DRILLING FLUID PLAN

Function of the drilling fluid:-

1. To control sub-surface pressure by providing hydrostatic pressure greater than
the formation pressure.
2. To remove drilled cutting from the hole.
3. To cool and lubricate the drill bit and drill pipe.
4. Prevent walls of the hole from caving formation of a stable mud cake on the
walls of the wellbore.
5. To release the drilled cuttings at the surface.
6. Minimise damage to the formation to suspend cutting and weighing materials
when circulation is stopped.
7. To minimise damage to the formation to suspend cutting and weighing
Materials when circulation is stopped.
BASIC DATA REQIRED TO PREPARE DRILLING FLUID PLAN:-

• Pore pressure /fracture gradient plots to establish the minimum / maximum mud
weights to be used on the whole well.
• Offset well data (drilling completion reports, mud recaps, mud logs etc.) from
similar wells in the area to help establish successful mud systems, problematic
formations, potential hazards, estimated drilling time etc.
• Geological plot of the prognosed lithology.
• Casing design programme and casing seat depths. The casing scheme
effectively divides the well into separate sections; each hole section may have
similar formation types, similar pore pressure regimes or similar reactivity to
mud.
• Basic mud properties required for each open hole section before it is cased off.
• Restrictions that might be enforced in the area i.e. government legislation in the
area, environmental concerns etc.

DRILLING FLUID

Drilling fluid is a Non-Newtonian fluid.

Some times this fluid may be categorised as Thixotropic fluid:-
 These will be break down under continued shear.
 On mixing gives lower shear stress for a given shear rate.

Selection of right type of fluid:-

For that some properties are discussed as following:-

DENSITY:- Drilling fluid density is required to contain the formation and formation
fluids hydrostatic pressure can be calculated as
Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = 0.052 x mud weight (ppg) x depth (ft )
or
Hydrostatic pressure (kg/cm2) = 0.1 x mud weight (sp.gr) x depth (m)
Mud weight is measured with conventional mud balance which consists of a cup and a
graduated arm which is balanced horizontally on a knife edge by moving a counter
weight i.e rider. The mud weight can directly be read, in different units, from
graduated arm.

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES:-

Rheological parameters are used are used to know the following characterstics of the
mud:-

(1) Ability to suspend and carry cuttings to the surface.

(2) To analyse the effect of drilled solids contaminants, chemicals and temperature.

(3) To calculate surge and swab pressures.

Generally, viscosity is measured with marsh funnel and provides information about
any variation in consistency of the mud. Rheological parameters are measured by
using Fann V.G Meter which is a direct reading, concentric cylinders rotary device to
determine shear stresses at different shear rates i.e. 600 and 300 rpm.

APPARENT VISCOSITY (AV)

The shear stress divided by the shear rate ( at any given rate of shear) is known as
effective or apparent viscosity at any given point. It is measured in centipoise.

PLASTIC VISCOSITY (PV)

It is a measure of flow resistance caused by the interaction of solids in the drilling
fluids and expressed in centipoise.

YIELD POINT (Yp)

It is a measure of internal resistance caused by electrical environment of the particles
and is expressed in Ibs/100 ft

SAND CONTENT
The amount of sand particles larger than 200 mesh size are measured through
standard API sand apparatus. In this test, a fixed volume of mud is diluted and passed
through 200 mesh sieve. The residue left gives the measure of sand content in volume
percentage of sand in mud. It is a measure of thixotropic properties of the mud or
attractive force under static condition. It is measured at two different time interval (10
sec and 10 min)to know the nature of gel forming properties
and can be read as maximum deflection on Fann V .G.meter scale at 3 rpm after the
said static period. It is expressed in Ibs/100 ft.

pH
pH determines the dispersibility of the clays and chemicals. Mud rheological
properties differ significantly on variation in pH. Corrosion of surface equipment is
also pH dependent process.

pH is measured by comparing the colour developed on immersing a paper strip

impregnated with certain indicator with the colour of reference standards. Alternately
the pH can be determined by glass electrode pH meter.

GEL STRENGTH:- The gel strength quantifies the thixotropic behaviour of a

fluid;its ability to have strength when static in order to suspend cuttings, and flow
when put under enough force.

FLUID LOSS:-

Fluid loss determines the filtration performance of the mud or in other words while
drilling through permeable formation a part of fluid is filtered into the formation
leaving behind a mud cake. The thickness and permeability of mud cake is dependent
on the rate of filtration and the type of particles forming the mud cake.
There are two types of filtration that occur in the bore hole.
(1) Static filtration.
(2) Dynamic filtration.
Static filtration occurs when mud is at rest and dynamic filtration occurs when the
mud is circulating.
Routinely the fluid loss is measured by standard A.P .1 filtration test. In this test, mud
is filtered through a filter paper for 30 minutes at a pressure of 100 psi and at ambient
temperature. Volume of the filtrate and thickness of the cake are measured in ml. and
mm. respectively. Another filtration test called HT -HP filtration loss is carried out at
500 psi (35kg/cm2) differential pressure and temperature.

DRILLING FLUID ADDITIVES

There are two types of the fluid additives:-

 Water based
 Oil based
Some water and oil based fluid listed as:-

WEIGHTING MATERIALS (DENSIFERS)-

These are water based fluid additives.

Increase the mud weight.
MATERIAL PRINCIPAL SPECIFIC % ACID
COMPONENT GRAVITY SOLUBLE
Galena Pbs 7.4- 7.7 0

Haematite Fe2O3 4.9- 5.3 50+

Magnetite Fe3O4 5.0- 5.2 0

Illmenite FeOTiO2 4.5- 5.1 20

Barite BaSO4 4.2- 4.6 0

Siderite FeCO3 3.7- 3.9 95+

Celesite SrCO4 3.7- 3.9 0

Dolomite CaCO3MgCO3 2.8- 2.9 99

Most commonly used weighting materials:-

BARITE:-
Specific gravity range - (4.20- 4.60)
Various impurities slower its gravity
Low cost and high purity.
Used when mud weight in excess of 10 ppg.
Increase density up to – 22.0 ppg.

IRON MINERALS:-

(i) Iron oxide:- (Fe2O3) Haematite

Specific gravity range 5.0
Attain density up to 22 ppg
Disadvantage:-
Magnetic behaviour which influences directional tool and magnetic logs, toxicity and
difficulty in controlling mud properties.

(ii) Iron Carbonate:- Siderite (FeCO3)

Specific gravity (3.7- 3.9)
Increases density up to 19.0 ppg.

(iii) Illmenite:- FeTiO3

Specific gravity:- 4.60
Increases density upto- 23 ppg

CALCIUM CARBONATE:-
CaCO3- widely weighting agents in non-damaging drilling fluids.

Main advantage:- Dissolves with HCl due to which filter cake can be easily remove to
inhence production.
(i)Dolomite:- Calcium magnesium carbonate
Specific gravity:- 2.80- 2.90
Maximum mud density achieved:- 13.3 ppg.

LEAD SULPHIDES:-
Galena (Pbs)
Specific gravity- 7.40-7.70
Maximum mud density achieved:- upto 32 ppg.
Expensive and toxic mainly used in high pressure wells.

SALTS:-
Specific gravity:- 1.08- 2.58
Maximum mud density achieved:- 9.0- 21.5

TABLE OF MAXIMUM DENSITIES OF SINGLE SALT BRINES

(AFTER BAROID)

MATERIAL g/cm3 (lb/gal)

KCl 1.16 9.7

NaCl 1.20 10.0

NaHCO2 1.33 11.1

(Sodium Formate)
CaCl2 1.42 11.8
(Calcium carbonate)
KHCO2 1.60 1.33
(Potassium Formate)
CaBr2 1.85 15.4
(Calcium Bromide)
Caesium Formate 2.36 19.7

ZnBr2 2.46 20.5

(Zinc Bromide)

VISCOSIFIERS

The ability of drilling mud to suspend drill cuttings and weighting materials depends
entirely on its viscosity. Without viscosity, all the weighting material and drill
cuttings would settle to the bottom of the hole as soon as circulation is stopped. One
can think of viscosity as a structure built within the water or oil phase which suspends
solid material. In practice, there are many solids which can be used to increase the
viscosity of water or oil. The effects of increased viscosity can be felt by the increased
resistance to fluid flow; in drilling this would manifest itself by increased pressure
losses in the circulating system.

MATERIALS USED AS VISCOSIFIERS

Clays:-
Clays are defined as natural, earthy, fine-grained materials that develop plasticity
when wet.
They are formed from the chemical weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
The major source of commercial clays is volcanic ash; the glassy component of which
readily weathers very readily, usually to bentonite.

Bentonite:- Most widely used used clay is Bentonite used to build viscosity in water.

Attapulgite:- Different family of clay. Excellent viscosity and yield strength.

Disadvantage:- High water loss giving poor sealing properties.

Organophillic:- Structures are similar when it is dispersed in oil with Bentonite.

It is dispersible in water.
Polymers:- Used for filtration control viscosity modification, flocculation and shale
stabilisation.
Polymers+ Mud----------- little change in the solid content.

FILTRATION CONTROL MATERIAL

Reduce the amount of fluid that will be lost from drilling fluid into a subsurface
formation.

Material used:-
PAC:- Poly anionic cellulose
CMC:- Carboxymethylcellulose
Bentonite

ALKANITY & PH CONTROL MATERIALS

The pH affects several mud properties including:-

• Detection and treatment of contaminants such as cement and soluble carbonates.
• Solubility of many thinners and divalent metal ions such as calcium and magnesium.

Additives:-
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2,NaHCO3 and Mg(OH)2

LUBRICATING MATERIALS

Lubricating materials are used mainly to reduce friction between the wellbore and the
drillstring. This will in turn reduce torque and drag which is essential in highly
deviated and horizontal wells. Lubricating materials include: oil (diesel, mineral,
animal, or vegetable oils), surfactants, graphite, asphalt, gilsonite, polymer and glass
beads.

SHALE STABILIZING MATERIALS

There are many shale problems which may be encountered while drilling sensitive
highly hydratable shale sections.
Essentially, shale stabilization is achieved by the prevention of water contacting the
open shale section. This can occur when the additive encapsulates the shale or when a
specific ion such as potassium actually enters the exposed shale section and
neutralises the charge on it.

Shale stablisers include: high molecular weight polymers, hydrocarbons, potassium

and calcium salts (e.g. KCl) and glycols.

Field experience indicates that complete shale stabilisation can not be obtained from
polymers only and that soluble salts must also be present in the aqueous phase to
stabilize hydratable shales.

DRILLING FLUID TYPES:-

A drilling fluid can be classified by the nature of its continuous fluid phase. There are
three types of drilling fluids:
1. Water Based Muds
2. Oil Based Muds
3. Gas Based Muds
WATER BASED MUD:-
These are fluids where water is the continuous phase. The water may be fresh,
brackish or seawater, whichever is most convenient and suitable to the system or is
available.
The following designations are normally used to define the classifications of water
based
drilling fluids:
1. Non-dispersed-Non - inhibited
2. Non-dispersed - Inhibited
3. Dispersed - Non-inhibited
4. Dispersed - Inhibited

Non-Inhibited means that the fluid contains no additives to inhibit hole problems.
Inhibited means that the fluid contains inhibiting ions such as chloride, potassium or
calcium or a polymer which suppresses the breakdown of the clays by charge
association and or encapsulation.

Dispersed means that thinners have been added to scatter chemically the bentonite
(clay) and reactive drilled solids to prevent them from building viscosity.

Non-Dispersed means that the clay particles are free to find their own dispersed
equilibrium
in the water phase.

Non-dispersed-non-inhibited fluids do not contain inhibiting ions such as chloride

(Cl-), calcium (Ca2+) or potassium (K+) in the continuous phase and do not utilize
chemical thinners or dispersants to affect control of rheological properties.

Non-dispersed- inhibited fluids contain inhibiting ions in the continuous phase,

however they do not utilize chemical thinners or dispersants.

Dispersed-non-inhibited fluids do not contain inhibiting ions in the continuous

phase, butthey do rely on thinners or dispersants such as phosphates, lignosulfonate or
lignite to achieve control of the fluids' rheological properties.

Inhibited dispersed contain inhibiting ions such as calcium (Ca2+) or potassium (K+)
in the continuous phase and rely on chemical thinners or dispersants to control the
fluids rheological properties.

NON-DISPERSED, NON-INHIBITED MUD SYSTEMS:-

Spud Gel Mud: Used for top hole drilling, usually in 40 to 50 bbls pills on each
connection, and hole volume sweeps and displacement at hole TD.
The mud is prepared by pre-hydrating bentonite at 30 ppb (pounds per barrel) for 4-6
hrs prior to use to allow time for the clay to yield.

CMC Gel Mud: Used as an alternative to the spud mud when the mud system is
closed in.
The CMC added at 1 to 3 ppb, offers some fluid loss control, however, this mud
system should only be used in areas of unreactive formations and will be subjected to
high levels of dilution.

DISPERSED, NON-INHIBITED SYSTEMS

Lignite, Lignosulphonate or Phosphate Muds: This is a clay- based fresh water mud
which requires high treatment dilution levels while drilling reactive clays. Extra
caustic soda needs Lignite, Lignosulphonate or Phosphate Muds:

This is a clay- based fresh water mud which requires high treatment dilution levels
while drilling reactive clays.

Extra caustic soda needs to be added because of acidic tendencies of system. This is a
cheap and easy mud system to maintain, however, it is not common in the oil industry
today.
DISPERSED INHIBITED SYSTEMS
Lime /Gypsum Muds: These muds are built from fresh water but can also be built
using seawater. Lime/gypsum muds are often used in areas where shale hydration and
swelling result in significant borehole instability.

The presence of calcium ions in mud help to stabilise the open shales and prevent
sloughing and heaving.

NON-DISPERSED, INHIBITED SYSTEMS

These mud systems are the most common in drilling problematic formations like
reactive clays, sloughing heaving shales and halite salt sections. The mechanisms of
inhibition vary according to the type of inhibitive product being used.

It is common to utilise two or more products in the same mud system. These mud
systems also minimise the reaction with the drilled cuttings and therefore help to
avoid the high dilution rates exhibited by other fluid.

OIL BASED MUDS

An oil based mud system is one in which the continuous phase of a drilling fluid is
oil. When water is added as the discontinuous phase then it is called an invert
emulsion.

These fluids are particularly useful in drilling production zones, shales and other
water sensitive formations, as clays do not hydrate or swell in oil.

They are also useful in drilling high angle/horizontal wells because of their superior
lubricating properties and low friction values between the steel and formation which
result in reduced torque and drag.

Invert emulsion fluids (IEFs) are more cost-effective than water muds in the following
situations:
• Shale stability
• Temperature stability
• Lubricity
• Corrosion
• Corrosion resistance
• Stuck pipe prevention
• Contamination
• Production protection

Oil based muds are subject to strict Government Legislations and so serious thought
should be given to alternative systems.

There are two types of oil based muds:

• Invert Emulsion Oil Muds
• Pseudo Oil Based Mud
INVERT EMULSION OIL MUD:-

The basic components of a typical low toxicity invert emulsion fluid are:

Base Oil: Only low toxic base oil should be used as approved by the authorities (such
as the DTI in the UK). This is the external emulsion phase.

Water: Internal emulsion phase. This gives the Oil/Water Ratio (OWR), the% of each
part as a total of the liquid phase. Generally, a higher OWR is used for drilling
troublesome formations. The salinity of the water phase can be controlled by the use
of dissolved salts, usually calcium chloride. Control of salinity in invert oil muds is
necessary to "tie-up" free water molecules and prevent any water migration between
the mud and the open formation such as shales.

Emulsifier: Often divided into primary and secondary emulsifiers. These act at the
interface between the oil and the water droplets. Emulsifier levels are held in excess
to act against possible water and solid contamination.

Wetting Agent: This is a high concentration emulsifier used especially in high

density fluids to oil wet all the solids. If solids become water wet they will not be
suspended in the fluid,and would settle out of the system.

Organophillic Clay: These are clays treated to react and hydrate in the presence of
oil. They react with oil to give both suspension and viscosity characteristics.

Lime: Lime is the primary ingredient necessary for reaction with the emulsifiers to
develop the oil water interface. It is also useful in combating acidic gases such as CO2
and H2S. The concentration of lime is usually held in excess of 2 to 6 ppb, depending
on conditions.

PSEUDO OIL BASED MUD

To help in the battle against the environmental problem of low toxicity oil based muds
and their low biodegradability, developments have been made in producing a
biodegradable synthetic base oil.

A system which uses synthetic base oil is called a Pseudo Oil Based Mud (SOB) and
is designed to behave as close as possible to low toxic oil based mud (LTOBM).

It is built in a fashion akin to normal oil based fluids, utilising modified emulsifiers.
SOB muds are an expensive systems and should only be considered in drilling hole
sections that cannot be drilled using water based muds without the risk of
compromising the well objectives.

The base oil that is being changed out can be one of the following:
Detergent Alkalates, Synthetic Hydrocarbon, Ether and Ester. These have been listed
in increasing order of cost, biodegradability and instability.
Synthetic base fluids include Linear Alpha Olefins (LAO), Isomerised Olefins (IO),
and normal alkanes. Other synthetic base fluids have been developed and discarded
such as ethers and benzene based formulations.

Esters are non-petroleum oils and are derived from vegetable oils. They contain no
aromatics or petroleum-derived hydrocarbons. The primary advantage of an ester-
based fluid is that it biodegrades readily, either aerobically or, more importantly, from
a mud cuttings disposal viewpoint, anaerobically.

GAS BASED FLUIDS

There are four main types of gas based fluids:
1. Air
2. Mist
3. Foam
4. Aerated Drilling Fluid
These are not common systems as they have limited applications such as the drilling
of depleted reservoirs or aquifers where normal mud weights would cause severe loss
circulation.
In the case of air the maximum depth drillable is currently about 6-8,000 ft
because of the capabilities of the available compressors. Water if present in the
formation is very detrimental to the use of gas-based muds as their properties tends to
break down in the presence of water.