Part 1: Lecture Notes on

Mechanism of conduction in
Semiconductors
 Energy Level
• Each isolated atom have certain
number of orbits.
• These available orbits represent
energy levels for the electrons (e⁻).
• Each orbit h as f ix ed amou nt of
energy associated with it & e⁻ s
moving in particular orbit possess
the same energy.
Fig.1 Atomic Model
• The larger the orbit, the greater
is its energy.
 Energy Level Contd…
• The larger the orbit , the greater is
its energy.
• This also means that the outermost
shell requires less amount of
energy to remove an electron (e⁻)
form the orbit.
• As compared to the innermost
orbit which requires greater energy
to remove an e⁻ from its orbit.
Fig.2 Orbital Energy Levels
 Energy Band Structure
Fig.3 Energy Band Structure • The e ne rgy bands which
possess v a l e n c e e ⁻ s a r e
known as Valence Band.
• The energy bands which possess
the free e⁻s is known as
Conduction Band.
• The forbidden energy gap
is the energy gap t hat
se parat e s the Conduct ion
Band from the Valence Band.

January 13,
2021
 Difference
between Conductor,
Semiconductor and
Insulato
Characteristics Conductor
r Semiconductor
A conductor is a material A semiconductor is a
Insulator
An insulator is a material that
Def inition that material
allows the flow of charge whose conductivity lies does not allow the flow of
when applied with a voltage. between conductor & insulator current.

The resistance of a
T h e r e s i s t a n c e of a I ns u l a t or h a s ve r y h i gh
semiconductor decrease
Temperature Dependence conductor increases with an resistance but it still
wi t h increases in
increase in temperature. decreases with temperature.
temperature. Thus it acts
as an insulator at absolut e
zero.
They have intermediate
The conductors have very
conductivity (10-7 Ʊ/m to 10- T h e y h a v e v e r y l o w
high conductivity (10-7 Ʊ 13
Conductivity Ʊ/m), thus they can acts conductivity (10-13 Ʊ /m), thus
/m or mho per meter), thus
as they do not allow current f low.
they can conduct electrical insulator & conductor at
current easily. different conditions.
The conduction in conductors The conduction in
There are no free electrons or
is due to the free electrons in semiconductor Is due to the
JanuaryConduction
13, metal movement of electron holes thus, there is no
2021 conduction.
 Difference
between Conductor,
Semiconductor and
Insulato
r Contd
Characteristics Conductor … Semiconductor Insulator
There is no or low energy T he band gap of The band gap in insulator is
gap semiconductor huge
Band gap between the conduction is greater than the conductor (+5 eV), which need
& val anc e band of a but s m al l e r t han an an e n or m ou s a m ou n t of
conductor. It does not need i nsul ator i .e. 1 eV. T hei r energy like lightning to push
e xt r a e ne r gy for t he electrons need a little energy electrons into the conduction
conduction state. for conduction state. band.
Resistivity Low (10-5 Ω/m) Normal (10-5Ω/m to 105 Ω/m) Very High (105 Ω/m)

It has positive coefficient The coefficient of resistivity

It has negative coefficient of
Coefficient of Resistivity of res i s t i vi t y i .e. i t s of a n i n s u l a t o r i s a l s o
resistivity.
r e s i s t anc e i n c r e a s e wi t h negative but it has very huge
temperature resistance.
Some special conductors turn
into superconductors when T he i ns ul ator ’s res i s t ance
The semiconductors turn into
Absolute Zero supercooled down to increase when cooled down
insulator at absolute zero.
absolute zero while to absolute zero.
January 13, other have f inite
2021 resistance.
 Difference
between Conductor,
Semiconductor and
Insulato
r Contd
Characteristics Conductor
… Semiconductor Insulator

Valence Electron in Outer 1 Valence electron in outer 4 Valence electron in outer 8 Valence electron in outer
Shell shell. shell. shell.

Rubber,Glass,Wood,Air, Mica,
Silicon, Germanium,
Plastic, Paper etc.
Gold,Copper, Silver, Aluminum Selenium, Antimony,
Examples etc Gallium
Arsenide
(known as
semi insulator),
Boron etc.
Semiconductors are used
The metals like iron & copper The insulators are used
every day electronic devices
etc. t hat c an c onduc t for prot ect i on agai ns t hi gh
Application such as cellphone, computer,
electricity are made into voltages & prevention of
s ol a r pane l e t c as
wires and cable for carrying e l e c t r i c al shor t be t we e n
switches, energy converter,
January 13, electric current. cables in circuits.
amplifiers, etc.
2021
 Properties of Semiconductor
• The material whose electrical conductivity lies between those of
conductors and insulators, are known as Semiconductors.
• The resistivity of semiconductor is less than an insulator but more than a
conductor.
• Semiconductor have –ve temperature coef ficient of resistance i.e. the
resistance decreases with increase in temperature or vice-versa.
• In semiconductors, as the temperature increases the electrons in the
valence band get excited and jump into the conduction band and hence the
conductance increases resulting in the weakening of resistance. As
resistance is directly proportional to resistivity, therefore resistivity also
decreases.
• When a suitable metallic impurity is added to a semiconductor, its
current
January 13, conducting properties changes appreciably.
2021
 Effect of Temperature
on
• At absolute zeroSemiconductor
(-273°C or 0K):
– Semiconductors acts as Perfect Insulators. At
this temperature the electrons are tightly held
by the semiconductor atoms.
– The inner orbit electrons are bound whereas
the valence e⁻s are engaged in covalent bonding.
– At this temp., the covalent bonds are very strong
and there are no free electrons.
– Therefore , it behaves as an INSULATOR.
January 13,
2021
 Effect of Temperature
on
• Semiconductor
At above absolute zero:
– When the temperature is raised, some of the
covalent bonds break due to the thermal energy
supplied.
– The breaking of bonds sets these electrons free
which are engaged in the formation of these
bonds.
– This phenomenon is knownas
January 13,
2021
 Fourth Group Elements

January 13,
2021
 Electronic Configuration
of
Semiconductors

January 13,
2021
 Reflection Spot
• Q. Why Silicon semiconductor is preferred over
Germanium semiconductor?
• A. Valence e⁻s in Ge are in the 4th shell while those in Si are available
in the 3 rd shell i.e. closer to the nucleus. Hence Germanium
valence e⁻s are at higher energy level than those of Silicon.
• Thus, Ge e⁻s will require smaller amount of additional energy to
escape from the atom.
• Due to this reason, Germanium produces more number of
electron hole pairs than Silicon which gives rise to greater leakage
current thus, making Germanium unstable at higher
temperatures.This is why Silicon is preferred more over
2021
Germanium.
January 13,
 Classification
of
Semiconducto
There are two basic groups
rs or classif ic ations that can be
used to def ine the different
types of semiconductor:

 Intrinsic material (Pure)

 Extrinsic material (Impure)

January 13,
2021
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the
semiconductor material in its extremely pure form chemically.

• As a result it possesses a very low conductivity level having

very few number of charge carriers, namely holes and
electrons, which it possesses in equal quantities.

January 13,
2021
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Extrinsic types of semiconductor are those where a small amount of
impurity has been added to the basic intrinsic material.
• This process of adding impurity is called 'doping‘.
• The conductivity is enhanced by means of doping.
• This process uses an element from a different group of the periodic table
and in this way it will either have more or less electrons in the valence
band than the semiconductor itself.
• This creates either an excess or shortage of electrons. In this way
two types of semiconductor are available: N-Type Semiconductors and P-
Type Semiconductors.
Note: Electrons are negatively charged carriers.

January 13,
2021
 Impurity Materials
• Donor Impurity
– When pentavalent impurity is added i.e. atoms having f iv e(5)
electrons (e⁻s) in the outermost shell to the pure or intrinsic
semiconductor then the semiconductor thus formed
will have rich concentration of e le ct rons. They are
used for the formation of N-type Semiconductors.
– Ex: Arsenic (As), Phosphorus (P), Antimony (Sb), etc.
• Acceptor Impurity
– When trivalent impurity is added i.e. atoms having three(3)
electrons (e⁻s) in the outermost shell to the pure or intrinsic
semiconductor then the semiconductor thus formed will
have rich concentration of holes. They are used for the
formation of P-type Semiconductors.
–13,Ex: Boron (B), Gallium (Ga), Aluminium (Al), Indium (In), etc.
January
2021
 N-type Semiconductor
– If pentavalent impurity
is added to the pure or
intrinsic semiconductor
then the semiconductor
thus formed will have
rich concentration of
electrons (e⁻s) and is
known as N-
Type Semiconductors.
January 13,
2021
 Energy Band Diagram
of N-type
Semiconductor
– E for
D Germanium
ED
is
EF 0.
01eV, and
– ED for Silicon is 0.05eV.

January 13,
2021
 P-type Semiconductor
– If trivalent impurity
is added to the pure
or intrinsic
semiconductor then
t he se m ic o nd uc t o r
thus formed will have
rich concentration of
holes (void of electrons)
and is known as
P-Type Semiconductors.
January 13,
2021
 Energy Band Diagram
of P-type
Semiconductor
– E for
A Germanium
is
EF 0.
EA 01eV, and
– EA for Silicon is 0.08eV.

January 13,
2021
 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

• In an intrinsic semiconductor the

concentration ni increases with increase in
temperature. ______ 1

• Where; A0= constt independent of

temp. T= Temp. in Kelvin
Eg= Forbidden Energy Gap at
0K K= Boltzmann’s Constt.
January 13,
2021
 Numerical
Q. Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration of Silicon at room
temperature t=27°C and at the Torch Temperature (2000°C).
Soln. We know that,

• Also, A0= coefficient related to specific semiconductor =

• Eg = semicnductor bandgap energy in eV=1.1eV
• t = 27°C
• TTemp. in Kelvin = 27°+273=300K
• K= Boltzmann’s Constt. = 8.617333262145×10−5 eV⋅K−1
January 13,
2021
 Numerical Contd.

• Similarly, At the torch Temperature (@2000°

C)

January 13,
2021
 Mobility and Conductivity
• The conductivity of a material is proportional
to the concentration of electrons (e⁻s).
• When a constant electric f ield E is applied to a
metal, the free e⁻s would be accelerated and the
velocity would increase definitely with time.
• Because of collisions e⁻s lose energy & a
steady state condition is reached where a f inite value
of drift velocity Vd is attained.
• The V d is in a direction opposite to that of the
electric f ield &its magnitude is proportional to E.
January 13,
2021
 ______ 1

______ 2

• Where,
» µ mobility of electrons
in

January 13,
2021
• Mobility is def in ed as the average particle drift
velocity per unit electric f ield.
• Therefore, due to the electric field, a steady state
drift velocity has been superimposed upon
the random thermal motion of electrons e⁻s.
• Such a directed flow of e⁻s constitutes a current.
• If concentration of free e⁻s is n (e⁻s per cubic
meter),
• and Current density, J in ampere per square
meter is denoted by -
January 13,
2021
 ______ 3

______ 4
______ 5

• Therefore,
» The above 5 represents the Ohm’s Law
states that conduction which
equation current density is
proportional to the applied Electric Field.

January 13,
2021
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
• At absolute zero the intrinsic semiconductor
behaves as perfect insulators
• And, the concentration of holes and electrons are
same.
• But at room temperature (27°C or 27+273=300K)
the thermal energy is sufficient to create a large
number of electron hole pairs.
• Hence, now if we apply the Electric Field E, the
current will flow through the semiconductor and
will be due to the movement of both electrons and
2021holes.
January 13,
• For a metal, we can write the equation for
current density as follows:
from eqn 4
• But since we consider a semiconductor,
that means we have to consider current
density due to e⁻s and holes both.
• So current density due to e⁻s ‘Jn’ is given by-
______ 6

January 13,
2021
• Where,
•  mobility of e⁻s
• q  charge on an e⁻ Coulomb
=  conc. of
n or no. s of
• e⁻
in intrinsic
s electronssemiconductor
January 13,
2021
• Current density in intrinsic semiconductor
due
to ______ 7
holes,
• Where,
•  mobility of holes
• q  charge on a hole= Coulomb
• p  conc. of s no. of in intrinsi
holes holes c
or
semiconductor (per cubic
January 13, meter)
2021
• Total current density for an
intrinsic semiconductor,
______ 8

• where,
• Jn  current density due to
e⁻s
• Jp  current density due to
holes
January 13,
2021
 ______ 9

• since we know from 5

that eqn
• so we write down:  The required equation for
conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor at room temperature.

January 13,
2021
At absolute zero 0K ,
• no. of e⁻s = no. of holes
• ni=n=p
• Replacing n and p with intrinsic carrier
concentration
n
• i ,and we re-write equation9 , we get

January 13,
2021
• so the equation for conductivity also
changes to ,

• The above equation represents the equation

for conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor.
• The unit of conductivity is (Ωm)-1 or mho/m
or
siemens.
January 13,
2021
 Conductivity for N-type and P-
type
for n-type s/c, Semiconductor
• electrons are majority carriers so
• conc. of e⁻s is much greater than the
conc. of holes
• n>>p

January 13,
2021
 Conductivity for N-type and P-
type Semiconductor
for p-type s/c, contd..
• holes are majority carriers so
• conc. of holes is much greater than the
conc. of e⁻s
• p>>n

January 13,
2021
 Drift and Diffusion Currents
• The current through a semiconductor is of
two types namely drift & diffusion.
• Diffusion current is a current in a
semiconductor caused by the diffusion of
charge carriers (holes and/or electrons).
• The drift current, by contrast, is due to
the motion of charge carriers due to the force
exerted on them by an electric f ield.
January 13,
2021
 Drift Current
• I f a n e l e c t r i c f ie l d E i s a p p l i e d a c ro s s t h e
semiconductor, the charge carriers attain a drift velocity,
Vd.
• This drift velocity (Vd) is equal to the product
of the mobility(µ) of charge carriers and the applied
Electric Field intensity (E).
• The holes move towards the –ve terminal of the
battery and e⁻s move towards the +ve terminal of the
battery.
• This combined effect of movement of the charge
carriers constitute a current known as the Drift Current.
January 13,
2021
 Drift Current
• The drift current density due to the charge carriers
such as the free e⁻s & holes are the current
passing through an area perpendicular(⊥r ) to the
direction of f low.
• Hence the equation for the drift current density, Jn
due to e⁻s is given by,

• Similarly, the drift current density Jp due to holes is

given by,

January 13,
2021
 Diffusion
• Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a
gradient in concentration.

January 13,
2021
 "Diffusion is driven by a gradient in concentration."

In very simple terms, diffusion is like spreading out from a crowded area to
a less crowded area. Imagine you have a bottle of perfume and you spray it in
one corner of a room. At first, the smell is strongest where you sprayed it
(this is where the concentration is high). But over time, the smell spreads
out and fills the entire room (this is where the concentration is lower).
The reason this happens is that the perfume particles move from the area
where there
are a lot of them (high concentration) to areas where there are fewer of
them (low concentration). This movement from high concentration to low
concentration is what we call "diffusion." The difference in concentration
levels creates a "gradient," which is just a fancy word for saying there’s a
change from one place to another. This gradient is what drives or causes the
diffusion process to happen.
So, diffusion happens because things naturally move from where there is a
lot of something to where there is less of it until everything is spread out evenly.
 Diffusion Current
• An Electric current flows in a semiconductor even in the absence
of an applied voltage, if a conc. Gradient exist in the material.
• A conc. Gradient exist when the no. of either e⁻s or holes is
greater in one region of a semiconductor as
compared to rest of the region.
• If conc. Gradient of charge carrier exists in a material the carriers
tend to move from the region of higher conc. to the region of
lower conc.
• This process is known as Diffusion and the electric current due to
this phenomenon is known as Diffusion Current.
January 13,
2021
 Diffusion Current Density
• Let the conc. of free e⁻s =n
• Also, let us assume
the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
electrons be non uniform the
+ve x-direction.
• So, rate of change of conc.
or Concentration Gradient is
given by because the
conc. of e⁻s is c h a n g i n g
with x.
January 13,
2021
 Diffusion Current
Density
• The density of e⁻s in one side of the cross-
contd…
section is more than the density in the other side.
• e⁻s are free to move so, more e⁻s will move
across the cross-section from greater conc. side
to lower conc. side.
• This transport of charge carriers constitute a
current.
• If the ra te of cha nge of conc. i s m ore,
transport of charge carriers should be more.
January 13,
2021
 Diffusion Current
Density
• Diffusion current density Jn for
contd…
e⁻s is proportional to the conc.
gradient

• Where,
 Dn  diffusion constant for
e⁻s
 q  charge on
January 13, an electron
2021
 Diffusion Current
Density
• Diffusion current density J contd…
for holes is proportional
p
to the conc. gradient

• Where,
 D p  diffusion constant for holes
 q  charge of a hole
• The –ve sign shows that motion of holes is in the
direction opposite to that of electrons that is along the
–x-direction.
January 13,
2021
 Total Current
• The total current in a semiconductor is the
sum of drift currents and the diffusion
currents.

• Total e⁻ current density

• Total hole current density

January 13,
2021
 Total Current Density, J
• The total current density,
J for a
semiconductor is given as-

January 13,
2021
 Part 2: Lecture Notes on
P-N Junction
Diodes and
Specia
l Diodes
December 4, LED Diode 2
2021
Working of a PN junction Diode

A P-N junction diode is said to be forward biased when the positive terminal of a
cell or battery is connected to the p-side of the junction and the negative terminal
to the n side. When diode is forward-biased the depletion region narrows and
consequently, the potential barrier is lowered.

If the voltage applied decreases the width of the depletion layer, then the diode is
assumed to be in forward bias and if the applied voltage increases the depletion
layer width then the diode is assumed to be in reverse bias. If the width of depletion
layer do not alters then it is in the zero bias state.
• Forward Bias: External voltage decreases the built-in potential barrier.
• Reverse Bias: External voltage increases the built-in potential barrier.
• Zero Bias: No external voltage is applied.
 Reverse
Bias
In reverse bias condition, no current
f low
In Forward Bias,The majority charge
s through
the the PN junction
amount of diode withvoltage.
applie
carriers in N and P regions are
increase
d in external minorit
attracted towards the PN junction
and the width of the depletion layer However,
charge leakage
carriers flows y
in the PN junction
decreases with diffusion of the diode that can be measuredcurren
in micro
majority charge carriers. t
amperes.
 P N Junction: V-I
•
Characteristics
The V-I Characteristic of
PN Junction Diode is simply a
curve or graph between the
a pplie d v o lta ge a c ro ss it s
terminals and the current that
f lo ws through the diode due to
this applied voltage.
• The entire V-I Characteristics
may be divided into two parts
namely:
– Forward Characteristics
– Reverse Characteristics

December 4, Z H Khan, Dept. of ECE, Integral University, Lucknow 1

2021 3
In the current–voltage characteristics of junction diode, from the first quadrant in the
f igure current in the forward bias is incredibly low if the input voltage applied to the
diode is lower than the threshold voltage (Vr). The threshold voltage is additionally
referred to as cut-in voltage.
Once the forward bias input voltage surpasses the cut-in voltage (0.3 V for
germanium diode, 0.6-0.7 V for silicon diode), the current spectacularly increases, as
a result the diode functions as short-circuit.
The reverse bias characteristic curve of diode is shown in the fourth quadrant of
the f igure above. The current in the reverse bias is low till breakdown is reached
and therefore the diode looks like as open circuit. When the reverse bias input
voltage has re ache d the bre akdow n voltage , re ve rse curre nt incre ase s
spectacularly.
V-I Characteristics of commercial
diodes- Ge, Si,
GaAs

December 4,
2021
 Diode Current Equation

• Where,
• ID  Diode Current
• Io  Reverse Saturation Current
• V  External Voltage applied to the diode Forward or Reverse
Voltage
• η  Ideality Factor; =1 for Germanium and =2 for Silicon
• VT  Volt Equivalent of Temperature
December 4,
2021
 Volt Equivalent of
Temp.
At room temperature,
• t=27°C or T=300K

• Where,
• k  Boltzmann's • or,
Constant
• T  Temperature in Kelvin
Scale
• q  charge on a n e⁻ (electron)

December 4,
2021
 PN Junction
Breakdown
The Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown are two different
mechanisms by which a PN junction breaks. The Zener and Avalanche
breakdown both occur in diode under reverse bias. The avalanche
breakdown occurs because of the ionization of electrons and hole pairs
whereas the Zener breakdown occurs because of heavy doping.
Ionization is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or
positive charge by gaining or losing electrons, often in conjunction with other
chemical changes. The resulting electrically charged atom or molecule is called an
ion.
Zener diodes are heavily doped but they have a very thin depletion region, why?
If the doping in the diode is increased the depletion width decreases or the depletion
region becomes thin because free electrons and holes reduce the free ions present.
December 4, 2
2021 0
 Avalanche
Breakdown
The mechanism of avalanche breakdown occurs because of the reverse
saturation current. The P-type and N-type material together forms the PN-
junction. The depletion region develops at the junction where the P and N-type
material contact.
The P and N-type materials of the PN junction are not perfect, and they have
some
impurities in it, i.e., the p- type material has some electrons, and the N-type
material has some hole in it. The width of the depletion region varies. Their width
depends on the bias applied to the terminal of the P and N region.
The collision increases the electron-hole pair. As the electron-hole induces in
the high electric f ield, they are quickly separated and collide with the other atoms of
the crystals. The process is continuous, and the electric f ield becomes so much
higher then the reverse current starts flowing in the PN junction. The process
is December
known4, as the Avalanche breakdown. After the breakdown, the junction cannot 2
2021 0
Avalanche
Breakdown

2
0
 Zener Breakdown
The phenomenon of the Zener breakdown occurs in the very thin depletion
region. If the material is heavily doped, the width of the depletion region
becomes very thin. The thin depletion region has more numbers of free
electrons. The reverse bias applies across the PN junction develops
the electric f ie ld intensity across the depletion region. The strength of
the electric field intensity becomes very high.
The electric f ield intensity increases the kinetic energy of the free charge
carriers. Thereby the carriers start jumping from one region to another.
These energetic charge carriers collide with the atoms of the p-type and n-
type material and produce the electron-hole pairs. The reverse current
starts f lowing in the junction because of which depletion region entirely
vanishes. This process is known as the Zener breakdown.
2
0
 Zener Breakdown
T h e Z e n e r D iode is u se d in it s
“reverse bias” or reverse breakdown
mode, i.e. the diodes anode connects to
th e n eg a ti v e su ppl y. From th e I-V
characteristics curve above, we can see that
the zener diode has a region in its
reverse bias characteristics of almost a
constant negative voltage regardless of the
value of the current owing through the diode.
This voltage remains almost constant
even with large changes in current
providing the
zener diodes current remains
between the
Z H Khan, Dept. of ECE, Integral University, Lucknow
breakdown current IZ(min) and its
This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or
stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage
across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an important
characteristic of the zener diode as it can be used in the simplest types of voltage regulator
applications.
Z H Khan, Dept. of ECE, Integral University, Lucknow
 Important Def inition
Forward current: It is the current flowing through a forward biased
diode. Every diode has a maximum value of forward current which it
can safely carry. If this value is exceeded, the diode may be
 Forward destroyed
due to excessive heat. For this reason, the manufacturers’ data
current sheet specifies the maximum forward current that a diode can handle
safely.
 Peak
inverse Peak inverse voltage: It is the maximum reverse voltage that a
Voltage diode can withstand without destroying the junction.
 Reverse
current or Reverse current or leakage current : It is the current that
Leakage f lows through a reverse biased diode. This current is due to the
voltage minority carriers. Under normal operating voltages, the reverse
current is quite
small. Its value is extremely small (< 1µ A) for silicon diodes but it is
appreciable (≈100 µA) for germanium diodes.
Whenever there arises the need to convert an AC to DC power, a rectifier circuit
comes for the rescue. A simple PN junction diode acts as a rectif ier. The forward
biasing and reverse biasing conditions of the diode makes the rectif ication.
Rectif ication
An alternating current has the property to change its state continuously. This is
understood by observing the sine wave by which an alternating current is indicated. It
raises in its positive direction goes to a peak positive value, reduces from there to
normal and again goes to negative portion and reaches the negative peak and again
gets back to normal and goes on.
During its journey in the formation of wave, we can observe that the wave goes in positive and
negative directions. Actually it alters completely and hence the name alternating current.
But during the process of rectif ication, this alternating current is changed into direct current
DC. The wave which f lows in both positive and negative direction till then, will get its direction
restricted only to positive direction, when converted to DC. Hence the current is allowed to
flow only in positive direction and resisted in negative direction, just as in the figure below.

Alternating current (AC) power systems,

the volt a ge a n d cu r ren t w a vefor ms a re
sinusoidal and can be represented using
trigonometric functions such as sine and
cosine. These functions involve the use of Pi .
The value of pi is approximately 3.14

The circuit which does rectification is called as a Rectifier circuit. A diode is used
as a rectif ier, to construct a rectifier circuit.
The circuit which does rectification is called as a Rectifier circuit. A diode is used
as a rectif ier, to construct a rectifier circuit.
Types of Rectifier circuits
There are two main types of rectifier circuits, depending upon their output. They
are
• Half-wave Rectif ier
• Full-wave Rectif ier
A Half-wave rectifier circuit rectifies only positive half cycles of the input supply
whereas a Full-wave rectifier circuit rectifies both positive and negative half
cycles of the input supply.
The name half-wave rectifier itself states that the rectification is done only for
half of the cycle. The AC signal is given through an input transformer which
steps up or down according to the usage. Mostly a step down transformer is
used in rectifier circuits, so as to reduce the input voltage.
The input signal given to the transformer is passed through a PN junction diode
which acts as a rectif ier. This diode converts the AC voltage into pulsating dc for
only the positive half cycles of the input. A load resistor is connected at the end of
An a.c. voltage of peak value 20 V is connected in series with a
silicon diode and load resistance of 500 Ω. If the forward resistance
of diode is 10 Ω, f ind
(i) peak current through diode (ii) peak output voltage What
will be these values if the diode is assumed to be ideal ?
Find the current through the diode in the circuit shown in Fig.(i). Assume the diode to be

.
ideal
Determine the current I in the circuit shown in Fig. (i). Assume the
diodes to be of silicon and forward resistance of diodes to
be zero.
Question : A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode
may be assumed constant at 20Ω. The transformer r.m.s. secondary voltage from
centre tap to each end of secondary is 50 V and load resistance is 980 Ω. Find :
(i) the mean load current (ii) the r.m.s. value of load current
 LED Symbol

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an

electric current f lows through it. When current passes through an LED, the
electrons recombine with holes emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the
current to f low in the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction.

Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the

semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit
coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength when forward biased. As shown
in the f igure, an LED is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light
Working Principle of LED

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n
while the minority holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the
concentration of minority carriers increases. The excess minority carriers at the
junction recombine with the majority charges carriers.

The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard

diodes, the energy is released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes, the
e n e rg y is re le a se d in t h e for m of p h ot on s. We ca ll t h is p h e n om e n on
electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical
phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an electric current passed
through it. As the forward voltage increases, the intensity of the light increases and
reaches a maximum.
Th e t w o prima r y ma t eria ls u sed in L EDs a re
aluminium gallium indium phosphide alloys and indium
gallium nitride alloys.

Aluminium alloys are used

to obtain red, orange
and yellow light, and
Indium alloys are used to
get
green, blue and white light
Thanks!!!