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COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

MODULE 2

Kinematics; Description of motion

Overview:

Motion is the displacement of an object in relation to objects that are considered to be

stationary. Motion can also be defined as the continous change of position with respect to a
certain reference.
The simplest type of motion takes place along a straight line. In this module we shall learn what is meant
by speed, velocity, and acceleration. The way in which objects fall under the pull of gravity will also be examined.
In the following module we shall see how accelerations are caused by forces.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Define motion and differentiate its types
2. Recognize whether or not a physical situation involves constant velocity or constant acceleration.
3. Show and describe how a moving object accelerates
4. Solve problems involving motion.

Contents:

Mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the motion of objects and the forces that change. It
also deals with the particles that are moving either with less velocity or they are at rest. It is also called
Classical Mechanics or Newtonian Mechanics. Mechanics is of vital importance in describing motion of
material bodies, such as planes, rockets, falling objects, and baseballs.

Areas of Mechanics
1. Kinematics describes the quantitative description of motion such as the rate at which the
particles are moving (velocity) and the rate at which their velocity is changing (acceleration).
2. Dynamics deals with forces and their effect on motion. It also includes the study of the effect
of torques in motion.
3. Statics deals with the study of forces acting on bodies at rest. When in static equilibrium, the
system is either at rest, or its center of mass at constant velocity.

Types of Motion
 Rectilinear/Translatory motion is the motion of a body along a straight line. Linear motion is
the most basic of all motions. According to Newton’s first law of motion, object that are not
subjected to forces will continue to move uniformly in a straight line indefinitely. An example
of linear motion is that of a ball thrown straight up and falling back straight down.
 Curvilinear/Rotational motion is the motion along a circular path. An example is a car
negotiating a curve.
 Vibrational motion is a to and from motion of a body. An example is a moving pendulum.

SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed and velocity use the terms distance and displacement. Distance is a scalar quantity which
represents the total path length. Displacement is the straight line distance between the starting and
end points.
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Speed is a scalar quantity which specifies magnetude of the rate of motion without reference to the
direction of motion. It can also be defined as the distance traveled per unit of time. V = s/t.
Speed can be expressed by the units cm/s, m/s, km/h, ft/s, mi/h, etc.

Average speed is the total distance traveled divided by the total time travel that distance.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑆

Ave. speed = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ṽ = 𝑡

Velocity is the total displacement covered in a given time interval. It can also be defined as a speed in
a given direction.

Instantaneous velocity refers to the velocity at a particular instance. Speed is sometimes used to
mean the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity. This is because the distance and displacement
become the same when they are infinitely small.

Acceleration is a vector quantity which describes how velocity changes with time.
𝑉− 𝑉𝑜
Mathematically, acceleration is expressed as; a = .
𝑡− 𝑡𝑜
Very important equations which will allow us to solve a great number of motion problems including all
uniformly accelerated motion problems.

1. X= ṽt or s= ṽt
2. VF = VI + a t or V = V0 + g t
1 1
3. ṽ = 2(VI + VF) or ṽ = 2(V0 + V)
4. 2ax = 𝑉𝐹2 - 𝑉𝐼2 or 2gs = V2 - 𝑉02
1 1
5. X = V I t + 2 a t2 or S = V0t + 2 g t2

Solution of Motion Problems

It is necessary to follow a definite plan.
1. Sketch the situation.
2. Locate the starting point and the end point for the motion you wish to deal with.
3. Decide which direction along the line you will take as positive. Displacements, velocities,
and accelerations will be positive in that direction.
4. Write down which of the following quantities you know: x, a, t, ṽ, VI, VF.
5. Select the appropriate equation(s) from equation 2.9 to find the unknowns required.
6. Solved for the unknowns.
Problem:
A car traveled a distance of 30 m in 10 seconds from point A to point B. (a) What is the average speed
of the car? If the displacement of the car is 20 meters, north, what is the car’s average velocity?
Given: s = 30 m ; t = 10 s
Find; (a) speed, V = ? ; (b) Velocity, ṽ = ?
Solution:
a) Speed b) Velocity
𝑠 𝑠
V= ṽ=𝑡
𝑡
30 𝑚 20 m, N
V= ṽ=
10 𝑠 10 s
V = 3 m/s ṽ = 2 m/s, N
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Problem:
As a shuttle bus comes to a normal stop, it slows from 9 m/s to 0 m/s in 5 seconds. Find the
average acceleration of the bus.
Given; V0 = 9 m/s; Vf = 0; t=5s; Find: Ave. acceleration = ?

𝑉− 𝑉0
Solution: a=
𝑡
0−9 𝑚/𝑠
a=
5𝑠
a = - 1.8 m/s2.
Problem:
A car going 20 m/s skids to a stop in a distance of 30 m. assume uniform deceleration. Find the
time taken to stop and the acceleration.
Given: VI = 20 m/s
VF = 0
X = 30 m
Required: t = ?, a = ?
Solution: we sketch the situation,

Whenever both VI and VF are known, it is wise to find ṽ at once. We have,

1 1
ṽ = 2(VI + VF) = 2(20 m/s + 0) = 10 m/s.
To find t, we look for the simplest of the equation,
x= ṽt ; 30 m = 10 m/s t
30 𝑚
t = 10 𝑚/𝑠 = 3.0 s
To find acceleration, a from either equation (2), (4), or (5). Of course we use (2) because it is the
simplest.
VF = VI + a t
gives, 0 m/s = 20 m/s + a (3.0 s)
− 20 𝑚/𝑠
a = 3.0 𝑠 = - 6.7 m/s2. ( The negative sign tell us that it’s decelerated).

Problem:
A car is timed as it passes two posts that are 30 m apart. It takes 2.0 s. If the car’s speed is 40
km/hr at the first post, what is its speed at the second post? Assume uniform acceleration.
Given:
40 𝑘𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟 1000 𝑚
VI = ( ℎ𝑟 )(3600 𝑠)( 𝑘𝑚 ) = 11.1 m/s.
t = 2.0 s
x = 30 m
Required: VF = ?
Solution: we sketch the situation,
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Take the posts as start and end points.

1
From equation, ṽ = 2(VI + VF)
VF = 2 ṽ - VI -----------(1)
𝑥 30 𝑚
ṽ = 𝑡 = 2.0 𝑠 = 15 m/s. ---- (2)
then, subst. to (1)
VF = 2 ṽ - VI = 2(15 m/s) – 11.1 m/s
VF = 18.9 m/s.

MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE

FREELY FALLING BODIES: UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

A freely falling body is defined as a body that is moving freely under the influence of gravity. It is
assumed that the effect of air resistance iis negligible. The motion of any falling objects is found to be
under a constant acceleration due to gravity, g.

GRAVITY
Gravity (also called little g) is a fundamental physical force that is responsible for interactions
which occur because of mass between particles and between aggregations of matter. It can also be
defined as the force that pulls an object towards the earth’s center. The value of an object’s gravity
depends on its mass. Here on earth the values of acceleration due to gravity are any of the following:
9.8 m/s2 - mks system
980 cm/s2 - cgs system
2
32 ft/s - fps system
It is always good to remember that an object in free fall (1) does not encounter air resistance, and (2)
accelerates downward at the rate of 9.8 m/s2 or 32 ft/s2.

FREE FALL MOTION

A freely falling body is any object that is falling due only to the pull of gravity. We can,
therefore say that it has a uniform acceleration as it falls. Its acceleration increases by 9.8 m/s after
each second of fall.
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Technically, and object is in free fall even when moving upwards or instantaneously at rest at the top
of its motion. If gravity is the only influence acting, then the acceleration is always downward and has
the same magnitude for all bodies, commonlly denoted g.
The equations for constant acceleration could tell the position and velocity of the falling object
at any given time.

The equations are:

V = V0 + gt
𝑔 𝑡2
S = V0t + 2
V2 = V02 + 2gs

Since a freely-falling object has a zero initial velocity, the equations become
V = gt
𝑔 𝑡2
S= 2
V2 = 2gs
Problem:
A stone is dropped from a bridge to the river below. It takes 3.0 s for the stone to strike the
water. How high is the bridge above the river?
Given;
VI = 0
t = 3.0 s
a = g = 9.8 m/s2.
Required: h = y = ?
Solution: we sketch the situation,

Notice that we call the displacement y instead of x. we do this because the y coordinate, not the x
coordinate, is usually taken vertically. We can find y by use of equation (5).

1
y = VI t + 2 a t2

1
Substitution gives, y = 0 m + 2(9.8 m/s2)(3.0 s)2.
Y = 44 m.

MOTION OF A BODY THROWN UPWARD

An object needs an initial velocity for it to go up. A body thrown upward finally comes down.
The velocity at which it is thrown is the same as its final velocity when it reaches the same point of
elevation. The time of ascent is equal to the time of descent.
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Gravity decreases the velocity of an object thrown upward so its motion is negatively
accelerated. It comes to a point when its final velocity becomes zero. At this point it has reach the
maximum height.

How far will the object go up depends on the initial vertical velocity.
𝑉 2 − 𝑣02
S=d=h= 2(−𝑔)
To find the time of reaching the maximum height and the total time of flight;
( 𝑉−𝑉0 ) ( 𝑉−𝑉0 )2
t’ = ; t’ =
−𝑔 −𝑔
Example:
A ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 25 m/s. Find the
a. Maximum height reached
b. Time of ascent
c. Total time in air
d. Final velocity when it reached the point where it was thrown.

Given: V0 = 25 m/s; V = 0; g = 9.8 m/s2

𝑉 2 − 𝑣02 ( 𝑉−𝑉0 ) ( 𝑉−𝑉0 )2

a) S = 2(−𝑔)
b) t = −𝑔
c) t = −𝑔

𝑚
0 – (25 m/s)2 0−25 𝑚/𝑠 (0−25 )2
𝑠
S= t = − 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 t = − 9.8 𝑚/𝑠2
2(−9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2

−625 𝑚2 /𝑠2
S= t = 2.55 s t = 5.1 s
−19.6 𝑚/𝑠2

S = 31.89 m.

d) V = V0 + gt

V = 0 + (9.8 m/s2)(2.55 s)

V = 25 m/s.

Problem:

A ball is thrown straight up with a speed of 20 m/s. How high does it go?
Given: vI = 20 m/s.
Required: h=y=?
Solution: we sketch the situation,
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The starting point is where the ball leaves the thrower’s hand. As end point we take the highest point
reaches, point B. At that point the ball stopped and is about to fall back down. Then the initial velocity
and the displacement vector (from start to end) will be positive, because they are up. But the
acceleration due to gravity is downward, and so it will be negative. We know that,

vI = 20 m/s.
vF = (0 (because it stops at the top)
a = - g = - 9.8 m/s2.
We want y, the displacement. To find it, we can use equation 4 with x replaced by y. Then,
2ay = 𝑉𝐹2 - 𝑉𝐼2
2(-9.8 m/s2)y = 0 – (20 m/s)2
-19.6 m/s2 y = - 400 m2/s2
y = 20.4 m.

PROJECTILE MOTION

Projectile is any object which has an initial velocity and then follows a path determined entirely by
the effects of air resistance and gravitational force.

Projectile motion is any motion of an object projected by some means into the air at an angle.
Projectile motion can be analyzed by the use of vector components.

Trajectory is the path of a projectile that is determined by vertical and horizontal motions.
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The total time spent by a projectile on air is calculated by the equation,

The total distance fallen is equal to,

Range, sx is the horizontal displacement of a projectile. It is calculated by the equation,

R = sx = vx t
The greater the initiial horizontal velocity, the greater the range reached by a projectile.
Properties of a projectile can be summarized as:
 A projectile is any object upon which the only force is gravity.
 Projectiles travel with a parabolic trajectory due to the influence of gravity.
 There are no horizontal forces acting upon projectiles and thus no horizontal acceleration.
 The horizontal velocity of a projectile is constant (a never changingt in value).
 There is a vertical acceleration caused by gravity; its value is 9.8 m/s/s, down.
 The vertical velocity of projectile changes 9.8 m/s each second.
 The horizontal motion of a projectile is independent of its vertical motion.
Problem:
Suppose that the ball in figure shown, is thrown horizontally with speed of 30 m/s. It is 1.50 m
above the level ground when released. How far will it go before it hits the ground?

y = 1.50 m
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Solution: In projectile motion, we analyze into two portions, Vertical and horizontal. The start point
of the problem is when the ball leaves thrower’s hand. The end point is just before the ball hits the
ground.
Let us first analyzed the vertical portion: Notice that at the beginning the ball was moving
horizontally. Its velocity component in the y direction was zero. Therefore, vIy = 0. Taking up as
positive, the knowns are;
VIy = 0 m/s.
ay = - g = - 9.8 m/s2.
y = - 1.50 m.
Notice that the start point is 1.50 m above the end point. Therefore, the y displacement is 1.50 m
downward or – 1.50 m. The final (Vy) and the time (t) are unknown.
We can find (t) by equation 5.
1
sy = VI t + 2 a t2 ; sy = y = - 1.50 m.
Putting in the known valves gives,
1
-1.50 m = 0 m + 2 (-9.8 m/s2) t2
1.50 𝑚
t2 = = 0.306 s2.
4.9 𝑚/𝑠2
t = 0.55 s or,

2 (1.50 𝑚)
= √ 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 = 0.55.s

The ball is in the air 0.55 s. Let us now go to horizontal part of the problem.
Horizontal: At the start, the ball was travelling horizontally with speed VIx = 30 m/s. But no horizontal
push exists on the ball if we ignore friction. Therefore its horizontal speed will remain unchanged. We
therefore know VIx = VFx = ṽ𝑥 = 30 m/s.
ax = 0
t = 0.55 s
x=?
To find the horizontal distance x, we use equation (1).
x = ṽ𝑥 t . Then,
x = (30 m/s)(0.55 s)
x = 16.5 m. This is the distance x shown in the diagram.

PROJECTION AT ANGLE
If a projectile is shot at an angle with the horizontal, projectile follows a curvede path upward
and reaches a peak, and then falls in a curved path, too.
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If the vector for initial velocity, v0 , makes an angle with the horizontal, the components (v x and vy) of
v0, can be resolved by;
Vx = v0 cos ϴ vy = v0 sin ϴ
The maximum height reached by a projectile can be determined by the equation,

The time in reaching the peak of trajectory is calculated by equation,

The time of flight or the time spent by the projectile in air is determined by;

2𝑉𝑦 2(𝑉0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

t’ = or t' =
𝑔 𝑔

The range of the horizontal distance traveled by a projectile is calculated by;

The longest possible range is achieved when the body is projected at 45 0 angle. Special projectile are
those objects projected at 900-angle with the horizontal or simply those bodies which are thrown
vertically upward. Below is a graphical representation of the different trajectories and ranges ofr
projected at the same initial velocities.

Problem:
A ball is thrown with velocity 20 m/s at an angle of 37 0 above the horizontal. How high does it
go? How far has it moved horizontally at that time?
Given: VI = 20 m/s. ; θ = 370.
Required: x = ? and y = ?
Solution: we sketch the situation,
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Notice in the figure that we have already found the x and y components of the velocity. We need
them to solve the two different motions. They are; VIx = vI cos 370 and VIy = vi sin 370. Then,

Horizontal: VIx = VFx = ṽ𝑥 = vI cos 370 = 16 m/s.

ax = 0
If we knew t, the time taken to get to the top of the path, we could use x = ṽ𝑥 t to find the desired
horizontal distance. We need to examine the vertical part of the problem to find t.
Vertical:
VIy = vi sin 370 = 12 m/s (up is taken as positive)
ay = - 9.8 m/s2 (g is always down)
VFy = 0 (since the vertical velocity decreases to zero at the top of the trajectory).
We can find ṽ𝑦 at once from,
1 1
ṽ𝑦 = 2 (VIx + VIy) = 2 (16 m/s + 12 m/s)
ṽ𝑦 = 6.0 m/s.
We can use equation, VFy = VIy + ayt to find t, the time taken to get to the top.
Then, 0 m/s = (12 m/s) + (- 9.8 m/s2)t
Which gives t = 1.22 s.
Before going back to the horizontal problem, we can find y from y =ṽ𝑦 t = (6.0 m/s)(1.22 s) ;
y = 7.3 m. This is how high the ball goes.

Combine the results: To find how large x as shown in figure is, we can go back to the horizontal part
of the problem. We now know t = 1.22 s, and so, x = ṽ𝑥 t = (16 m/s)(1.22 s)
x = 20 m. ( Notice how simple the problem is if you keep its two parts seperately).
Problem:

c) Sx = Vxt’

Sx = V0 cosθ t’

Sx = (40 m/s)(cos 500)(6.26 s)

Sx = 160.95 m.

List of References:

R01 - Work-Text in General Physics 1 for senior high school by Cristopher G. Reyes; copyright 2018;
ISBN 978-971-9645-53-5
R02 - Physics for Scientists and Engineers by: Raymond A. Serway - Emeritus, James Madison University
and John W. Jewett - California State Polytechnic University, Pomona; Thomson Brooks/Cole
© 2004; 6th Edition, ISBN 0534408427
R03 - Technical Physics Fourth Edition by Bueche and Wallach 1994,

Prepared by: ENGR. BONIFACIO A. HONTIVEROS

Course Facilitator