Engineering and Applied Science Research 2021;48(2):151-160 Research Article

Engineering and Applied Science Research

https://www.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/easr/index
Published by the Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

Understanding the effect of compaction energies on the strength indices and durability of
oyster shell ash-lateritic soil mixtures for use in road works

Imoh Christopher Attah*1), Roland Kufre Etim1), Paul Yohanna2) and Idorenyin Ndarake Usanga1)
1)Department of Civil Engineering, Akwa Ibom State University, Ikot Akpaden, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
2)Department of Civil Engineering, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria

Received 9 April 2020

Revised 22 July 2020
Accepted 29 July 2020

Abstract

The current study examined the use of experimental and statistical approach to assess the influence of compaction energies on
geotechnical behaviour of lateritic soil stabilized with up to 15 % oyster shell ash (OSA) by weight of the dry samples. The outcomes
portray that the maximum dry densities (MDDs) of both untreated and treated soil samples decreased with increased compactive efforts
whereas the optimum moisture content (OMCs) reduced. California bearing ratio, CBR (soaked and unsoaked) and unconfined
compressive strength, UCS (7 and 28 days) values increased with higher compactive effort and OSA content. The statistical results
indicated that OSA content, compactive energy (CE), plasticity index (PI) and percentage fine content (PF) have effect on the strength
characteristics of lateritic soil. Generally, the study indicated that OSA content up to 9 % and higher compactive effort is adequate for
enhancing the geotechnical behaviour of lateritic soil. However, rather than use OSA as stand-alone additive, it is recommended that
cement or lime be used as admixture in OSA-lateritic soil so as to provide an effective hydraulically bound material for construction
application.

Keywords: Lateritic soil, Oyster shell ash, Compaction energies, Strength characteristics, Durability, Statistical analysis

1. Introduction role in the life of civil infrastructures [6]. Besides that, different
compaction energies are one of the other essential aspects that
Lateritic soils also termed as residual soils derived through affect the compaction of a soil. It is quite pertinent to note that
weathering process, they contain substantial quantities of both preliminary testing by various compaction energies is central to
quartz and kaolinite. The ratio of silica (SiO2) to sesquioxides selecting the type of field equipment and or appropriating number
(Fe2O3 + Al2O3) less than 1.33 is a sign of laterite whereas values of passes for each placement as well as monitoring the soil
between 1.33 and 2.0 is a sign of lateritic soil and a value greater behaviour of earth constructions.
than 2.0 is a sign of non-lateritic soil [1, 2]. These soils are found Cement and lime are the two conventional soil stabilization
in six main regions of the world which are as follows: Africa, materials. Due to the high cost of buying cement, it makes it
India, South East Asia, Australia, Central and South America [3]. unaffordable to contractors who may not have foreseen the need
Some deposits of lateritic soil available for use as road of cement stabilization during earthwork phase of pavement
construction material have poor engineering characteristics construction. Inasmuch as cement stabilization is beneficial, the
which makes them unfit. These inadequacies in engineering release of CO2 to the atmosphere during cement production poses
characteristics of this available soil sample poses a great a great threat to the environment at large [7]. These have
challenge for the engineers. Therefore, improvement of such soil mandated researchers to harness possibility of the usage of waste
is the most viable means for it to be used for construction materials for improving deficient soils thereby acting as a viable
purpose. means of curbing the problem of disposal. Several documented
Soil improvement is recurrently called soil stabilization literatures have reported promising results associated with the use
which entails the blending of a natural soil with a cementing of agro-industrial waste materials for the improvement of
material or other chemical or non-chemical materials. Also, deficient soil. They include periwinkle shell ash [8], bagasse ash
stabilization of soils in other words is soil reinforcement. [9-12] iron ore tailing [13, 14], metakaolin [15], granulated blast
Substantial research works has been carried out to improve furnace slag [16], cement kiln dust [17] groundnut shell ash [18].
various treatment methods to deficient lateritic soils. As a result However, other materials which have improved deficient soils
of this, soil stabilization was grouped into five different include waste wood ash [19-25], coconut husk ash [26-28], millet
techniques which are mechanical stabilization, cementitious husk ash [29], corn cob ash [30, 31], rice husk ash (RHA) [28,
stabilization, bituminous stabilization, chemical stabilization and 32-35], locust bean pod ash (LPBA) [36-40], quarry dust [41] and
specialized methods of stabilization [4]. The most common and others such solid waste derivative, biomass. glass fine, hair fibres
essential technique of soil improvement is densification whereas [42-45].
the commonly used method is compaction [5] and engineers Oyster shell is calcined to derive its ash termed oyster shell
consider compaction as a design tool because it plays important ash (OSA). About 3.08 million tons of oyster shell waste is

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +2347 0396 89495

Email address: attahimoh@gmail.com
doi: 10.14456/easr.2021.17
152 Engineering and Applied Science Research 2021;48(2)

generated globally [46-48]. This waste is deposited in much Table 1 Engineering properties of untreated soil
quantities in the coastal areas all over the world. The geographic
distribution of oyster shell varies with the rate of Mollusca Property Quantity
farming [46]. In South Korea, 300,000 tons of oyster shells were Percentage passing BS No 200 sieve (%) 42.40
annually disposed [49, 50]. Santos and Costa [51] reported that Natural moisture content (%) 15.74
21,554 tonnes of oysters were produced in Brazil. In Nigeria Liquid limit (%) 49.30
large quantity of oyster shell is deposited along coastal States Plastic limit (%) 20.50
such Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Rivers, Edo and Delta Plasticity index (%) 28.80
state. Good amount of these shells are discarded indiscriminately Specific gravity 2.58
into the environment and are kept in stock piles in these areas. Coefficient of uniformity, Cu 30
Over time, microbial activities which aids decomposition process Coefficient of curvature, Cc 1.2
occurred and brings about very obnoxious and toxic gases (H2S AASHTO classification A-7-6 (8)
and NH3), thereby leading to associated environmental problems USCS CL
and health hazards. The lack of guidelines, inspection and Maximum dry density Mg/m3 1.86
legislation in some oyster-producing countries and or Optimum moisture content (%) 13.10
communities indicate to a large extent the significant Unconfined compressive strength, kN/m2 18.9
environmental influence created by oyster shell. Oyster shell is a California Bearing Ratio (24 soaking) (%) 8
rich calcium source as raw materials in several areas of pH 6.70
application [52-56]. Interestingly, the use of oyster shell ash Colour Reddish brown
becomes essential because of the necessity of disposing oyster
shells from the environment as well as sourcing for cheap and Table 2 Chemical analysis of the various materials.
readily available pozzolanic materials for soil improvement
purpose. So the two fold intent of enhancing soil strength and Oxide Lateritic Soil (%) [57] *OSA (%) [57]
reliable discarding of waste material can be realized. Fe2O3 17.52 7.30
Generally, a considerable amount of literatures has been Al2O3 33.36 8.97
published on soil stabilization and these literatures depicts that SiO2 37.8 21.71
not much has been done in the use of oyster shell ash to stabilize CaO 0.081 56.99
deficient lateritic soil and the effects of the various compaction MgO - 0.80
energies on the stabilized soil. Therefore, the study was aimed at SO3 0.31 0.72
understanding the behaviour of various compaction energies on ZnO 0.007 -
the strength indices and durability of oyster shell ash-lateritic soil Cr2O3 0.011 -
mixtures for use in road works. Having a better understanding of V2O5 0.023 -
the compaction behaviour of lateritic due to the effect of oyster TiO2 0.678 0.041
shell ash will enhance the potentials of incorporating oyster shell Na2O - 0.35
ash in soil stabilization for road construction purpose and provide LOI 10 3
mechanism for safe waste disposal.
3. Results and discussions
2. Materials and methods
3.1. Material characterisation
2.1 Materials
Preliminary investigation results on the natural soil are
Locally available lateritic soil obtained as a disturbed sample reflected in Table 1. The American Association of State Highway
from a deposit at Ikot Inyang (Latitude 50 10ˈ 29ˈˈ N and and Transportation Officials, AASHTO [62] classification
Longitude 70 55ˈ 8ˈˈ E), Ibiono Local Government Area, Akwa portrays that the natural soil falls within the A-7-6, with group
Ibom State, in the Southern part of Nigeria was used in the study. index of (8) whereas based on Unified Soil Classification System,
Processing of oyster shell to its ash and the chemical USCS [63], it falls under CL (well graded gravel with clay and
compositions of both oyster shell ash and the tested soil in the sand). The soil is reddish - brown having liquid limit, plastic limit
current study have been presented [57]. and plasticity index of 49.30, 20.50 and 28.80 %, respectively.
The chemical compositions of the soil and OSA used in the
2.2 Methods of testing current investigation indicate that oyster shell ash is a calcium
source [52-56, 64] and has shown potential in lateritic soil
Atterberg limits test was carried out on soil and soil-OSA stabilization [57] (Table 2). Figure 1 is the grain size distribution
mixtures based on guidelines detailed in [58, 59]. Samples of soil of the untreated soil having coefficient of uniformity (Cu) and
were mixed with 0, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 % oyster shell ash by dry curvature (Cc) of 30 and 1.2, respectively. The soil is well graded
weight of soil for the following test: compaction, California based on Cu ˃ 4 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3.
bearing ratio (CBR) and Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
test compacted with the compactive efforts of BSL, WAS and 3.2 Compaction characteristics
BSH. These tests were based on guidelines detailed in [58]. The
CBR was executed to ascertain the appropriateness of a soil for 3.2.1 Maximum dry density, MDD
use as either a sub-base or base material for construction purpose.
In CBR 5.0 kg of soil / soil-admixture sample were mixed at their Presented below in Figure 2 is the MDD of lateritic soil-OSA
respective OMCs in 2360 cm3 mould. Durability assessment of mixtures for the three compactive efforts. The MDD results for
lateritic soil-OSA specimen is a measure of its resistance to loss the untreated soil at BSL, WAS and BSH are 1.856, 1.950 and
in strength for tropical region like Nigeria [60, 61]. This was 1.980 Mg/m3 respectively. The MDD generally decreased with
achieved by dividing the UCS values of soil samples cured for 7 addition of OSA to the soil and increased compactive efforts from
days thereafter immersed in water for another 7 days with the BSL to BSH. However, at the early stage of compaction exercise
UCS values of another set treated soil samples cured for 14 days (at 3 % OSA addition to the soil) there was an increase in MDD
[14]. The result of laboratory experiment was analysed using MS values and this could be ascribed to the flocculation as well as
Excel and Mini Tab R15 statistical tools. Regression equations agglomeration of the soil – OSA mixtures. Also, the specific
were developed using Minitab R15 software. gravity of the tested soil and OSA may be accountable for the
Engineering and Applied Science Research 2021;48(2) 153

Figure 1 Particle size distribution for untreated soil

Figure 2 Relationship showing effect of oyster shell ash content on maximum dry density of lateritic soil - oyster shell ash mixtures

reduction in MDD reported in this current study. With OSA The CBR values of lateritic soil with addition OSA for the
having a lower specific gravity (2.33) compared to that of the three energy levels used is shown in Figure 4. The trend using
lateritic soil (2.58) which results in substituting the 2.58 specific BSL compaction energy was established by [57]. Consequently,
gravity of the soil with that of OSA. Partly also, the increasing CBR of WAS and BSH assumed similar trend but with slight
trend of MDD with increased compaction energies may be deviations in values. The CBR showed a general increase as both
unconnected to densification of the soil mixtures and these compactive efforts and OSA content increased. It is normal for
outcomes matches the reports of [65-68]. CBR values to increase with increasing compaction efforts. This
usually signifies that the denser the soil due to higher compaction
3.2.2 Optimum moisture content, OMC energy, the higher the strength of the soil. Also, CBR increased
with increasing OSA up to optimal of 9 %. It was reported in [57]
The OMC changes with OSA for the three compaction that the increase is due to the reaction of the silica and alumina in
energies are presented in Figure 3. Generally, the OMC increased the soil with the calcium oxide in the OSA. Also, it was also
with addition of OSA in the soil and declined with higher corroborated in [57] that OSA which has shown similarity in
compaction energies. The OMC increased from 13.10, 11.80 and composition with lime reacted with alumina and silica content in
11 % of the untreated soil to peak values of 14.50, 14.0 and 13.32 lateritic soil to form fundamental compounds of (calcium silicate
% when treated with 12 % OSA using BSL, WAS and BSH hydrates and calcium aluminate hydrates CSH and CAH) that are
energy levels respectively. The important of increasing OMC responsible for strength. These results uphold the outcome of
with addition of OSA may be accredited to the amplified other researchers [8, 15, 14, 72] who used varying concentrations
yearning for water which matches with the higher quantity of the of admixtures. It is understandable that the various compactive
additive. However, another reason for this trend of result could energies is apparently immaterial to the chemistry of reaction
be linked to the increase in surface area initiated by the greater between lateritic soil and OSA. However, increased compactive
amount of additives, which necessitates more water for the effort could act to effectively destroy and or readjust particle
lubrication of the mixture. This trend of result is consistent with lump, shear planes as well as establish a more homogenous OSA-
the research works of [65, 69-71]. soil mixture during compaction. This observation is central to
creating more surface area of contact between the soil and OSA
3.3 Strength characteristics thereby upholding the steady reaction between the soil
composition and OSA. Furthermore, CBR decreased slightly
3.3.1 California bearing ratio, CBR with additional treatment beyond 9 % OSA. The implication is
154 Engineering and Applied Science Research 2021;48(2)

Figure 3 Relationship showing effect of oyster shell ash content on optimum moisture content of lateritic soil - oyster shell ash
mixtures.

Figure 4 Variation of California bearing ratio of lateritic soil – oyster mixtures for (a) Unsoaked specimens and (b) Soaked specimens.

that excess of 9 % OSA which did not take part in the reaction traffic road (sub base type 1) but above or satisfy 20 % minimum
could have affected the grading mixture thereby result to more CBR for sub-base of low vehicular traffic road (sub base type 2)
fine content and reduction in shear strength, cohesion and and (3) all CBR values (unsoaked) obtained for WAS and or BSH
interlocking friction between soil-OSA [8, 73]. The unsoaked fell short the standard need of (greater than or equal 80 %) for
CBR for BSL, WAS and BSH gave maximum values of 54, 58 base course. It can be concluded that 9 % OSA is the optimum
and 63 % at 9 % OSA content, respectively (Figure 4a). percentage consistent with the maximum CBR of OSA treated
Similarly, the highest CBR results of 19, 27 and 31 % were lateritic soil. Despite the use of higher compactive effort of WAS
achieved at 9 % OSA content for BSL, WAS and BSH, and BSH, their CBR values (unsoaked and soaked) could not
respectively (Figure 4b). These outcomes were in line with the fulfil the benchmarks as recommended in NGS [74] roads and
consistent style of enhancing CBR values with higher compactive bridges for sub base and base courses. Based on this, the
effort which is consistent with the findings of [61]. suitability of using OSA as a sole stabilizer in lateritic soil
This study adopted the Nigerian General Specification, NGS improvement may not achieve the desired and feasible results
(74) highway specification guide which was used to correlate the in service, especially under exposure in adverse condition for
following: (1) 19 % peak CBR (soaked) of BSL compaction sub base type 2 and base course. Thus, if it should be considered,
satisfy the benchmark requirement of greater than or equal 15 % then it is recommended for subgrade and or sub-base type 1 for
for subgrade, (2) 27 % peak CBR (soaked) of WAS fell short the interior rural or village roads where traffic volume is at the very
requirement (greater than or equal 30 %) for sub-base of heavy minimum.
Engineering and Applied Science Research 2021;48(2) 155

Figure 5 Variation of unconfined compressive strength of lateritic soil – oyster shell ash mixture after (a) 7 days curing age and (b) 28
days curing age.

3.3.2. Unconfined compressive strength, UCS 1710 kN/m2 as stipulated for adequate cement stabilization [75],
while only BSH compactive satisfy the 1034.25 kN/m2 criterion
Figure 5 demonstrates the changes in UCS of lateritic soil for adequate lime stabilization of soil [61]. Also, the UCS results
with OSA for the three compaction energies after 7 and 28 days at optimal 9 % OSA content were within 687 – 1373 kN/m2 as
of curing time. Generally, it was evident that the UCS improved documented for sub-base using WAS [76], which can be coupled
with increase OSA content, compactive effort and curing time, with the satisfactory CBR criterion obtained for CBR of sub-base
attaining peak values of 724.87, 784.13, 1265 kN/m2 at 9% OSA type 2 for lightly traffic road pavement.
content for BSL, WAS and BSH respectively, for 7 days curing
(Figure 5a). A parallel behaviour is observed for 28 days curing 3.4 Durability assessment
period except that the increase was marginal beyond 9 % OSA
(Figure 5b). The observed trend can be attributed to the surface In order to assess the worst situations on site for any soil to
exchangeable interaction between the clay particles of the soil be used as road construction material, immersion of the cured
and the predominant calcium oxide in OSA [57]. The ions sample in water before testing its compressive strength is done to
reaction between Ca2+ ion in the OSA additive and lower valence ascertain that the stabilized material do not fail under worst
ion in the soil clay minerals brought about flocculation and conditions. The resistance to loss in strength of lateritic soil with
agglomeration of clay particles [8, 14, 15, 57, 61]. Basically, the OSA content for the three compactive efforts are shown in Figure
UCS increased due to: (1) the formation of fundamental 6. It can be inferred from the obtained results, which are shown
compounds of (calcium silicate hydrates, CSH and calcium in a tabular form that the resistance to loss in strength values
aluminate hydrates, CAH) that were accountable for strength decreased from 10.27 to 7.71 % for BSL; 15.09 to 8.29 % for
increase [8, 14, 15, 57, 61], (2) increased curing time which allow WAS; and 17.67 to 10.19 % for BSH at 15 % OSA content and
for complete reaction between clay mineral-OSA additive and (3) the specimens recorded loss in strength less than the durability
increased compactive effort which may conveniently realign requirement of 20 % [61].
particle lump, shear planes as well as establish an effective
homogenous OSA-soil mixture and improve surface area of 3.5 Statistical Analysis
particle mixtures thereby sustaining the ions reaction between the
soil composition and OSA. 3.5.1 Analysis of variance for unconfined compressive strength
This study utilized the 7 day UCS results to establish
requirement for adequate stabilization based on report of [61, 75, Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) without replication
76]. The results in this study (Figure 5a), indicate that the at 5 % level of significance and 95 % confidence interval was
maximum UCS for 7 days curing period was 904, 784.13 and used to ascertain the influence of OSA and curing age on the UCS
1265 KN/m2 for BSL, WAS and BSH compactive efforts, values measured in the laboratory for the compactive efforts of
respectively. These values were below the minimum criterion of BSL, WAS and BSH respectively. The ANOVA for UCS is
156 Engineering and Applied Science Research 2021;48(2)

Figure 6 Variation of resistance to loss in strength of lateritic soil – oyster shell ash mixtures

Table 3 Two-way analysis of variance for UCS considering different curing periods

Parameter Source of Variation DOF Fcal P-value F crit Remark

OSA 5 31.6038 8.12E-06 3.3258 SS
BSL
Curing age 2 15.9631 0.000772 4.1028 SS
OSA 5 36.1457 4.35E-06 3.3258 SS
WAS
Curing age 2 25.4969 0.000118 4.1028 SS
BSH OSA 5 97.9488 3.67E-08 3.3258 SS
Curing age 2 8.3998 0.00723 4.1028 SS
DOF= Degree of freedom; SS= Significant effect

Table 4 Two-way analysis of variance for California bearing ratio

Parameter Source of Variation DOF Fcal P-value Fcrit Remark

OSA 5 51.3079 8.31E-07 3.3258 SS
Unsoaked CBR
Compactive effort 2 9.4284 0.004998 4.1028 SS
OSA 5 37.4891 3.66E-06 3.3258 SS
Soaked CBR
Compactive effort 2 58.2586 3.08E-06 4.1028 SS

documented in Table 3 and the effect of OSA content was more relationships between two variables or sets of variables [18, 77-
prominent compared to that of curing age for all compactive 80]. Equation 1 shows the regression equation for UCS 7 days
efforts. It is therefore of great importance to carefully check the curing. The regression equation indicates that all the parameters
OSA content during field compaction or any field application to considered have influence on the UCS values of stabilized soil
attend desired results during construction. with correlation coefficient value of R2 = 59.3 %. The coefficients
of regression equation for each parameter would reveal the level
3.5.2 Analysis of variance for California bearing ratio
of the effect of the parameter on the UCS. OSA and OMC have
positive coefficients which depict the fact that increase in these
Analysis of variance was carried out to measure the relative
significance of OSA and compactive effort on CBR (soaked and parameters (OSA and OMC) lead to improvement in UCS of the
unsoaked) values (see Table 4). A Two way analysis of variance compacted soil. Similarly, the MDD, PF, PI and CE have
taking 5 % level of significance and 95 % confidence interval negative coefficients, which depict decrease in UCS with
shows statistically significant effect of OSA and compactive increase in these variables. Care should be taken to ensure these
effort on the CBR (soaked and unsoaked), compacted using BSL, variables are properly controlled at the site during field
WAS and BSH energy respectively. The effect of OSA content compaction to achieve a durable road pavement.
was more pronounced than that of compactive effort for The line fit plot (see Figure 7) shows relationship between
unsoaked CBR. For the CBR (soaked condition), ingress of water the measured UCS values in the laboratory and the predicted
into the soil weakens the effect of OSA on the treated soil which values from the regression model, with respect to the effect of
shows less significant effect than the compaction energy (see OSA on the UCS of compacted lateritic soil- OSA mixtures. It is
Table 4). Therefore, when lateritic soil is treated with OSA evident from the fit line plot that the model overestimated the
during pavement construction, both the OSA content and
UCS values at 3, 6 and 9 % OSA content, when predicted UCS
compactive efforts should be accurately measured out.
values from the regression model was compared with the
3.6 Regression analysis laboratory measured values. Where; UCS = Unconfined
compressive strength; OSA = Oyster shell ash, MDD =
3.6.1 Regression analysis for unconfined compressive strength Maximum dry density, OMC = Optimum moisture content, PF
=Percentage fine, PI = Plasticity index, CE = Compactive effort.
Regression analysis predict the interaction between sets of
variables (one or more) called independent variables and a single UCS = 7366 + 46.8 OSA − 2080MDD + 54OMC − 76.9PF −
variable called dependent variable. Researches in sciences 20.9PI − 357CE R2 = 59.3%
and engineering have applied regression analysis to buttress (1)
Engineering and Applied Science Research 2021;48(2) 157

Figure 7 UCS of lateritic soil - OSA mixtures using line fit plot.

Figure 8 California bearing ratio (unsoaked) of lateritic soil – OSA mixtures using line fit plot

Figure 9 California bearing ratio (soaked) of lateritic soil – OSA mixture using line fit plot

3.6.2. Regression analysis for California bearing ratio (unsoaked PI and CE have negative coefficients, which depict decrease in
and soaked) unsoaked CBR with increase in these variables.
The line fit plot (see Figure 8) shows relationship between
Regression equation for California bearing ratio (unsoaked measured and predicted unsoaked CBR values with respect to the
and soaked) are presented in equations 2 and 3 correspondingly. influence of OSA on the unsoaked CBR of compacted lateritic
Result of regression analysis show that all the parameters
soil- OSA mixtures. It is evident from the fit line plot that the
considered have effect on the unsoaked CBR of the treated soil
model produced almost a perfect prediction of unsoaked CBR
with correlation coefficient value of R2 = 92.7 % (see equation
2). The coefficients of each parameter reveal the magnitude of from measured laboratory values with most of the points(i.e. for
the effect of the parameter on the unsoaked CBR. OSA and MDD predicted and measured values) on the line fit plot (see Figure 8)
have positive coefficients which depict the fact that increase in overlapping each other. This agrees with ANOVA results above
these parameters (OSA and MDD) will lead to improvement in which shows significant improvement on the unsoaked CBR with
unsoaked CBR of the compacted soil. Similarly, the OMC, PF, OSA content.
158 Engineering and Applied Science Research 2021;48(2)

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