Powerplant Theory and Design

RECIPROCATING ENGINE

RECIPROCATING
ENGINE
Outlines of Discussion :
I Engine Introduction, Definition, and
Principles

II Engine Characteristics Engine

Classifications, Construction, and Engine
Nomenclature

III Engine Construction, and Operation

IV: Engine Analysis, Thermodynamic

Applications
⦿ Part I
Engine Introduction ,Definition, and
Principles
The piston engine is an internal combustion engine
working on the principle deviced by Dr. Otto in 1876.
The piston engine converts chemical energy in the
form of petroleum fuel into mechanical energy via
heat and can be termed a heat engine. The working
medium is air, which is capable of changes in volume
and pressure when subjected to an increase in
temperature caused by the burning fuel.
⦿ The working cycle consist of four strokes of the
piston: Induction, Compression, Power, and, Exhaust.
This is known as the four-stroke or Otto cycle. The
cycle is of an intermittent nature; each stroke is a
distinct and separate from the others. During each
cycle, the piston moves in a reciprocating motion
within a tube termed a cylinder barrel. The
crankshaft converts this linear motion into a rotary
motion. In one four stroke cycle, the crankshaft
makes two complete revolutions – 720 degrees.
What is a Reciprocating
Engine?
A reciprocating engine is a type of
heat engine that derives its name
from the back-and-forth, or
reciprocating movement of its
pistons. It is this reciprocating
motion that produces the mechanical
energy needed to accomplish work.
Part II

Engine Characteristics, Classifications,

and Nomenclature
Engine Requirements:
Lightweight – powerplant weight must be
kept as low as possible to provide greater
weight for useful load and provide a
margin of safety.
Reliability – a powerplant is reliable when
it can be depended upon to do what it is
intended for it to do by the manufacturer.
Durability – this is the measure the
engine life, while maintaining the desired
reliability.
 Compactness – it is necessary to affect
proper streamlining and balance of the
airplane, and in single engine airplane,
the shape and size of the engine affects
the visibility of the pilot.
Flexibility – the ability to operate
efficiently regardless of the conditions.
Weight per horsepower – the ratio of the
weight of the engine to the horsepower it
can produce. This is the factor that
engine manufacturers consider the most.
The engine must produce a large amount
of power but must also be light in
construction.
 Specific power output – the amount of power
produced in a given amount of fuel.
Fuel economy – it is a factor of the fuel
characteristics, fuel must be more resistant to
detonation, to allow an increase in engine compression
ratio.
Balance – if the powerplant is free from vibration, it is
said to be balance.
Reasonable cost – the first cost must be low enough
to meet the competition in the market and be accepted
by the airframe manufacturer.
Economy of operation – it must have a reasonable
cost of operation, it must be such that it will make
profit for the operator.
Types of Reciprocating Engine:
- Reciprocating engine is usually classified according to
its cylinder arrangement namely:

Radial engine
- Single row
- Double row
- Multiple row or corncob
In-Line engine
- In line upright
- In line inverted
V-Type engine
- V type upright
- V type inverted
- Double V or Fan type
Opposed or Flat type engine
X type engine
Radial Engines
A radial engine consists of a row, or rows of cylinders
arranged radially about a central crankcase.
single-row radial engine has an odd number of
cylinders attached radially to a crankcase. A typical
configuration consists of five to nine cylinders evenly
spaced on the same circular plane with all pistons
connected to a single crankshaft.
multiple-row radial engines consisted of two single
row engines in line with each other connected to a
single crankshaft. This type of engine is sometimes
referred to as a double-row radial engine and typically
has a total of 14 or 18 cylinders.
Greatest drag of all types
Most widely used engines ever built
Figure 1-2. Radial engines helped
revolutionize aviation with their high power
and dependability.
In-Line Engines
An in-line engine generally has an even number
of cylinders that are aligned in a single row
parallel with the crankshaft. This engine can
be either liquid-cooled or air cooled and the
pistons can be located either upright above
the crankshaft or inverted below the
crankshaft.
Figure 1-4. A popular version of the in-line engine
consisted of cylinders that were inverted. A typical
in-line engine con-sists of four to six cylinders and
develops anywhere from 90 to 200 horsepower.
In-line Engines Advantages
An in-line engine has a comparatively small
frontal area and, therefore, allows for better
streamlining. Least drag.
Another advantage of the in-line engine is
that, when mounted with the cylinders
inverted, the crankshaft is higher off the
ground. The higher crankshaft allowed
greater propeller ground clearance which, in
turn, permitted the use of shorter landing
gear.
In-Line Engines
Disadvantages:
have relatively low power-to-weight ratios.
the rearmost cylinders of an air-cooled
in-line engine receive relatively little cooling
air, so in-line engines were typically limited to
only four or six cylinders.
With these limitations, most in-line engine
designs were confined to low- and
medium-horsepower engines used in light
aircraft.
V-type Engines
the cylinders of a V-type engine are arranged
around a single crankshaft in two in-line banks
that are 45, 60, or 90 degrees apart.
Since V-type engines had two rows of cylinders,
they were typically capable of producing more
horsepower than an in-line engine.
The cylinders on a V-type engine could be above
the crankshaft or below it, in which case the
engine is referred to as an inverted V-type
engine.
Most V-type engines had 8 or 12 cylinders and
were either liquid-cooled or air cooled.
Figure 1-5. V-type engines provide an
excellent combina-tion of weight, power,
and small frontal area.
Opposed Engines
opposed-type engines are the most popular
reciprocating engines used on light aircraft.
A typical opposed engine can produce as little
as 36 horsepower to as much as 400
horsepower.
always have an even number of cylinders, and
a cylinder on one side of a crankcase "opposes"
a cylinder on the other side.
While some opposed engines are liquid-cooled,
the majority are air cooled.
Figure 1-6. A horizontally opposed engine
combines a good power-to-weight ratio
with a relatively small frontal area. These
engines power most light aircraft in use
today.
Opposed Engines
Continued...
Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight
ratios because they have a comparatively small,
lightweight crankcase.
an opposed engine's compact cylinder arrangement
reduces the engine's frontal area and allows a
streamlined installation that minimizes aerodynamic
drag.
opposed engines typically vibrate less than other
engines because an opposed engine's power
impulses tend to cancel each other.
Most efficient, dependable, and economical type
available for light aircraft.
Engine Components
Crankcase
a tight enclosure for the lubricating oil as well
as a means of attaching a complete engine
The crankcase is the foundation of a
reciprocating engine. It contains the engine's
internal parts and provides a mounting
surface for the engine cylinders and external
accessories.
The crankcase provides an airframe.
most aircraft crankcases are made of cast
aluminum alloys.
Figure 1-8. In addition to the transverse webs that support the main
bearings, a set of camshaft bosses are typically cast into a crankcase.
These bosses support the camshaft which is part of the valve
operating mechanism.
Radial Engine Crankcase
radial engine crankcases are divided into
distinct sections.
The number of sections can be as few as
three or as many as seven depending on
the size and type of engine.
In general, a typical radial engine
crankcase separates into four main
sections: the nose section, the power
section, the supercharger section, and
the accessory section.
Figure 1-9. The four basic sections of a radial engine crankcase are
the nose section, power section, supercharger section, and accessory
section.
The Four Basic Power
Delivering Parts:
Cylinder
Piston
Connecting Rod
Crankshaft
Cylinders
The cylinder provides a combustion chamber
where the burning and expansion of gases
takes place to produce power.
Considered as the powerhouse of the engine,
where the chemical energy of the fuel is
converted to mechanical energy.
A cylinder houses the piston and connecting
rod assembly as well as the valves and spark
plugs.
a cylinder must be strong enough to withstand
the internal pressures developed during engine
operation yet be lightweight to minimize engine
weight.
Cylinders Continued...
Transmits power through pistons,
connecting rods and rotate the
crankshaft.
Dissipates substantial amount of heat
produced by the combustion of fuel.
The two parts are cylinder head and the
cylinder barrel.
Figure 1-30. The cylinder assembly along with the piston assembly,
connecting rods, crankshaft, and crankcase constitute the power section
of a reciprocating engine.
Cylinder Barrel
The most commonly used material is a
high-strength steel alloy such as
chromium-molybdenum steel (SAE 4130 or
4140), or nickel chromium molybdenum
steel.
The lower cylinders on radial engines and
all the cylinders on inverted engines
typically employ cylinders with extended
cylinder skirts.
The exterior of a cylinder barrel consists of
several thin cooling fins that are machined
into the exterior cylinder wall
Cylinder Heads
The cylinder head acts as a lid on the cylinder barrel to
provide an enclosed chamber for combustion.

cylinder heads contain intake and exhaust valve ports,

spark plugs, valve actuating mechanisms, and also serve
to conduct heat away from the cylinder barrels.

The inner shape of a cylinder head may be flat,

semi-spherical, or peaked, to resemble the shape of a
house roof.

the semi-spherical type has proved to be the most

satisfactory because it is stronger and provides for more
rapid and thorough scavenging of exhaust gases.
Pistons
The piston in a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical
plunger that moves up and down, back and forth
within a cylinder.

Pistons perform two primary functions; first, they

draw fuel and air into a cylinder, compress the
gases, and purge burned exhaust gases from the
cylinder; second, they transmit the force produced
by combustion to the crankshaft.

Usually made of aluminum alloy AMS 4140 for

forged pistons Alcoa 132 alloy for cast pistons.
 Piston speed is maximum during the
first and fourth quarters of crankshaft
rotation.

Piston temperature may exceed 4000°F

and pressures may be as high as 500
psi or up.
Parts of a Piston
Piston Head - The piston's top surface is
called the piston head and is directly exposed
to the heat of combustion.
Ring Grooves - cut into a piston's outside
surface to hold a set of piston rings. As many
as six ring grooves may be machined around a
piston.
Ring Land - The portion of the piston between
the ring grooves.
Piston pin boss - is an enlarged area inside
the piston that provides additional bearing area
for a piston pin which passes through the piston
pin boss to attach the piston to a connecting
rod.
 Piston skirt - To help align a piston in a
cylinder, the piston base is extended to form
the piston skirt.
Piston Head Designs

Figure 1-24. Most modern aircraft engines use flat-head pistons.

However, as an aviation technician, you should be familiar with
all piston head designs.
Cam-Ground Piston
All pistons expand as they heat up. However, due to the
added mass at the piston boss, most pistons expand
more along the piston boss than perpendicular to the
piston boss.

This uneven expansion can cause a piston to take on an

oblong, or oval shape, at normal engine operating
temperatures, resulting in uneven piston and cylinder
wear.

One way to compensate for this is with a cam ground

piston. A cam ground piston is machined with a slightly
oval shape. That is, the diameter of the piston parallel to
the piston boss is slightly less than the diameter
per-pendicular to the piston boss.
Figure 1-25. Several engines now use cam ground pistons to
compensate for the greater expansion parallel to the piston boss
during engine operation. The diameter of a cam ground piston
measures several thousandths of an inch larger perpendicular to
the piston boss than parallel to the piston boss.
Piston Rings
Piston rings perform three functions in
aircraft reciprocating engines:
They prevent leakage of gas pressure
from the combustion chamber,
reduce oil seepage into the combustion
chamber,
transfer heat from the piston to the
cylinder walls.
Piston Ring Joints:
Butt
Step
Angle

Figure 1-26. Of the three types of joints used in

piston ring gaps, the butt joint is the most
common in aircraft engines.
Types of Piston Rings:
Compression rings
Oil rings
Compression Rings
Compression rings prevent gas from
escaping past the piston during engine
operation and are placed in the ring
grooves immediately below the piston head.

most aircraft engines typically use two or

three compression rings on each piston.

The cross section of a compression ring

can be rectangular, wedge shaped, or
tapered.
Figure 1-27. Compression rings
Figure 1-28. Of the three different
are installed in the upper ring
ring cross sections, the tapered
grooves and help prevent the
face presents the narrowest
combustion gases from escaping
bearing edge to the cylinder wall to
by a piston. Oil rings, on the other
help reduce friction and hasten ring
hand, are installed near the middle
seating.
and bottom of a piston and con-trol
the amount of oil applied to the
cylinder wall.
Oil Rings
Oil rings control the amount of oil that is
applied to the cylinder walls as well as
prevent oil from entering the combustion
chamber.
The two types of oil rings that are
found on most engines are oil control
rings and oil scraper rings.
Oil Control Rings
Oil control rings are placed in the grooves
immediately below the compression rings.

The primary purpose of oil control rings is

to regulate the thickness of the oil film on
the cylinder wall.

To allow an oil control ring to remove

excess oil and return it to the crankcase,
small holes are drilled in the piston ring
grooves, or ring lands.
Oil Scraper Rings
used to regulate the amount of oil that
passes between the piston skirt and the
cylinder wall.
sometimes called an oil wiper ring,
usually has a beveled face and is
installed in a ring groove at the bottom
of the piston skirt.
Figure 1-29. An oil scraper ring installed with its beveled edge away from
the cylinder head forces oil upward along the cylinder wall when the piston
moves upward. However, if the beveled edge is facing the cylinder head,
the ring scrapes oil downward to the crankcase when the piston moves
down.
Piston Pin
A piston pin joins the piston to the
connecting rod.
Piston pins are sometimes called wrist
pins
Piston Pin Classifications:
Stationary - are held tightly in place by
a setscrew that prevents movement.
Semi-floating - retained stationary in
the connecting rod by a set clamp that
engages a slot in the pin. Allows little
movement.
Full-floating - free to rotate in both the
connecting rod and the piston, and are
used in most modern aircraft engines.
Connecting Rods
The connecting rod is the link which
transmits the force exerted on a piston to a
crankshaft.
Most connecting rods are made of a
durable steel alloy; however, aluminum can
be used with low horsepower engines.
One end of a connecting rod connects to
the crankshaft and is called the crankpin
end
the other end connects to the piston and is
called the piston end.
Types of Connecting
Rods:
Plain Type
Master and Articulated
Fork and Blade
Plain type
Plain connecting rods are used in
opposed and in-line engines.
Master and Articulated
The master-and-articulated rod assembly is
commonly used in radial engines.

With this type of assembly, one piston in each row

of cylinders is connected to the crankshaft by a
master rod.

The remaining pistons are connected to the master

rod by articulated rods.

Therefore, in a nine cylinder engine there is one

master rod and eight articulating rods, while a
double row 18 cylinder engine has two master rods
and 16 articulating rods.
Figure 1-20. Articulated rods are attached to the master rod
by knuckle pins, that are pressed into holes in the master
rod flanges during assembly. A knuckle pin lock plate is then
installed to retain the pins.
Fork and Blade
The fork-and-blade rod assembly is
used primarily in V-type engines and
consists of a fork connecting rod and a
blade connecting rod.
Figure 1-22. A fork-and-blade rod assembly used in a V-type engine
consists of a blade connecting rod whose crankpin end fits between
the prongs of the fork connecting rod.
Valves
Engine valves regulate the flow of gases into and
out of a cylinder by opening and closing at
predetermined times in the combustion process.

Each cylinder has at least one intake valve and

one exhaust valve.

The intake valve controls the amount of fuel/air

mixture that enters a cylinder through the intake
port,

while the exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to

exit the cylinder through the exhaust port.
intake valves operate at lower temperatures
than exhaust valves
Figure 1-37. Aircraft engine valves are classified according to
their head profile.
To help dissipate heat better, some exhaust
valve stems are hollowed out and then
partially filled with metallic sodium. When
installed in an operating engine, the sodium
melts when the valve stem reaches
approximately 208 degrees Fahrenheit. The
melted sodium circulates naturally due to the
up and down motion of the valve and helps
carry heat from the valve head into the stem
where it is dissipated through the cylinder
head.
Figure 1-39. Some valves are filled with metallic sodium to reduce
their operating temperatures. During operation, the sodium melts
and transfers heat to the valve stem where the heat is conducted
away by the cylinder head.
Valve Seating Components

Valve spring retainers

 Valve Face - portion of the valve that creates a seal at
the intake and exhaust ports.
Valve Seat - a circular ring of hardened metal that
provides a uniform sealing surface for the valve face.
Valve Guide - is a cylindrical sleeve that provides support
to the valve stem and keeps the valve face aligned with
the valve seat.
Valve Springs - are helical-coiled springs that are
installed in the cylinder head and provide the force that
holds the valve face firmly against the valve seat.
Valve Spring Retainer – holds the valve springs in place
Valve Operating
Mechanisms:
open each valve at the correct time, hold
it open for a certain period, and then
close the valve.
Consists of Camshaft, valve lifter or
tappet, push rod, and rocker arm
Figure 1-41. The components in a typical valve operating
mechanism, include a camshaft or cam ring, a tappet or lifter, a
push rod, and a rocker arm.
Camshaft – a device for actuating the valve lifting mechanism.
Typically used in opposed engines, camshaft consists of a round
shaft with a series of cams, or lobes, that transform the circular
motion of the crankshaft to the linear motion needed to actuate a
valve.

Cam ring - in place of a camshaft, a radial engine uses one or

two cam rings, depending on the number of cylinder rows. A
circular piece of steel with a series of raised cam lobes on its
outer edge.

Valve lifter or tappet – a mechanism to transmit the force of

the cam to the push rod

Push Rod – a steel or aluminum alloy rod or tube situated

between the valve lifter and the rocker arm to transmit the
motion of the valve lifter.

Rocker Arm – a pivoted arm mounted on the bearings of the

cylinder head to open and close the valves.
Figure 1-42. The raised lobe on a camshaft transforms the rotary motion
of the camshaft to linear motion.
Figure 1-43. In a typical opposed engine, the camshaft
timing gear has twice as many teeth as the gear on the
crank-shaft. In this configuration, the camshaft is driven at
one-half the crankshaft's rotational speed.
Figure 1-49. A radial
engine valve operating
mechanism performs the
same functions as the
mechanism used in an
opposed engine.
Crankshafts
The crankshaft is the backbone of a reciprocating
engine.

Its main purpose is to transform the reciprocating

motion of the pistons and connecting rods into rotary
motion to turn a propeller.

A typical crankshaft has one or more cranks, or

throws, located at specified points along its length.

Since crankshafts must withstand high stress, they

are generally forged from a strong alloy such as
chromium-nickel molybdenum steel.
Parts of a Crankshaft
Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal
Crankpin
Crank cheek or crank arm
Counterweights and dampers
Figure 1-10. All crankshafts consist of a main bearing
journal, one or more crankpins, and several crank cheeks.
Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal - represent the
centreline of a crankshaft and support the crankshaft
as it rotates in the main bearings. Center of rotation
of the crankshaft.
Crankpin - or connecting-rod bearing journals or
throws, serve as attachment points for the
connecting rods. To reduce total crankshaft weight,
crankpins are usually hollow. This hollow
construction also provides a passage for lubricating
oil. In addition, a hollow crankpin serves as a
collection chamber for sludge, dirt, carbon deposits,
and other foreign material. This is called sludge
chamber
Crankcheek or crankarm - required to
connect the crankpin to the crankshaft.
Counterweights and dampers - helps
balance the crankshaft. Its function is to
relieve the whip and vibration caused by
rotation of the crankshaft.
Crankshaft Balance
Statically Balance
Dynamically Balance
Statically Balanced
when the weight of an entire crankshaft
assembly is balanced around its axis of
rotation.
Once a crankshaft is statically balanced
it must be dynamically balanced.
Dynamic Balance
refers to balancing the centrifugal forces created by
a rotating crankshaft and the impact forces created
by an engine's power impulses.

The most common means of dynamically balancing

a crankshaft is through the use of dynamic
dampers.

A dynamic damper is a weight which is fastened to

a crankshaft's crank cheek assembly in such a way
that it is free to move back and forth in a small arc.
Each time a cylinder fires, a
pulse is transmitted into the
crankshaft that causes it to
flex. When the engine is
running, the crankshaft
receives hundreds of these
pulses each minute and flexes,
or vibrates, constantly. To help
minimize these vibrations, the
dynamic damper oscillates, or
swings, each time the
crankshaft receives a pulse
from a firing cylinder. These
oscillations are opposite the
crankshaft vibra-tions and,
therefore, absorb some of the
force pro-duced by the power
impulse.
Figure 1-13. Think of the crankshaft
as a pendulum that swings at its
natural frequency once a force is
applied. The greater the force, the
greater the distance the pendulum
swings. However, if a second
pendulum is suspended from the
first and a force is applied, the
second pendulum begins to
oscillate opposite the applied force.
This opposite oscillation dampens
the oscillation of the first pendulum
leaving it nearly stationary. You can
think of a dynamic damper as a
short pendulum hung from a
crankshaft that is tuned to the
frequency of the power impulses.
Crankshaft Types
⦿ The type of crankshaft used on a
particular engine depends on the
number and arrangement of an engine's
cylinders.
Single Throw
Two Throw
Four Throw
Six Throw
Single Throw or 360
degree
used on single-row radial engines.

As its name implies, a single-throw

crankshaft consists of a single crankpin with
two main journals that support the
crankshaft in the crankcase.

A single-throw crankshaft may be

constructed out of either one or two pieces.
Figure 1-14. With a one-piece,
single-throw crankshaft, the
entire crankshaft is cast as
one solid piece. However, with
a clamp type two-piece
crankshaft, the two pieces are
held together by a bolt that
passes through the crankpin.
Two Throw
Used on Twin-row radial engines, one throw
for each bank of cylinders.

The throws on a two-throw crankshaft are

typically set 180 degrees from each other
and may consist of either one or three
pieces.
Four Throw
used on four cylinder opposed engines and
four cylinder in-line engines.

Figure 1-15. A typical four-throw crankshaft

used in a horizontally opposed engine is
machined as one piece with throws that are
180 degrees apart.
Four Throw Crankshaft
Six Throw
Used on six cylinder opposed and in-line
engines and 12 cylinder V-type engines.

Figure 1-16. With a typical six-throw crankshaft, the

throws are 60 degrees apart. On the six throw crankshaft
pictured above, the crank journals are numbered from
the flanged end. If you were to number each throw in 60•
increments from the flanged end, the order would be
1,4,5, 2,3,6.
Six throw crankshaft
Bearings
A bearing is any surface which supports and
reduces friction between two moving parts.

A part in which a journal, pivot, shaft turns or

revolves.

Typical areas where bearings are used in an aircraft

engine include the main journals, crankpins,
connecting rod ends, and accessory drive shafts.

There are two ways in which bearing surfaces move

in relation to each other. One is by the sliding
movement of one metal against another, and the
second is for one surface to roll over another.
Types of Bearings
Plain Bearing
Ball Bearing
Roller Bearing
Figure 1-17. Of the three most common types of bearings used in
reciprocating engines, the plain bearing relies on the sliding movement of
one metal against another, while both roller and ball bearings have one
surface roll over another.
Plain Bearings
Plain bearings are generally used for
crankshaft main bearings, cam ring and
camshaft bearings, connecting rod end
bearings, and accessory drive shaft
bearings.

These bearings are typically subject to

radial loads only
Ball Bearings
A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved
inner and outer races, one or more sets of
polished steel balls, and a bearing retainer.
The balls of a ball bearing are held in place
and kept evenly spaced by the bearing
retainer, while the inner and outer bearing
races provide a smooth surface for the balls to
roll over.
ball bearings have the least amount of rolling
friction.
ball bearings are well suited to withstand thrust
loads
Roller Bearings
Roller bearings are similar in construction
to ball bearings except that polished steel
rollers are used instead of balls
The rollers provide a greater contact area
and a corresponding increase in rolling
friction over that of a ball bearing.
Has two types namely: straight roller
bearings which suitable when the bearing
is subjected to radial loads only such as
crankshafts main bearings, and tapered
roller bearings that allow the bearing to
withstand both radial and thrust loads.
Straight Roller Bearings
Tapered Roller Bearings
⦿ Part III

Engine Construction, and

Operation
 Cycle – series of events returning to its
original state.
Engine Cycle – series of events that an
internal combustion engine undergoes while
it is operating and delivering power. There
are two revolutions of the crankshaft for each
cycle of the engine.
Thermodynamic Cycles of
Heat engine:
Carnot cycle
Otto Cycle
Diesel Cycle
Brayton Cycle
Engine Geometry:
Top Dead Center (TDC) – the position
of the piston inside the cylinder when it
reaches the top most of its travel.
Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – the
position of the piston inside the cylinder
when it reaches the bottom most of its
travel.
Stroke (S) – the distance that the
piston travels from the top dead center
to the bottom dead center
Engine Geometry
continued...
Bore – the inside diameter of the cylinder
Piston displacement or volume
displacement (VD) – the volume being
travelled by the piston as it moves from the
TDC to the BDC. The product of the area of
the piston, length of the stroke, and the
number of cylinders.
Clearance volume (Vc) – the volume
within the cylinder when the piston is at the
TDC.
Total volume (VT) – the over all or total
volume within the cylinder.
Figure 1-57. One stroke is equivalent to the distance a
piston head travels between bottom dead center and top
dead center. In all reciprocating engines, one complete
stroke occurs with each 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation.
The Four Stroke Five Event
engine Cycle:
Strokes: Events:
Intake Intake
Compression Compression
Power Ignition
Exhaust Power or Expansion
Exhaust or Scavenging
The Four Stroke Engine
Intake. During the intake stroke, the piston
moves downward, drawing a fresh charge
of vaporized fuel/air mixture. The
illustrated engine features a 'poppet' intake
valve which is drawn open by the vacuum
produced by the intake stroke. Some early
engines worked this way, however most
modern engines incorporate an extra
cam/lifter arrangement as seen on the
exhaust valve. The exhaust valve is held
shut by a spring (not illustrated here).
Compression. As the piston rises the
poppet valve is forced shut by the
increased cylinder pressure. Flywheel
momentum drives the piston upward,
compressing the fuel/air mixture.
Power. At the top of the compression
stroke the spark plug fires, igniting the
compressed fuel. As the fuel burns it
expands, driving the piston downward.
Exhaust. At the bottom of the power
stroke, the exhaust valve is opened by the
cam/lifter mechanism. The upward stroke
of the piston drives the exhausted fuel out
of the cylinder.
Engine Cooling:
Air Cooling – thin metal fins project from the
outer surface of the walls and heads of the
engine cylinders (cooling fins). Deflector baffles
are also used which are fastened around the
cylinders to direct the flow of air to obtain
maximum cooling.
Liquid Cooling – consists of liquid passages
around the cylinders and other hot spots of the
engine. The cooling liquid used is ethylene glycol
or mixture of ethylene glycol and water.
Engine Cooling
Effects of Excessive Heat:
Adversely affects the combustion of fuel
and air charge.
Weakens and shortens life of engine
parts
Impairs lubrication
Components of liquid
cooling system:
Radiator – is the component by which
the liquid is cooled
Thermostatic element – govern the
amount of cooling applied to the liquid
Coolant pump – circulates the cooling
fluid
Pipes and Hoses
Engine Controls
Throttle – controls the engine power

Propeller Control – for constant speed and

controllable pitch propeller

Mixture Control – used to adjust fuel air mixture

with settings, full rich, lean, idle cut off

Carburator air heater – operate the gate valve in

the air induction system to provide either cold air or
hot air for carburator. Heated air is required when in
danger of icing.

Miscellaneous Engine Controls – includes cowl

flaps, oil coolers, superchargers etc.
 Throttle Propeller Control

Mixture Control
The Two Stroke Cycle
Two Stroke Cycle
The two-stroke cycle is similar to the
four-stroke cycle in that the same five
events occur in each operating cycle.
However, the five events occur in two
piston strokes rather than four strokes.
This means that one cycle is completed
in one crankshaft revolution.
Two Stroke, Three events
cycle:
Stroke:
Compression
Power, Intake, exhaust stroke

Events:
Compression
Ignition and Power
Exhaust and Intake
Figure 1-62. In a two-stroke engine, the piston controls the flow of gases into
and out of the cylinder through the intake and exhaust ports. This eliminates
the need for either an intake or exhaust valve and their associated operating
mechanisms. This sim-plifies a two-stroke engine's construction and
minimizes weight.
Two Stroke Cycle
Operation:
As a two-stroke cycle begins, the piston moves
up and two events occur simultaneously.

The piston compresses the fuel/air charge in

the cylinder and creates an area of low
pressure within the crankcase. This low
pressure pulls fuel and air into the crankcase
through a check valve.

Once the piston is a few degrees before top

dead center, ignition occurs and the fuel/air
mixture begins to burn.
As the piston passes top dead center the pressure from
the expanding gases begin to force the piston downward
on the power stroke.

This downward stroke also compresses the fuel/air

charge in the crankcase. As the piston approaches the
bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust port is uncovered
and spent gases are purged from the cylinder.

A split second later, the piston uncovers the intake port

and allows the pressurized fuel/air charge in the
crankcase to enter the cylinder.

The cycle then repeats itself as the piston compresses

the fuel/air charge in the cylinder and draws a fresh
fuel/air charge into the crankcase.
The Diesel Engine
The Diesel Engine
A diesel engine is an internal combustion
engine which operates using the diesel cycle
named after Dr. Rudolph Diesel

Diesel engines have the highest rate of energy

to fuel (kwh/lbs) compared to any internal or
external combustion engine

The defining feature of the diesel engine is the

use of compression ignition to burn the fuel,
which is injected into the combustion chamber
during the final stage of compression
The four stroke of diesel engine
1. Suction stroke: Pure air gets sucked in
by the piston sliding downward.
2. Compression stroke: The piston
compresses the air above and uses
thereby work, performed by the
crankshaft.
3. Power stroke: In the upper Fuel nozzle
dead-center, the air is max.
compressed: Pressure and
Temperature are very high. Now the
black injection pump injects heavy fuel
in the hot air. By the high temperature
the fuel gets ignited immediately (auto
ignition). The piston gets pressed
downward and performs work to the
crankshaft.
4. Expulsion stroke: The burned exhaust
gases are ejected out of the cylinder
through a second valve by the piston
sliding upward again.
Diesel vs. Gasoline
Diesel vs. Gasoline
Gasoline does not Diesel on the other hand,
does not require a spark
self-ignite when plug to ignite it because it
generates enough heat
compressed, when it is completely
because it does not compressed to ignite itself
and cause explosion
generate enough Diesel engines have a
heat much higher compression
pressure than gasoline
It needs activation engines
energy to explode, The reason for this higher
pressure is that in a diesel
and this energy is engine, only air is
generated by a spark compressed
The fuel is then directly
plug at the top of the injected into the cylinder,
cylinder
⦿Part IV:
Engine Analysis, Thermodynamic
Applications
Engine Thermodynamic
Cycles:
Otto Cycle – the cycle of spark ignition
engines
Diesel Cycle – model for the Diesel or
compression ignition engines.
Otto Cycle
1-2: Isentropic Compression
2-3: Constant Volume addition of heat
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1: Constant Volume rejection of heat
Compression Ignition Diesel
Engine

1-2: Isentropic Compression

2-3: Constant Pressure Addition of Heat
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1: Constant – Volume rejection of heat
Piston Displacement
Piston displacement is defined as the volume of air
displaced by a piston as it moves from bottom
center to top center.

To determine a piston's displacement, you must

multiply the area of a piston head by the length of
the piston stroke. Expressed in cubic inches of
volume.

The total piston displacement of an engine is the

total volume displaced by all the pistons during one
revolution of the crankshaft. It equals the number of
cylinders in the engine multiplied by the piston
displacement of one piston
 the greater the total piston
displacement, the greater the maximum
horsepower that an engine can develop

piston displacement is also called

volume displacement
Piston Displacement:
Area of the Piston = pi d2
4
where: pi = 3.1416...
d = diameter of the piston head/bore

Piston Displacement = Area of piston x L

where: L = lenght of stroke
Total Piston Displacement:
Area of the piston x L x n

where: n = number of cylinders

Example
What is the total piston displacement of
a four cylinder aircraft engine which has
a bore of 4 inches and a length of stroke
of 6 inches?
If the cylinder Bore is too
large...
fuel will be wasted and the intensity of
the heat and the restricted flow of the
heat may be so great that the cylinder
may not be cooled properly
If the Stroke is too large...
Excessive dynamic stresses and too
much angularity of the connecting rods
will be the consequences.
Square Engine
The Bore and Stroke are equal
provides the best and efficient engine
performance
Crank Radius
R = stroke/2

Length of Connecting Rod

L = 4R

4 stroke cycle engine:

1 cycle/min (cpm) = 2 rpm
Engine Power:
Indicated horsepower (IHP)
Brake horsepower (BHP)
Friction horsepower (FHP)
Indicated Horsepower:
Indicated horsepower (IHP) is the total
power actually developed in an engine's
cylinders without reference to friction losses
within the engine.

To calculate indicated horsepower, the

average effective pressure within the
cylinders must be known.

This average pressure is referred to as

indicated mean effective pressure
Where:
P = the Indicated Mean Effective Pressure, or IMEP inside the cylinder during a power
stroke.
L = the length of the stroke in feet or fractions of a foot.
A = the area of the piston head in square inches.
N = the number of power strokes per minute for one cylinder. On a four-stroke engine,
this is found by dividing the rpm by two.
K = the number of cylinders on the engine.
Example
Compute the indicated horsepower for a
six-cylinder engine that has a bore of
five inches, a stroke of five inches, and
is turning at 2,750 rpm with a measured
IMEP of 125 psi per cylinder.
Friction Horsepower
The power required to overcome the
friction and energy losses is known as
friction horsepower and is measured by
driving an engine with a calibrated motor
and measuring power needed to turn the
engine at a given speed.
Brake Horsepower
The actual amount of power delivered
to the propeller shaft is called brake
horsepower.

One way to determine brake

horsepower is to subtract an engine's
friction horsepower from its indicated
horsepower.

85 – 90% of the IHP

IHP = BHP + FHP
Mean Effective Pressure
an average pressure inside the
cylinders of an internal combustion
engine based on some calculated or
measured horsepower.

It increases as manifold pressure

increases.

indicated mean effective pressure

(imep),brake mean effective pressure
(bmep)
Indicated Mean Effective
Pressure
derived from indicated horsepower
IMEP = BMEP To
mech eff.

where: BMEP To = BMEP at take off

mech eff = mechanical efficiency
Brake Mean Effective
Pressure
BMEP = bhp x 33000
LAN
Where: L = stroke, ft
A = area of bore, sq. in.
N = number of working strokes per
minute
- in a four stroke cycle engine, N = ½ rpm
of the engine multiplied by the number
of cylinders.
Brake Mean Effective
Pressure
BMEP = 792000 x bhp
disp. rpm

where: disp. = engine displacement

BMEP = K x bhp
rpm
where: K = 792000/disp. or the K factor
of the engine
Brake Mean Effective Pressure
at Take Off
BMEP To = BHP To RPM Cr BMEP
Cr
BHP Cr RPM To

where: BHP To = bhp at take off

BHP Cr = bhp at cruising
RPM To = rpm at take off
RPM Cr = rpm at cruising
BMEP Cr = bmep at cruising
Problem
If an R 1830 engine is turning at 2750 rpm
and developing 1100 hp, what is the
bmep?
Efficiency:
The ratio of the input energy to the
output energy, or the energy supplied to
produce work and the actual energy
being converted into work.
Engine Efficiency:
Thermal Efficiency
Volumetric Efficiency
Mechanical Efficiency
Thermal Efficiency:
An engine's thermal efficiency (TE) is a ratio of the
amount of heat energy converted to useful work to the
amount of heat energy contained in the fuel used to
support combustion.

In other words, thermal efficiency is a measure of the

inefficiencies experienced when converting the heat
energy in fuel to work.

For example, consider two engines that produce the same

amount of horsepower, but consume different amounts of
fuel. The engine using less fuel converts a greater portion
of the available energy into useful work and, therefore,
has a higher thermal efficiency.
Thermal Efficiency Chart
Thermal efficiency can be calculated
using either brake or indicated
horsepower. If brake horsepower is
used, the result is brake thermal
efficiency (BTE), and if indicated
horsepower is used, you get
indicated thermal efficiency (ITE).
Indicated Thermal Efficiency
ihp x 33000
wt. of fuel burned/min x heat value (BTU) x
778

Note: Heat value in (BTU) = 1 pound of

avgas contains 20,000 BTUs of heat
energy
Brake Thermal Efficiency
bhp x 33000
wt. of fuel burned/min x heat value (BTU) x
778
Example
Determine the brake thermal efficiency
of a piston engine that produces 150
brake horsepower while burning 8
gallons of aviation gasoline per hour.
Volumetric Efficiency:
Volumetric efficiency (VE) is the ratio of
the volume of fuel and air an engine
takes into its cylinders to the total piston
displacement.

For example, if an engine draws in a

volume of fuel and air that is exactly
equal to the engine's total piston
displacement, volumetric efficiency
would be 100 percent.
The volumetric efficiency of most normally
aspirated engines is less than 100 percent.

The reason for this is because bends, surface

roughness, and obstructions inside the
induction system slow the flow of air which, in
turn, reduces the air pressure within the
manifold.

On the other hand, turbocharged engines

compress the air before it enters the cylinders,
and often have volumetric efficiencies greater
than 100 percent.
Volumetric Efficiency:
Vol eff = volume of charge at
atmospheric pressure
piston displacement
Anything that decreases the density, or
volume of air entering a cylinder
decreases volumetric efficiency.
Some of the typical factors that
affect volumetric efficiency of a
non-turbocharged engine include:
Part Throttle Operation
Long, small diameter, intake pipes
Induction systems with sharp bends
High carburetor air temperatures
High cylinder head temperatures
Incomplete Scavenging
Improper Valve timing
Increases in altitude
⦿ When the engine is running,
hot exhaust gases coming
through the exhaust valves
and into the exhaust manifold
are routed into the
turbocharger where they rotate
a turbine. This rotor is
connected to a compressor
wheel through a shaft. This
second wheel then drives
compressed air into its own
housing. With the engine in
high rpm, a centrifugal force
drives this air out of the
housing and into the engine
cylinder.
Mechanical Efficiency:
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake
horsepower to indicated horsepower and
represents the percentage of power
developed in the cylinders that reaches the
propeller shaft.

For example, if an engine develops 160

brake horsepower and 180 indicated
horsepower, the ratio of brake horsepower
to indicated horsepower is 160:180, which
represents a mechanical efficiency of 89
percent.
Mechanical Efficiency

output = BHP
input IHP
Factors Affecting Power
Manifold Pressure
Detonation and Pre-ignition
Compression Ratio
Ignition Timing
Engine Speed
Specific Fuel Consumption
Altitude
Fuel/Air ratio
Manifold Pressure
the pressure of the fuel/air mixture in the intake manifold
between the carburator or internal supercharger and the
intake valve.

Changes in manifold air pressure affect the amount of

power an engine can produce for a given rpm.

Excessive pressures and temperatures shorten engine

life by overstressing cylinders, pistons, connecting rods,
bearings, crankshaft journals, and valves.

Continued operation past upper manifold absolute

pressure limits leads to worn engine parts, decreasing
power output and lower efficiency, or worse, engine
failure.
Detonation/Pre-ignition
Detonation - is the uncontrolled,
explosive ignition of the fuel/air mixture
in the cylinder. Detonation causes high
cylinder temperatures and pressures
which lead to a rough running engine,
overheating, and power loss.
Figure 1-65. During normal Figure 1-66. When detonation
combustion, the fuel/air mixture occurs, the fuel/air charge burns in
burns evenly, producing a steady an explosive fashion causing a
force similar to the even pressure rapid increase in pressure that
of someone pushing down on the produces a "hammering" action on
piston. the piston.
Causes of Detonation:
using a fuel grade lower than
recommended
allowing the engine to overheat.
Wrong ignition timing
fuel/air mixture too lean,
compression ratios of 12:1 or higher
Pre-ignition
takes place when the fuel/air mixture ignites too soon.

It is caused by hot spots in a cylinder that ignite the

fuel/air mixture before the spark plugs fire.

A hot spot can be caused by something as simple as a

carbon particle, overheated valve edges, silica deposits
on a spark plug, or a red-hot spark plug electrode.

Hot spots are caused by poor engine cooling, dirty intake

air filters, or shutting down the engine at high rpm.

When the engine continues running after the ignition is

turned off, preignition may be the cause.
Compression Ratio
An engine's compression ratio is defined as the
ratio of cylinder volume with the piston at the bottom
of its stroke to the volume with the piston at the top
of its stroke.

For example, if there are 140 cubic inches of space

in a cylinder when the piston is at bottom center and
20 cubic inches of space when the piston is at top
center, the compression ratio is 140 to 20

As a general rule, the higher the compression ratio,

the greater an engine's power output.
Compression Ratio may be
limited by:
the characteristics of available fuels
the degree of turbocharging
Ignition Timing
When the ignition event is properly
timed, complete combustion and
maximum pressure occur just after the
piston passes top dead center at the
beginning of the power stroke.
Engine Speed - the faster an engine runs, the
more power it produces.
Specific Fuel Consumption - the number of
pounds of fuel burned per hour to produce one
horsepower.
Altitude
Fuel to Air ratio - A stoichiometric mixture is a
perfectly balanced fuel/air mixture of 15 parts of
air to 1 part of fuel, by weight. A fuel/air mixture
that is leaner than 15:1 has less fuel in the
fuel/air mixture, while a rich mixture has more
fuel. Combustible fuel/air ratios range from 8:1
to 18:1.
 Best Power Mixture – develops
maximum power at a particular rpm and
is typically used during takeoff. Fuel/air
ratio of 0.075

Best Economy Mixture - provides the

best specific fuel consumption which
results in an aircraft's maximum range
and optimum fuel economy. Occurs
when the fuel/air ratio is approximately
0.062
Take – Off Power Rating
determined by the maximum rpm and
the manifold pressure at which the
airplane may be operated during the
process of take off.

time limitations of take off power is 1 to

5 minutes
Rated Power
also called standard engine rating, the
maximum horsepower output which can
be obtained from an engine when it is
operated at a specified RPM and
manifold pressure conditions,
established as safe for continuous
engine operations.

also called METO power or the

Maximum Except Take off Power
Maximum Power
the greatest power output that the
engine can develop at any time under
any conditions.

as manifold pressure increases, power

output of an engine increases.

as rpm increases, power output of an

engine increases.
Ineffective Crank Angle
Valve Timing
Firing Order
An engine's firing order represents the
sequence in which the ignition event
occurs in different cylinders.
Each engine is designed with a specific
firing order to maintain balance and
reduce vibration.
Problem:
A four stroke cycle, 4 cylinder reciprocating
engine with a speed of 1800 rpm has a stroke of
8.0 inches and a cylinder bore diameter of 6
inches. The mean effective pressure inside the
cylinder is 200 psi and the mechanical efficiency
of the engine is 80 %. Determine:
a. Piston displacement
b. No. of cycles per minute
c. IHP
d. BHP
e. FHP
Problems:
1. Compute the horsepower output of the following
describe engine operating at 2000 rpm, bore 3.5
in., stroke 4.0 in., 6 cylinders, 140 psi bmep.
2. Compute the piston displacement of a radial
engine having 9 cylinders, a bore of 5 in. and stroke
of 5 in.
3. Compute the compression ratio of an engine which
has a bore of 5 in. and a stroke of 5 in. when the
volume at the combustion chamber is 16.36 cu.in.
with the piston at TDC
4. Compute the bmep of an engine when the output
is 450 hp, 2300 rpm, bore and stroke are each 5.5
in, and with 9 cylinders.