Chapter 11

Liquids and Intermolecular Forces

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 Intermolecular Forces (분자간의 인력)

• The attractions between molecules are not nearly as strong as

the intramolecular attractions (bonds) that hold compounds
together.
• Many physical properties reflect intermolecular forces, like
boiling points(끓는점), melting points(녹는점), viscosity(점도), Intermolecular
surface tension(표면 장력), and capillary action(모세관 현상). Forces

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 States of Matter

• The fundamental difference

between states of matter is
the strength of the
intermolecular forces of
attraction.
• Stronger forces bring
molecules closer together.
• Kinetic energy keeps them
apart and moving.
Remember that average
kinetic energy is related to
temperature!
Intermolecular
Forces

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 Properties and State of Matter

• Solids and liquids are referred to as the condensed

phases(응축상).
Intermolecular
Forces

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 Relative Strength of Attractions

• Intermolecular attractions are weaker than bonds.

• Hydrogen bonds are NOT chemical bonds.
Intermolecular
Forces

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 Types of Intermolecular Force between
Neutral Molecules
• Weakest to strongest forces:
– Dispersion forces (분산력) (or London dispersion forces
or induced dipole-induced dipole interactions)
– Dipole–dipole forces (쌍극자-쌍극자 힘)
– Hydrogen bonding (수소결합, a special dipole–dipole force)
Note: The first two types are also referred to collectively as van
der Waals forces (반데르발스 힘).

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Dispersion Forces
• A nonpolar particle (helium atoms below) can be temporarily
polarized to create dispersion force(분산력).
• The tendency of an electron cloud to distort is called its
polarizability(분극성).

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Factors That Affect Amount of
Dispersion Force in a Molecule
• Number of electrons in an atom (more
electrons, more dispersion force)
• Size of atom or molecule/molecular weight
• Shape of molecules with similar masses
(more compact, less dispersion force)

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Polarizability and Boiling Point

• If something has less intermolecular force (smaller molecule or

atom: lower molecular weight, smaller size, fewer electrons) →
a lower boiling point.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Dipole–Dipole Interactions
• Polar molecules have a more positive and a more negative
end—a dipole (two poles, δ+ and δ−).
• The oppositely charged ends attract each other.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Dipole–Dipole Interactions

For molecules of approximately equal mass and size, the more

polar the molecule, the higher its boiling point.
Intermolecular
Forces

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 Which Have a Greater Effect:
Dipole–Dipole Interactions or
Dispersion Forces?
• If two molecules are of comparable size and shape, dipole–
dipole interactions will likely be the dominating force.
• If one molecule is much larger than another, dispersion forces
will likely determine its physical properties.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 What Does This Graph Show Us?

• In a group, the period 3/4/5 elements have higher boiling points

as the group member gets larger.
• What happens with the period 2 elements? For group 4A, the
Intermolecular
trend is continued. Forces

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 Hydrogen Bonding
• The dipole–dipole interactions
experienced when H is
bonded to N, O, or F are unusually
strong.
• We call these interactions hydrogen
bonds.
• A hydrogen bond is an attraction
between a hydrogen atom attached to
a highly electronegative atom and a
nearby small electronegative atom in
another molecule or chemical group.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 What Forms Hydrogen Bonds?

• Hydrogen bonding arises in part from the high electronegativity

of nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine.
• These atoms interact with a nearly bare hydrogen nucleus
(which contains one proton but NO inner electrons).

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Ice Compared to Liquid Water

• Hydrogen bonding makes the molecules

farther apart in ice than in liquid water.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Ion–Dipole Interactions

• Ion–dipole interactions are found in

solutions of ions.
• The strength of these forces is what
makes it possible for ionic substances
to dissolve in polar solvents, like water.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Determining Intermolecular Forces
in a Substance

• Note that ALL chemicals exhibit dispersion forces.

• The strongest force dictates the extent of attractions between
Intermolecular
molecules. Forces

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 Generalizations about Relative
Strengths of Intermolecular Forces
1) When two molecules have
comparable molar masses and
shapes, dispersion forces are
roughly equal.
2) When two molecules have very
different molar masses and there is
no H-bonding, dispersion force
determines the substance with
stronger attractions.

Intermolecular
Forces

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Predict which substance in each of the following
pairs would have the greater intermolecular
forces.

1. CO2 or OCS

2. SeO2 or SO2

3. CH3OH or H2CO

Intermolecular
Forces

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Predict which substance in each of the following
pairs would have the greater intermolecular
forces.

1. CO2 or OCS

2. SeO2 or SO2

3. CH3OH or H2CO

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Liquid Properties Affected by
Intermolecular Forces
• Boiling point (previously discussed) and melting point
• Viscosity (점도)
• Surface tension (표면 장력)
• Capillary action (모세관 현상)

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Viscosity

• Resistance of a liquid to flow is called

viscosity.
• It is related to the ease with which
molecules can move past each other.
• Viscosity increases with stronger
intermolecular forces and decreases
with higher temperature.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Surface Tension

• Water acts as if it has a

“skin” on it due to extra
inward forces on its surface.
• It causes water to “bead up”
when in contact with
nonpolar surfaces.
• Those forces are called the
surface tension.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Intermolecular
Forces

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 Cohesion(응집) and Adhesion(부착)
• Intermolecular forces that bind similar molecules to one
another are called cohesive forces.
• Intermolecular forces that bind a substance to a surface are
called adhesive forces.
• These forces are important in capillary action.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Capillary Action
• The rise of liquids up narrow
tubes is called capillary
action.
• Adhesive forces attract
the liquid to the wall of
the tube.
• Cohesive forces attract
the liquid to itself.
• Water has stronger adhesive
forces with glass; mercury has
stronger cohesive forces with
itself.
Intermolecular
Forces

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 Phase Changes
• Conversion from one state
of matter to another is
called a phase change.
• Energy is either added or
released in a phase
change.
• Phase changes:
melting/freezing,
vaporizing/condensing,
subliming/depositing.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Energy Change and Change of State

• The heat of fusion(용융열) is the energy required to change a

solid at its melting point to a liquid.
• The heat of vaporization(증발열) is the energy required to
change a liquid at its boiling point to a gas.
• The heat of sublimation(승화열) is the energy required to
change a solid directly to a gas.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Heating Curves

• A graph of temperature vs.

heat added is called a
heating curve.
• Within a phase, heat is the
product of specific heat,
sample mass, and
temperature change.

• The temperature of the

substance does not rise
during a phase change.
• For the phase changes, the product of mass or moles and
Intermolecular
Forces
heat of fusion or vaporization is heat.
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 Supercritical Fluids

• Gases liquefy when pressure is applied.

• The temperature beyond which a gas cannot be compressed
is called its critical temperature(임계 온도).
The pressure needed to compress the liquid at critical
temperature is called critical pressure(임계 압력).
• The state beyond this temperature is called a supercritical
fluid(초임계 유체).

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Vapor Pressure
• At any temperature, some
liquid molecules have
enough energy to escape
the surface and become a
gas.
• As more molecules escape
the liquid, the pressure they
exert increases.
• The liquid and vapor reach a
state of dynamic equilibrium:
Liquid molecules evaporate
and vapor molecules
condense at the same rate.
Intermolecular
Forces

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 Vapor Pressure

• As the temperature rises,

the fraction of molecules
that have enough energy to
break free increases.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Vapor Pressure
• The boiling point of a
liquid is the temperature
at which its vapor
pressure equals
atmospheric pressure.
• The normal
boiling point is
the temperature
at which its vapor
pressure is 760 torr.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Vapor Pressure

• The natural log of the vapor

pressure of a liquid is
inversely proportional to its
temperature.
• This relationship is quantified
in the Clausius–Clapeyron
equation.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Phase Diagram

• A phase diagram is a graph showing states of matter under

conditions of temperature and pressure.
• It also shows changes of state and the triple point and critical
point.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Phase Diagram of Water

• Note the high critical

temperature and critical
pressure due to the strong van
der Waals forces.
• Unusual feature for water:
– The slope of the melting
curve is negative (as the
pressure is increased, the
melting point decreases).

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide
• Unusual features for
carbon dioxide:
– Cannot exist in the liquid
state at pressures below
5.11 atm (triple point).
– CO2 sublimes at normal
pressures.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Liquid Crystals
• Some substances do not go directly from
the solid state to the liquid state.
• In this intermediate state, liquid crystals
have some traits of solids and some of
liquids.
• Molecules in liquid crystals have some
degree of order.

Intermolecular
Forces

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 Liquid Crystals
• In nematic liquid crystals(네마트 액정), molecules are
ordered in only one dimension, along the long axis.
• In smectic liquid crystals(스멕트 액정), molecules are
ordered in two dimensions, along the long axis and in layers.
• In cholesteric liquid crystals, nematic-like crystals are layered
at angles to each other.

Intermolecular
Forces

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