Unit – 1: Factory and Process Automation

1.1 Introduction
The word automation comes from the Greek word “automatos,” meaning self-acting (Auto-
self and Matos-acting). The word automation was coined in the mid-1940s by the U.S.
automobile industry to indicate the automatic handling of parts between production machines,
together with their continuous processing at the machines. The origin of the word is attributed
to D.S. Harder, an engineering manager at the Ford Motor Company at the time. The
advances in computers and control systems have extended the definition of automation. By
the middle of the 20th century, automation had existed for many years on a small scale, using
mechanical devices to automate the production of simply shaped items. However the concept
only became truly practical with the addition of the computer, whose flexibility allowed it to
drive almost any sort of task.
1.2 Automation:
1. The technique of making an apparatus, a process, or a system operates automatically.
2. The creation and application of technology to monitor and control the production and
delivery of products and services.
3. A set of technologies that results in operation of machines and systems without
significant human intervention and achieves performance superior to manual operation
4. Definition from Encyclopedia Britannica: The application of machines to tasks once
performed by human beings or, increasingly, to tasks that would otherwise be impossible.
Although the term mechanization is often used to refer to the simple replacement of
human labor by machines, automation generally implies the integration of machines into
a self-governing system.
1.3 Goal of Automation:
1. Online Conditioning and Monitoring.
2. Optimizing the use of Process Control Equipment.
3. Decreases the response time for process and equipment contingencies.
4. Manages process logic at the plant floor level.
5. Integrate various aspects of manufacturing operations so as to improve the product quality
and uniformity, minimize cycle times and effort, and thus reduce labor costs.
6. Improve productivity by reducing manufacturing costs through better control of
production.
7. Improve quality by employing more repeatable processes.
8. Reduce human involvement, boredom, and possibility of human error.
9. Reduce work-piece damage caused by manual handling of parts.
10. Raise the level of safety for personnel, especially under hazardous working conditions.
11. Economize on floor space in the manufacturing plant by arranging the machines, material
movement, and related equipment more efficiently.
1.4 History of Automation:
1) Manual Control
2) Pneumatic Control
3) Hard Wired Logic Control
4) Electronic Control using Logic Gates
5) Programmable Logic Controllers(PLCs)
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1) Manual Control
All the actions related to process control are taken by the operators.
Drawbacks:
 Likely human errors and consequently its effect on quality of final product
 The production, safety, energy consumption and usage of raw material are all subject to
the correctness and accuracy of human action.
2) Pneumatic Control:
 Industrial automation, with its machine and process control, had its origin in the 1920
with the advent of ‘Pneumatic Controllers’
 Actions were controlled by a simple manipulation of pneumatic valves, which in turn
were controlled by relays and switches.
Drawbacks:
 Bulky and Complex System
 Involves lot of rework to implement control logic
 Longer project time
3) Hard Wired Logic Control:
The contactor and Relays together with hardware timers and counters were used in achieving
the desired level of automation.
Drawbacks:
 Bulky panels
 Complex wiring
 Longer project time
 Difficult maintenance and troubleshooting
4) Electronic Control using Logic Gates:
 In 1960s with the advent of electronics, the logic gates started replacing the relays and
auxiliary contactors in the control circuits.
 The hardware timers & counters were replaced by electronic timers.
 It reduced space requirements, provides Energy saving, Less maintenance & greater
reliability
Drawbacks:
 Changes in control logic not possible
 More project time

1.5 Control Elements

Information technology, together with industrial machinery and processes, can assist
in the design, implementation, and monitoring of control systems. One example of an
industrial control system is a programmable logic controller (PLC). PLCs are specialized
hardened computers which are frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from
(physical) sensors and events with the flow of outputs to actuators and events.
Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly
known as man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with PLCs and
other computers. Service personnel who monitor and control through HMIs can be called by
different names. In the industrial process and manufacturing environments, they are called

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operators or something similar. In boiler houses and central utility departments, they are
called stationary engineers.
Different types of automation tools / control elements exist:
1) ANN – Artificial Neural Network
2) DCS – Distributed Control System
3) HMI – Human Machine Interface
4) RPA – Robotic Process Automation
5) SCADA – Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
6) PLC – Programmable Logic Controller
7) Instrumentation
8) Motion control
9) Robotics
Host simulation software (HSS) is a commonly used testing tool that is used to test the
equipment software. HSS is used to test equipment performance concerning factory
automation standards (timeouts, response time, and processing time).

1) HMI – Human Machine Interface

Human-Machine Interface abbreviated as HMI is a user interface which is a combination
of hardware and software that permits easy interaction between human and machine. Thus, it
is named so. The main purpose of establishing such an interaction between humans and
machines is to control and monitor the processes ongoing at the remote locations without
physically being present at that particular location. The human-machine interface is a crucial
component of automated industrial processes and thus is of significant importance in SCADA
systems.
The human-machine interface is a famous name given to a hardware and software
combination that offers interaction between human and system (machine). Some other names
used to denote HMI are man-machine interface, operator interface terminal, operator
terminal, etc. In technical terms, HMI is a screen like a computer screen or touchscreen that
allows the user to interact with the device. It mainly finds applications in industrial processes
thus are regarded as a crucial component of SCADA systems.
Its major aim is to ensure effective operation through controlling of the system which is
being monitored. This is done by a human operator that takes the operational decisions and
holds the power for manual overriding of automatic control operation in case of emergency.
2) SCADA – Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems are used in monitoring and
control of industrial equipment in various stages such as development, manufacturing,
production and fabrication. SCADA is a system of hardware and software elements that
facilitate process control. This central control system consists of communication equipment,
network interfaces, input/ output devices and software. It allows organizations to carry out
following functions:
 Manage industrial processes remotely or locally.
 Real-time data gathering, monitoring and processing.
 Direct interaction with devices like valves, motors, pumps, valves using Human Machine
Interface (HMI) software.
 Create a log file of events.

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 This system is used for monitoring and control of industrial equipment in development,
manufacturing, production and fabrication phases. Real time monitoring can be achieved
through Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and circuit breakers.
Functions of SCADA systems
(a) Dynamic process Graphic –It should resemble the process mimic. SCADA should have
good library of symbols so that develop the mimic as per required. When operator sees the
screen he should know what’s going in plant.
By this feature, graphics develop which can resemble the plant. The graphics can include
Reactors, valves, pumps, agitators, conveyors as well as other equipment and machinery used
in the plant. The status of the equipment running / stopped can be shown using different
colures / animation.
Typically the SCADA software will have many ready to use symbols for proper
representation which can be used in any type of industry.
(b) Alarm summery & Alarm history - A SCADA system must be able to detect, display,
and log alarms and events. When there are problems the SCADA system must notify the
operators to take corrective action.
Alarms and event must be recorded so that engineers and programmers can review the
alarms to determine what caused the alarm and prevent them happening again. More
complicated expressions can be developed by creating derived parameters on which status or
limit checking is then performed.
The alarms are logically handled centrally, i.e. the information only exists in one place
and all users see the same status, and multiple alarm priority levels are supported. Every plant
needs proper monitoring and control of the process parameters.
Alarms represent warnings of process conditions that could cause problems, and require
an operator response. Generally alarms are implemented by using the lamps or hooters in
field but in SCADA it can be represented using animation. In many SCADA software, four
type of alarm limits are used ie HI, HIHI, LOW, LOW LOW.
(c) Real time trend & Historical time trend - The trends play very important role in the
process operation. If batch fails or the plant trips then historical trend data used and do the
analysis. Better look of the representing parameters through the trends in graphical form.
The trend plots the value with reference to the time. Real-time data will plot the real-time
value for fixed period of time while historical data will have historical data stored value
which can be viewed on demand.
Depending upon the storing capacity of the hard-disk one can specify the no of days the
data can be stored. Some SCADA software show real-time and historical trends in single
graphics while fewer use separate tools.
(d) Security (Application Security)-Allocate certain facilities or features to the operator,
process people, engineering department & maintenance department. for example operators
should only operate the system, not be able change the application.
The engineers should access to changing the application developed. Every SCADA
software has various levels of security for securing the application by avoiding unauthorized
access.
Depending upon the access level given the operator / engineers is allowed to do the task.
In most of the cases, operators are allowed only to operate the plant while maintenance

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engineers can do the application modifications. The security can be given for individual as
well as for groups.
(e) Data base connectivity: - In manufacturing units go for Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) or Management Information System (MIR).One can produce reports using SQL type
queries to the archive, RTDB or logs. Although it is sometimes possible to embed EXCEL
charts in the report.
Facilities exist to be automatically generated, print and archive reports. It is important to
download the real-time information to the MIS.
In this case the database connectivity is must. Much SCADA software doesn’t have their
own database. Hence for storage and reporting they use third party database like MS Access
or SQL.
(f) Device connectivity:-There are hundreds of automation hardware manufacturer like
Modicon, Siemens, Allen Bradley, Yokogawa, ABB. There are own communication protocol.
SCADA software should have connectivity to the different hardware used in automation. It
should not happen that for Modicon buy one software & for Siemens another one.
The software like Aspic or Wonderware has connectivity to almost all hardware used in
Automation. Every control hardware has its own communication protocol for communicating
with different hardware / software.
Some of the leading communication protocol include Modbus, Profibus, Ethernet, Device
net, Control net. The SCADA software needs device driver software for communication with
PLC or other control hardware.
More the driver software available better is the device connectivity. Most of the SCADA
software used in the industry have connectivity with most of the leading control system.
(g) Scripts:-The majority of the products allow actions to be automatically triggered by
events. Scripting languages provided by the SCADA products allow these actions to be
defined.
The concepts of receipts is supported, whereby a particular system configuration can be
saved to a file and then re-loaded at a later date. Sequencing is also supported; it is possible to
execute a more complex sequence of actions on one or more devices.
Sequences may also react to external events. Script is a way of writing logic in SCADA
software. Every SCADA software has its own instructions and way of writing program. One
can develop complex applications.
The functions can create to suit the process requirement execution. Various types of
scripts make project execution simpler for programmer.
(h) Recipe management:-It is an additional feature. Most of the plants are manufacturing
multi products. When Different product to manufacture, then recipe of that particular get
loaded. The same plant for manufacturing different product range.
For example an oil blending plant can manufacture power oil, transformer oil, automobile
oil. It is the facility used for maintains various recipes of different products and implement it
on the process. The recipe can be stored in a single server and it can be fetched by any client
server from any area to run the process.
(i) Networking:- In an application, we have to use more than one SCADA software /
operator stations. This can be achieved by taking the SCADA node on network. Ethernet
TCP/IP is commonly used for networking.

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(j) Data Acquisition-SCADA must be able to read data from PLCs and other hardware and
then to analyze and graphically present that data to the user. SCADA systems must be able to
read and write multiple sources of data.
(k) Operator Interface – A SCADA system collects all of the information about a process.
The SCADA systems then need to display this data to the operator so that they can
comprehend what is going on with the process.
Advantages of SCADA:
 Monitor from a remote location 24/7
 Reduce costs – normally associated with man-power
 Having a reliable automated system working 24/7
 Logging of data
 Visualize whole process of factory or machine which makes easy for operators.
 Log Data Events and Alarms
 Visualize and Log Trends of analog/Digitals signals.
 Communications with third party software
 Click-click/Touch operations of start/stop of machines.
 Easy to see /change variables of machines/process.
3) PLCs-Programmable Logic Controllers
Industrial automation incorporates programmable logic controllers in the manufacturing
process. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) use a processing system which allows for
variation of controls of inputs and outputs using simple programming. PLCs make use of
programmable memory, storing instructions and functions like logic, sequencing, timing,
counting, etc. Using a logic-based language, a PLC can receive a variety of inputs and return
a variety of logical outputs, the input devices being sensors and output devices being motors,
valves, etc. PLCs are similar to computers, however, while computers are optimized for
calculations, PLCs are optimized for control tasks and use in industrial environments. They
are built so that only basic logic-based programming knowledge is needed and to handle
vibrations, high temperatures, humidity, and noise. The greatest advantage PLCs offer is their
flexibility. With the same basic controllers, a PLC can operate a range of different control
systems. PLCs make it unnecessary to rewire a system to change the control system. This
flexibility leads to a cost-effective system for complex and varied control systems.
PLCs can range from small "building brick" devices with tens of I/O in a housing integral
with the processor, to large rack-mounted modular devices with a count of thousands of I/O,
and which are often networked to other PLC and SCADA systems.
They can be designed for multiple arrangements of digital and analog inputs and outputs
(I/O), extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration
and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up
or non-volatile memory.
It was from the automotive industry in the USA that the PLC was born. Before the PLC,
control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles was mainly
composed of relays, cam timers, drum sequencers, and dedicated closed-loop controllers.
Since these could number in the hundreds or even thousands, the process for updating such
facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time-consuming and expensive, as
electricians needed to individually rewire the relays to change their operational
characteristics.
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 When digital computers became available, being general-purpose programmable devices,
they were soon applied to control sequential and combinatorial logic in industrial processes.
However, these early computers required specialist programmers and stringent operating
environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, and power quality. To meet these
challenges this PLC was developed with several key attributes. It would tolerate the shop-
floor environment, it would support discrete (bit-form) input and output in an easily
extensible manner, it would not require years of training to use, and it would permit its
operation to be monitored. Since many industrial processes have timescales easily addressed
by millisecond response times, modern (fast, small, reliable) electronics greatly facilitate
building reliable controllers, and performance could be traded off for reliability.
4) Robotics
Robotics aids in various manufacturing processes like machining, welding, painting,
assembling and material handling to name a few. Industrial robots use various mechanical,
electrical as well as software systems to allow for high precision, accuracy and speed that far
exceed any human performance. The birth of industrial robots came shortly after World War
II as the United States saw the need for a quicker way to produce industrial and consumer
goods. Servos, digital logic and solid-state electronics allowed engineers to build better and
faster systems and over time these systems were improved and revised to the point where a
single robot is capable of running 24 hours a day with little or no maintenance. In 1997, there
were 700,000 industrial robots in use; the number has risen to 1.8M in 2017. In recent years,
artificial intelligence (AI) with robotics is also used in creating an automatic labeling
solution, using robotic arms as the automatic label applicator, and AI for learning and
detecting the products to be labelled.
1.6 Advantages of Automation:
1. Increased Productivity
One of the biggest benefits of industrial automation is increased efficiency and productivity.
Automated control systems can work continuously for long hours without compromising on
accuracy, which is not possible with human workers. With automation, you can expect the
same job to be done with the same consistency and output each time. All that is required is
that the mainframe be programmed with precise instructions to carry out the task accurately.
2. Improved Quality
Your clients and customers expect quality in your products and will stay loyal to you only as
long as you’re able to provide them with it. There is no substitute to good quality products,
for which you need automation. It helps remove issues related to quality control that can crop
up due to human error. This is because with industrial automation, systems and processes can
be monitored and controlled at all stages, which results in a qualitative end-product, thus
making it reliable.
3. Reduced Costs
Thanks to automation, industrial processes can go on smoothly 24/7. Not only does this factor
lead to increased productivity, but also works as an excellent return on investment. Through
automation, companies can save on workforce costs, salaries, healthcare costs, pension and
insurance coverage, paid holidays and other costs that come with hiring and training
employees. So, although automation may seem costly initially, it can help the company save
a great deal in the long term.

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4. Better Safety
Industrial automation improves workplace safety, thereby preventing accidents and injuries.
These machines can continue to function in extreme environments and weather conditions
and can even work around hazardous substances. Replacing human workers with industrial
robots in jobs that involve working in life-threatening conditions results in a win-win
situation for the employer and the employee – it offers an improved quality of life to the
worker and saves the company from insurance claims.
Industrial robots are particularly helpful when it comes to working in frigid,
explosive, and foundry-like environments, which have the potential to endanger human lives.
Since robots and machines are unaffected by hostile work environments, they’re more suited
to perform well in such conditions.
5. Remote Monitoring
Remote operation and controlling systems are integrated in most industrial automation
systems. This makes things very convenient as it allows operators to monitor and control
production processes from a distance. Communicating with the remote system from a greater
distance can be done over a WiFi connection. However, the main controlling systems are
based on radio signals. For this purpose, the system has a high-tech radio signal transmitter
and receiver.
6. Maintenance of Work Schedules
Managing work schedules meticulously is crucial to the success and revenue generation of a
company. Each task needs to be sorted out in a way that makes optimal utilization of
resources, thereby ensuring smooth functioning of operations. With automated control
systems, it is easy to get real time information about the available resources and the condition
of the workforce. This helps in preparation of work schedules that take into consideration all
the important factors, leaving no scope for any oversight.
7. Gaining and Maintaining a Competitive Edge
In an increasingly competitive world, it is necessary to equip ourselves with ample facilities
that help us gain and maintain a competitive edge in the volatile economy. Industrial
automation may be the answer here. It has always fortified manufacturing companies with the
competencies required to compete and even move ahead of their competitors. Various
automation technologies help companies achieve lowered cycle times, improved quality and
reduced costs.
1.7 Disadvantages of Automation:
 Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system may have a limited level of
intelligence, and is therefore more susceptible to committing errors outside of its
immediate scope of knowledge (e.g., it is typically unable to apply the rules of simple
logic to general propositions).
 Unpredictable/excessive development costs: The research and development cost of
automating a process may exceed the cost saved by the automation itself.
 High initial cost: The automation of a new product or plant typically requires a very
large initial investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost
of automation may be spread among many products and over time.

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1.8 Types of Automation
Automation systems can be categorized based on the flexibility and level of integration in
manufacturing process operations. Various automation systems can be classified as follows
1) Fixed Automation:
It is used in high volume production with dedicated equipment, which has a fixed set of
operation and designed to be efficient for this set. Continuous flow and Discrete Mass
Production systems use this automation. e.g. Distillation Process, Conveyors, Paint Shops,
Transfer lines etc. A process using mechanized machinery to perform fixed and repetitive
operations in order to produce a high volume of similar parts.
2) Programmable Automation:
It is used for a changeable sequence of operation and configuration of the machines using
electronic controls. However, non-trivial programming effort may be needed to reprogram
the machine or sequence of operations. Investment on programmable equipment is less, as
production process is not changed frequently. It is typically used in Batch process where job
variety is low and product volume is medium to high, and sometimes in mass production
also. e.g. in Steel Rolling Mills, Paper Mills etc.
3) Flexible Automation:
It is used in Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) which is invariably computer controlled.
Human operators give high-level commands in the form of codes entered into computer
identifying product and its location in the sequence and the lower level changes are done
automatically. Each production machine receives settings/instructions from computer. This
automatically loads/unloads required tools and carries out their processing instructions. After
processing, products are automatically transferred to next machine. It is typically used in job
shops and batch processes where product varieties are high and job volumes are medium to
low. Such systems typically use Multipurpose CNC machines, Automated Guided Vehicles
(AGV) etc.
4) Integrated Automation:
It denotes complete automation of a manufacturing plant, with all processes functioning
under computer control and under coordination through digital information processing. It
includes technologies such as computer-aided design and manufacturing, computer-aided
process planning, computer numerical control machine tools, flexible machining systems,
automated storage and retrieval systems, automated material handling systems such as robots
and automated cranes and conveyors, computerized scheduling and production control. It
may also integrate a business system through a common database. In other words, it
symbolizes full integration of process and management operations using information and
communication technologies. Typical examples of such technologies are seen in Advanced
Process Automation Systems and Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
1.9 Standards
A standard is a document, established by consensus and approved by a recognized
body that provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for
activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given
context.

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 Standards make sure that products work together safely and as intended. They are also
needed by test labs to check that products are safe to use; governments rely on them to
protect citizens from unsafe products.
Standards are used every day, in all aspects of our daily lives – in communications,
media, healthcare, food, transport, construction, furniture, energy…
Standards provide:
 Safety and reliability – Adherence to standards helps ensure safety, reliability and
environmental care. As a result, users perceive standardized products and services as
more dependable – this in turn raises user confidence, increasing sales and the take-up of
new technologies.
 Support of government policies and legislation – Standards are frequently referenced by
regulators and legislators for protecting user and business interests, and to support
government policies. Standards play a central role in the European Union's policy for a
Single Market.
 Interoperability – the ability of devices to work together relies on products and services
complying with standards.
 Business benefits – standardization provides a solid foundation upon which to develop
new technologies and to enhance existing practices.
Specifically standards:
 Open up market access
 Provide economies of scale
 Encourage innovation
 Increase awareness of technical developments and initiatives
 Consumer choice - standards provide the foundation for new features and options, thus
contributing to the enhancement of our daily lives. Mass production based on standards
provides a greater variety of accessible products to consumers.
1.10 IEC Standards
Founded in 1906, the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) is a not-for-
profit, non-governmental the world’s leading organization for the preparation and publication
of International Standards for all electrical, electronic and related technologies. These are
known collectively as "electrotechnology".
IEC provides a platform to companies, industries and governments for meeting,
discussing and developing the International Standards they require.
An International Standard is a standard adopted by an international standards
organization and made available to the public. The definition given in all IEC standards
reads: "A normative document, developed according to consensus procedures, which has
been approved by the IEC National Committee members of the responsible committee in
accordance with Part 1 of the ISO/IEC Directives."
The IEC is one of the bodies recognized by the World Trade Organization (WTO) and
entrusted by it for monitoring the national and regional organizations agreeing to use the
IEC's international standards as the basis for national or regional standards as part of the
WTO's Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement.
1) IEC 61131
IEC 61131 is an IEC standard for programmable controllers. First published in 1993
and the current (third) edition in 2013. It was known as IEC 1131 before the change in

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numbering system by IEC. The parts of the IEC 61131 standard are prepared and maintained
by working group 7, programmable control systems, of subcommittee SC 65B of Technical
Committee TC65 of the IEC.
Standard IEC 61131 is divided into several parts:
Part 1: General information. It is the introductory chapter; it contains definitions of terms
that are used in the subsequent parts of the standard and outlines the main functional
properties and characteristics of PLCs.
Part 2: Equipment requirements and tests - establishes the requirements and associated
tests for programmable controllers and their peripherals. This standard prescribes: the normal
service conditions and requirements (for example, requirements related with climatic
conditions, transport and storage, electrical service, etc.); functional requirements (power
supply & memory, digital and analog I/Os); functional type tests and verification
(requirements and tests on environmental, vibration, drop, free fall, I/O, power ports, etc.)
and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements and tests that programmable
controllers must implement. This standard can serve as a basis in the evaluation of safety
programmable controllers to IEC 61508.
Part 3: Programming languages
Part 4: User guidelines
Part 5: Communications
Part 6: Functional safety
Part 7: Fuzzy control programming
Part 8: Guidelines for the application and implementation of programming languages
Part 9: Single-drop digital communication interface for small sensors and actuators
(SDCI, marketed as IO-Link)
Part 10: PLC open XML exchange format for the export and import of IEC 61131-3
projects
2) IEC 61499
The international standard IEC 61499, addressing the topic of function blocks for industrial
process measurement and control systems, was initially published in 2005. The specification
of IEC 61499 defines a generic model for distributed control systems and is based on the IEC
61131 standard.
Part 1: Architecture
IEC 61499-1 defines the architecture for distributed systems. In IEC 61499 the cyclic
execution model of IEC 61131 is replaced by an event driven execution model. The event
driven execution model allows an explicit specification of the execution order of function
blocks. IEC 61499 enables an application-centric design, in which one or more applications,
defined by networks of interconnected function blocks, are created for the whole system and
subsequently distributed to the available devices. All devices within a system are described
within a device model. The topology of the system is reflected by the system model. The
distribution of an application is described within the mapping model. Therefore, applications
of a system are distributable but maintained together. IEC 61499 is strongly influenced by
Erlang, with its shared-nothing model and distribution transparency.
Like IEC 61131-3 function blocks, IEC 61499 function block types specify both an
interface and an implementation. IEC 61499 defines several function block types, all of
which can contain a behavior description in terms of service sequences:

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Service interface function block – SIFB: The source code is hidden and its functionality is
only described by service sequences.
Basic function block - BFB: Its functionality is described in terms of an Execution Control
Chart (ECC), which is similar to a state diagram (UML). Every state can have several actions.
Each action references one or zero algorithms and one or zero events. Algorithms can be
implemented as defined in compliant standards.
Composite function block - CFB: Its functionality is defined by a function block network.
Adapter interfaces: An adapter interface is not a real function block. It combines several
events and data connections within one connection and provides an interface concept to
separate specification and implementation.
Sub-application: Its functionality is also defined as a function block network. In contrast to
CFBs, sub-applications can be distributed.
To maintain the applications on a device IEC 61499 provides a management model.
The device manager maintains the lifecycle of any resource and manages the communication
with the software tools (e.g., configuration tool, agent) via management commands. Through
the interface of the software tool and the management commands, online reconfiguration of
IEC 61499 applications can be realized.
Part 2: Software tool requirements
IEC 61499-2 defines requirements for software tools to be compliant to IEC 61499.
This includes requirements for the representation and the portability of IEC 61499 elements
as well as a DTD format to exchange IEC 61499 elements between different software tools.
There are already some IEC 61499 compliant software tools available. Among these are
commercial software tools, open-source software tools, and academic and research
developments. Usually an IEC 61499 compliant runtime environment and an IEC 61499
compliant development environment are needed.
Part 3: Tutorial Information (2008 withdrawn)
IEC 61499-3 was related to an early Publicly Available Specification (PAS) version
of the standard and was withdrawn in 2008. This part answered FAQs related to the IEC
61499 standard and described the use of IEC 61499 elements with examples to solve
common challenges during the engineering of automation systems.
Among other examples, IEC 61499-3 described the use of SIFBs as communication
function blocks for remote access to real-time data and parameters of function blocks; the use
of adapter interfaces to implement object oriented concepts; initialization algorithms in
function block networks; and the implementation of ECCs for a simplified motor control of
hypothetical VCRs. Additionally the impacts of the mapping concerning the communication
function blocks was explained, as well as the device management by management
applications and its function blocks, and the principle of the device manager function block.
Part 4: Rules for compliance profiles
IEC 61499-4 describes the rules that a system, device or software tool must follow to
be compliant to IEC 61499. These rules are related to interoperability, portability and
configuration. Two devices are interoperable if they can work together to provide the
functionality specified by a system configuration. Applications compliant to IEC 61499 have
to be portable, which means that they can be exchanged between software tools of different
vendors considering the requirements for software tools described within IEC 61499-2.
Devices of any vendor have to be configurable by any IEC 61499 compliant software tool.
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 Besides these general rules, IEC 61499-4 also defines the structure of compliance
profiles. A compliance profile describes how a system conforms to the rules of the IEC 61499
standard.
The interoperability between devices of different vendors is defined by the layers of
the OSI models. Also status outputs, IP addresses, port numbers as well as the data encoding
of function blocks which are used for the communication between devices, have to be
considered.
3) ISA/IEC 62443 series
The ISA/IEC 62443 series of standards, developed by the ISA99 committee and adopted
by the International Electro-technical Commission (IEC), provides a flexible framework to
address and mitigate current and future security vulnerabilities in industrial automation and
control systems (IACSs).
According to IEC 62443-1-1, an Industrial Automation and Control System (IACS) is a
“collection of processes, personnel, hardware, and software that can affect or influence the
safe, secure and reliable operation of an industrial process.”
Parts of ISA/IEC 62443
IEC 62443-2-4, which covers the policies and practices for system integration
IEC 62443-4-1, which covers the secure development lifecycle requirements
IEC 62443-4-2, which covers the IACS components security specifications
IEC 62443-3-3, which covers the security requirements and the security levels.
Figure below explains different standards in ISA/IEC 62443 series.
1.11 Selection Criteria for Different Control Elements
1) Selection Criteria for PLC
 System requirements
 The starting point in determining any solution must be to understand what is to be
achieved.
 The program design starts with breaking down the task into a number of simple
understandable elements, each of which can be easily described.
 Application requirements
 Input and output device requirements. After determining the operation of the system, the
next step is to determine what input and output devices the system requires.
 List the function required and identify a specific type of device.
 The need for special operations in addition to discrete (On/Off) logic.
 List the advanced functions required beside simple discrete logic.
 Electrical requirements
The electrical requirements for inputs, outputs, and system power; when determining the
electrical requirements of a system, consider three items:
 Incoming power (power for the control system);
 Input device voltage; and
 Output voltage and current.

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 Fig. Different standards in ISA/IEC 62443 series
 Speed of Operation
 How fast the control system must operate (speed of operation).
 When determining speed of operation, consider these points:
 How fast does the process occur or machine operates?
 Are there “time critical” operations or events that must be detected?
 In what time frame must the fastest action occur (input device detection to output
device activation)?
 Does the control system need to count pulses from an encoder or flow-meter and
respond quickly?
 Communication
 If the application requires sharing data outside the process, i.e. communication.
Communication involves sharing application data or status with another electronic device,
such as a computer or a monitor in an operator’s station.
 Communication can take place locally through a twisted-pair wire, or remotely via
telephone or radio modem.
 Operator Interface
 If the system needs operator control or interaction. In order to convey information about
machine or process status, or to allow an operator to input data, many applications require
operator interfaces.
 Traditional operator interfaces include pushbuttons, pilot lights and LED numeric display.
Electronic operator interface devices display messages about machine status in
descriptive text, display part count and track alarms. Also, they can be used for data input.

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2) Selection Criteria for SCADA
 Compatibility
 Compatible with your existing controls hardware or PLCs.
 Compatibility issues typically arise when using legacy controls hardware that doesn’t
support modern communication protocols.
 Integrating with controls hardware of varying ages and manufacturers can also present
challenges, as each piece of hardware may have different communication protocols.
 Instead of purchasing new and expensive controls hardware, the simplest way to
overcome these challenges is to select a SCADA system that offers a wide range of native
drivers to ensure it works with any manufacturer’s hardware, regardless of age.
 Operating Costs
 When evaluating SCADA systems, it is important to account for extra expenses that may
come with training, technical support, upgrades, connections, and multiple users or
clients.
 During your evaluation, you may discover that some of these services are included in the
base price, while other vendors charge additional fees.
 Accounting for these expenses at the start will ensure you receive an affordable solution
with the support and functionality you require.
 Security
Safeguards such as HTTPS secure access, secure remote connectivity via VPN, user access
levels, and independent security audits all help to ensure your network and data will remain
secure from external threats or malware.
 Functionality
 Ensuring the selected system includes all the functionality.
 For example, making sure the system can accommodate your application’s unique needs
may require consulting with a systems integrator that has extensive experience and
knowledge in your particular industry.
 Selecting a system that can connect to third-party programs allows for the exchange of
collected data with ERP or MES systems, as well as other applications that can utilize the
data to improve your operations.
 Useful features such as large graphics libraries, customizable reports, multi-user
collaboration, alarm management, and even machine learning can help you further
maximize your data and return on investment.
 Future Expandability
 Important to look to the future and select a system that will allow for growth with easy
expansion and upgrades.
 Ensuring the architecture of your system is robust enough to handle adding additional
facilities or production lines is an often-overlooked factor that can lead to a bogged-down
system with slow response times and constant outages.
 Overall, the system you select should have the ability to grow with your company and be
adaptable to new technologies in order to keep your operations running at peak efficiency.

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Need For PLC:
 Hardwired panels were very time consuming to wire, debug and change.
 General Motors identified the following requirements for the computer controllers to
replace hardwired panels.
1. Solid-state system
2. Easy to modify I/O devices
3. Be able to function in an industrial environment.
History and Evolution of PLC:
 The first programmable controller was implemented in 1968.
 By 1969, PLC had its first product offspring.
 Developed to offer same functionality as the existing relay logic system using electrically
operated devices to mechanically switch electrical circuits.
 By 1971, PLCs were being used to provide relay replacement as the first steps toward
control automation in other industries, such as food and beverage, metals, manufacturing,
and pulp and paper.

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