of any reverse
voltage applied to it.

In the forward-biased direction, that is Anode is more positive with respect to its Cathode,
a zener diode behaves like a normal junction diode when the forward voltage VF across the
diode exceeds 0.7 volts (silicon) causing the zener diode to conduct. The forward current
flowing through the conducting diode is at its maximum determined only by the connected
load. Thus in the forward-bias direction, the zener behaves like a regular diode within its
specified current and/or power limits and as such, the forward characteristics of a zener diode
is generally of no interest.

However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself when
reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as soon as the
reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse
direction.

Since a zener diode is designed to work in the reverse breakdown region of its characteristic
curve, they have a fixed breakdown voltage, VZ value which is determined during
manufacture. As the reverse voltage across the zener diode increases from 0 volts to its zener
breakdown voltage, a small reverse or leakage current will flow through the diode which
remains fairly constant as the reverse voltage increases.

Once the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device,
a process called Zener Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current
starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to its maximum circuit
value (which is usually limited by a series resistor). Once zener breakdown occurs, the voltage
drop across the diode remains fairly constant even though the zener current, IZ through it can
vary considerably. The voltage point at which the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable
is called the “zener voltage”, (VZ). For zener diodes this breakdown voltage value can range
from a few volts upto a few hundred volts.

The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes
semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, ( VZ ) for
example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical
straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the
zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode.

This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current providing the zener
diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its maximum current
rating IZ(max).

This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise
a voltage source against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in
the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an important characteristic of the zener
diode as it can be used in the simplest types of voltage regulator applications.

The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected
in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or variations in the load current.
A zener diode will continue to regulate its voltage until the diodes holding current falls below
the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.

The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under varying
load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source,
via a suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to
maintain a voltage drop of Vout.

We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave
rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes
so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabiliser circuit as shown
below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be produced.

Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through the
diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The stabilised
output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode.

The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC
supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor RS is
selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all the circuit
current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power.

Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load
resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of
the diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that
the zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance
condition.

The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the
same as the zener voltage, (VR = VZ ).

There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilisation of the voltage is effective and the
zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at
all times. The upper limit of current is of course dependent upon the power rating of the device.
The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.

One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can sometimes generate
electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise the voltage. Normally this is not
a problem for most applications but the addition of a large value decoupling capacitor across
the zener’s output may be required to give additional smoothing.

Then to summarise a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition. As
such a simple voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener diode to maintain a
constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes
in the load current.
The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with
the input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse
biased condition. The stabilised output voltage is always selected to be the same as the
breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.

Zener diode

Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor with a p-n junction that is specifically designed to
work in the reverse biased condition. When forward biased, it behaves like a normal signal
diode, but when the reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage remains constant for a wide
range of currents. Due to this feature, it is used as a voltage regulator in d.c. circuit. The
primary objective of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage.
Let us say if Zener voltage of 5 V is used then, the voltage becomes constant at 5 V, and it
does not change.

What is a Voltage Regulator?

A Semiconductor Diode blocks current in the reverse direction but will suffer damage if the reverse
voltage applied across becomes too high.

A voltage regulator is a device that regulates the voltage level. It essentially steps down the input
voltage to the desired level and keeps it at that same level during the supply. This ensures that even
when a load is applied the voltage doesn’t drop. The voltage regulator is used for two main reasons,
and they are:
 • To vary or regulate the output voltage
• To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in spite of variations in the supply
voltage.
Voltage regulators are used in computers, power generators, alternators to control the output
of the plant.

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

There is a series resistor connected to the circuit in order to limit the current into the diode. It
is connected to the positive terminal of the d.c. It works in such a way the reverse-biased can
also work in breakdown conditions. We do not use ordinary junction diode because the low
power rating diode can get damaged when we apply reverse bias above its breakdown
voltage. When the minimum input voltage and the maximum load current is applied, the
Zener diode current should always be minimum.

Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is known, it is easier to choose a
Zener diode with a voltage approximately equal to the load voltage, i.e. VZ = VL.

Following is the link explaining the difference between Zener breakdown and Avalanche
breakdown:

The circuit diagram of a voltage regulator using a Zener diode is shown:

The value of the series resistor is written as RS = (VL − VZ)IL.

Current through the diode increases when the voltage across the diode tends to increase
which results in the voltage drop across the resistor. Similarly, the current through the diode
decreases when the voltage across the diode tends to decrease. Here, the voltage drop across
the resistor is very less, and the output voltage results normally.
 Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator
A transistor shunt regulator circuit is formed by connecting a resistor in series with the input
and a transistor whose base and collector are connected by a Zener diode that regulates, both
in parallel with the load. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a transistor shunt
regulator.

Working of Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator

If the input voltage increases, the VBE and VO also gets increased. But this happens initially.
Actually when Vin increases, the current Iin also increases. This current when flows through
RS, causes a voltage drop VS across the series resistor, which also gets increased with Vin. But
this makes Vo to decrease. Now this decrease in Vo compensates the initial increase
maintaining it to be constant. Hence Vo is maintained constant. If the output voltage decreases
instead, the reverse happens.

If the load resistance decreases, there should be decrease in the output voltage Vo. The current
through the load increases. This makes the base current and collector current of the transistor
to decrease. The voltage across the series resistor becomes low, as the current flows heavily.
The input current will be constant.

The output voltage appears will be the difference between the applied voltage Vi and the series
voltage drop Vs. Hence the output voltage will be increased to compensate the initial decrease
and hence maintained constant. The reverse happens if the load resistance increases.
What is UPS? -Working & Types
of UPS Explained
Definition:

A UPS is a device which provides an uninterruptable power supply so as to maintain the

continuity of supply in case of power outage. UPS stands for Uninterruptable Power Supply.

Requirement of UPS:

There are several applications where even a temporary power failure can cause a great deal of
public inconvenience leading to large economic losses. Examples of such applications are
major computer installations, process control in chemical plant, safety monitors, general
communication systems, hospital intensive care units (ICUs) etc. For such critical loads, it is
of paramount importance to provide an uninterruptable power supply. Here, comes the
importance of UPS. Application of UPS system caters to such critical loads.

Background:

UPS system used earlier were based on an arrangement of DC Motor, Alternator and DG Set.
This arrangement is shown below.

This arrangement consists of DC motor driven alternator, the shaft of which is also connected
to diesel engine. The three phase main supply, after rectification, charges a DC battery bank
and feeds the DC motor as well. The uninterruptable power supply needed is driven from the
alternator output terminals as shown in the figure.
When main supply fails, the diesel engine is rub to take over the loads. Since, the starting of
diesel engine takes around 10 to 20 seconds, battery bank provides the required power supply
to the load during these 10 to 20 seconds with the help of DC motor and fly-wheel. In this way,
no-break power supply is extended to the critical loads.

However, this arrangement of UPS system is not used now a day. Static UPS system are more
popular these days up to few kVA ratings.

Types of UPS:

The static UPS are of two types:

• Short-break UPS
• No-break UPS

In short-break UPS, the load gets disconnected from the power source for a short duration of
the order of 4 to 5 ms. For this period, no supply is available to the load.

In no-break UPS, load gets continuous uninterrupted power supply from the power source.
There is no any interruption in power supply in no-break UPS. Such UPS are mostly used for
large computer installation. In computer installation, a break of power supply of the order of 4
to 5ms is not tolerable at all and hence no-break UPS is the right choice for such applications.

Working of UPS:

The working principle of short-break and no-break UPS is discussed along with schematic
diagram in the following section.

Short-Break UPS and its Working:

In short-break UPS, the load gets disconnected from the power source for a short duration of
the order of 4 to 5 ms. This type of UPS is suitable for applications where short interruption of
the order of 4-5 ms is tolerable.

A simple schematic diagram of short-break UPS is shown in figure below.

A careful observation of the schematic reveals the technology behind this UPS system. As
evident, main AC supply is rectified to DC. This DC output from the rectifier charges the
batteries and is also converted to AC by an inverter. After passing through the filter, AC can be
delivered to the load in case normally OFF contacts are closed.

Under normal operating condition, normally ON contacts are closed and normally OFF
contacts are open. Therefore, the power supply to load is extended via main AC supply under
normal condition. However, in case of power outage, normally OFF contacts become closed &
normally ON contacts become open. This changeover takes time of 4-5 ms. Hence, during this
period, load is neither connected to the main AC source (main AC is not available due to power
outage) nor the inverter output. Once normally OFF contact becomes closed, load received
power from the inverter and filter.

A momentary interruption in the supply to the load can be observed in case lamps and
fluorescent tubes are a part of load. When normally-ON switch is opened and normally OFF
switch is turned ON, lamps will have a transient dip in their illumination whereas fluorescent
tubes will be OFF momentarily and the get turned on again.

When the main AC supply is resumed, critical loads get connected to the main AC supply
source through normally ON switch. Again, momentarily interruption in illumination is
observed. This arrangement of short-break UPS is also known as stand-by power supply.

No-break UPS and its Working:

In no-break UPS, load gets continuous uninterrupted power supply from the power source.
There is no any interruption in power supply in this uninterruptible power supply system.
Simple schematic diagram of no-break UPS is shown below.
In this system, main AC supply is rectified and the rectifier delivers power to maintain the
required charge on the batteries. Rectifier also supplies power to the inverter continuously
which in turn extend power to the load through filter and normally ON switch. Thus, the load
is connected to the inverter all the time. This simply means that, power supply to the load is
extended from battery power. Though battery receives power from main AC supply but in the
event of power outage, the battery will deliver power to the load without interruption as per its
rated capacity.
Rated capacity of batter is given in terms of AH (Ampere Hour). If this is 20AH, this means
battery can deliver 2 A of current for 10 hours or 4 A of current for 5 hours or 10 A of current
for 2 hours.
So, you might think when main AC supply is connected to the load through normally OFF
switch? Let us discuss this requirement.
In case inverter failure is detected, the load is switched ON to the main AC supply by turning
ON the normally OFF switch and opening the normally ON switch. The transfer of load from
inverter to main AC supply takes 4-5 ms as compared to 40-50 ms for a mechanical contactor.
Tis is the reason, main AC supply is connected to load through normally OFF switch.
After inverter fault is cleared, uninterruptible power supply is again restored to the load through
normally ON switch. The batteries are now recharged from the main AC supply by adjusting
the charge at maximum charge rate so that batteries are charged to their full capacity in the
shortest possible time.
Advantage of No-break UPS:
Following are the main advantages of no-break UPS:
• The inverter can be used to condition the supply delivered to load.
• Load is always protected from the transient that may occur in the main AC supply.
Hence, life of connected load is enhanced.
• Inverter output frequency can be maintained at the desired value.
 Troubleshooting an audio system
It involves a systematic approach to identify and resolve issues affecting sound quality or the proper
functioning of audio components. Here is a step-by-step guide to help you troubleshoot audio systems:

1. Check Physical Connections:

Ensure that all cables are securely connected to their respective ports on audio components (e.g.,
speakers, amplifier, source devices). Look for loose or damaged cables, connectors, or plugs.

2. Power Supply:

Confirm that all audio components are powered on. Check power cables for any damage and ensure a
stable power supply.

3. Volume Settings:

Check and adjust the volume levels on each component, including speakers, amplifier, and source
devices. Make sure the mute function is not activated.

4. Device Selection:

Confirm that the correct input source is selected on each component (e.g., receiver, amplifier). Verify
that the source device (e.g., DVD player, computer, smartphone) is set to output audio.

5. Software and Drivers:

Update audio drivers for your sound card or external audio interfaces on your computer. Check for
software updates for media players or audio applications.

6. Device Manager (for PCs):

Open the Device Manager and check for any yellow exclamation marks next to audio devices. If
present, it may indicate driver issues.

7. Test with Different Devices:

If possible, test the audio system with different devices to isolate the issue. For example, try using a
different source device, speakers, or headphones.

8. Check Audio Source:

Verify that the audio source (e.g., computer, CD player) is playing audio and is not muted.

9. Equalizer and Audio Settings:

Check the equalizer and audio settings on your source device or audio application. Incorrect settings
may affect audio output.

10. Inspect for Physical Damage:

Visually inspect speakers, cables, and other components for physical damage.

11. Environmental Factors:

Consider any environmental factors that could affect audio quality, such as interference from other
electronic devices or acoustic issues in the room.
 Troubleshooting a video system
It involves identifying and addressing issues that may affect the display or playback of video
content. Here is a step-by-step guide to help you troubleshoot video systems:
1. Check Physical Connections:
Ensure that all video cables (HDMI, VGA, DisplayPort, etc.) are securely connected to their
respective ports on both the source device (e.g., computer, DVD player) and the display device
(e.g., monitor, TV).
Look for loose or damaged cables, connectors, or plugs.
2. Power Supply:
Confirm that both the source device and the display device are powered on.
Check power cables for any damage and ensure a stable power supply.
3. Display Input Selection:
Verify that the correct input source is selected on the display device (e.g., HDMI1, VGA, etc.).
Ensure that the source device is set to output video to the correct display output.
4. Resolution and Refresh Rate Settings:
Check and adjust the resolution and refresh rate settings on both the source device and the
display device to ensure compatibility.
Some displays may not support certain resolutions or refresh rates.
5. Device Drivers:
Ensure that the graphics drivers for your video card or integrated graphics are up to date.
Check for any updates to firmware or drivers for your display device.
6. Device Manager (for PCs):
In the Device Manager, check for any yellow exclamation marks next to display adapters. If
present, it may indicate driver issues.
7. Test with Different Devices:
If possible, test the video system with different source devices and cables to isolate the issue.
8. Check Video Source:
Verify that the video source (e.g., computer, DVD player) is playing video content and is not
experiencing any issues.