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Lecture-9

The document discusses the concepts of work and energy, focusing on the distinction between conservative and non-conservative forces, illustrated by examples such as a particle sliding down a rough inclined plane. It explains the relationship between potential energy and force, including how to identify conservative forces through line integrals and curl. Additionally, it covers gravitational attraction and the physical meaning of the gradient in relation to potential energy surfaces.

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deepseek.aiml
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© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0 views

Lecture-9

The document discusses the concepts of work and energy, focusing on the distinction between conservative and non-conservative forces, illustrated by examples such as a particle sliding down a rough inclined plane. It explains the relationship between potential energy and force, including how to identify conservative forces through line integrals and curl. Additionally, it covers gravitational attraction and the physical meaning of the gradient in relation to potential energy surfaces.

Uploaded by

deepseek.aiml
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture-IX

Work and Energy


Non-conservative forces:
Suppose both conservative and non-conservative forces are acting on the same
system. For instance, an object falling through the air experiences the conservative
gravitational force and the non-conservative force of air friction. The total force F is

Fc : conservative
Fnc : non-conservative

The total work done by F as the particle moves from a to b is

This is a generalization of the statement of conservation of mechanical energy. If non


conservative forces do no work, Eb = Ea, and mechanical energy is conserved.
Block Sliding down a rough Inclined Plane

Same effort as that of Newton’s laws.


Effective for:
Example: A particle of mass m slides on the surface of a fixed, rough sphere of radius R
and the coefficient of kinetic friction is μ. The particle starts at the top of the sphere
with horizontal initial velocity v0. Find the velocity of the particle as function of θ.
1 2     
r̂ d  mv  = F ⋅ dr + f ⋅ dr , F = − mg cos θ rˆ + mg sin θθˆ,
2 
θˆ mv 2
f = − µ Nθˆ , = − mg cos θ + N , dr = Rdθθˆ

−

R

1 2  µ mv 2  dv 2
d  mv  = mg sin θ Rdθ +  − mg µ cos θ  Rdθ ⇒ − 2 µ v 2 = 2 Rg ( sin θ − µ cos θ )
2   R  dθ
v ,θ
 θ −2 µθ θ

∫θ (
d e −2 µθ
v 2
) = 2 Rg  ∫ e sin θ dθ − µ ∫ e −2 µθ
cos θ dθ 
v0 , = 0 0 0 
θ θ
e −2 µθ v 2 − v02 = 2 Rg [ I1 − µ I 2 ] , I1 = ∫ e −2 µθ sin θ dθ , I 2 = ∫ e −2 µθ cos θ dθ
0 0
θ ( −2 µ + i )θ
e −1
I = ∫ e( −2 µ +i )θ dθ = = I 2 + iI1 , eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ , Find I1 , I 2
0 ( −2 µ + i )
2 gR  2 gR 2  2 µθ
v 2 (θ ) = 2
4µ + 1
2 µ 2
cos (
θ − 3µ sin θ − cos θ +  2 ) 1 − 2 µ 2
+ (
v0 e )
 4µ + 1 
Potential energy and force:
In many cases it is easier to characterize a force by giving its potential energy function.

Consider a one dimensional system in which the force is F(x) and the potential energy
is

Consider the change in potential energy ∆U as the particle moves from some point x
to x + dx

For ∆x sufficiently small, F(x) can be considered constant over the range of integration
and we have
or

In the Iimit x→0 we have

Force is the negative derivative of the potential energy.


The general case of three dimensions can be treated by a straightforward extension of
the method developed here.
Force and Potential energy in 3D:
The potential energy function is U(x,y,z) and the force components are given by

, ,

The total force is given by

Or, in short:

Gradient operator

where z is the height above ground.

The corresponding force is


Gravitational Attraction by a Particle
If a particle of mass M is at the origin, the potential energy of mass m at a distance r
from the origin is

Then

This is the familiar expression for the force of gravity between two particles.
The Physical Meaning of the Gradient
To see the relation between ∇U and contour lines of constant potential energy,
consider the change in U due to a displacement dr along a contour.

since on a contour line, U is constant and dU = 0.


Since ∇U and dr are not zero, then the vector ∇U
must be perpendicular to dr. More generally, ∇U is
perpendicular to any displacement dr on a constant
energy surface. Hence, at every point in space, ∇U is
perpendicular to the constant energy surface passing
through that point. The direction of ∇U is the
direction in which U is increasing most rapidly.
Since ∇U = -F, we conclude that F is everywhere perpendicular to the constant energy
surfaces and points from higher to lower potential energy.

For the gravitational interaction of a particle with a mass


located at the origin, the contour lines are circles. The force
points radially inward from higher to lower potential energy,
as we expect.
Identifying a force as conservative
1. The line integral of F along a closed path is zero.

2. Curl of F is zero :

∂Fz ∂Fy ∂  ∂U  ∂  ∂U  ∂  ∂U  ∂  ∂U 
For conservative force, − = − − −  = −  +  =0
∂y ∂z ∂y  ∂z  ∂z  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z  ∂y 
 
Hence, ∇× F = 0
The Curl of the Gravitational Force:
For the gravitational force between two particles we have

The first term on the right hand side is

Similarly,

Hence,

By cycling the coordinates, the other components of are also found zero.

Hence, The gravitational force is conservative.


What about the force given by:

However, consider the work done along a


closed path which encloses the origin as in the
drawing at the left. Since θ1= 0 and θ2 = 2π,
the work W = 2πA. Evidently, F is not
conservative.
conservative force.
How the Curl Got Its Name
To see how the curl is connected with "curliness" or rotation, consider an idealized
whirlpool turning with constant angular velocity ω about the z-axis. The velocity of the
fluid at r is

If a paddle wheel is placed in the liquid, it will start to rotate. The rotation will be a
maximum when the axis of the wheel points along the z-axis parallel to ∇xv.

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