Math 128: Modern Geometry

MODULE 1
Lesson: Plane Euclidean Geometry
Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be able to

1. Define basic concepts in Euclidean Geometry.

2. Determine orthogonal vectors.

3. Give a proof to some basic results.

4. Determine the tangent, normal and binormal vectors to the given curve.

5. Illustrate the proof of some results.

6. Give a detailed understanding to some concepts.

7. Provide specific examples to some concepts and results.

1 INTRODUCTION

Modern geometry encompasses a wide range of mathematical disciplines that focus on the study of
geometric properties, structures, and transformations using advanced mathematical tools and concepts.
It has evolved over time and has led to profound insights into the nature of space, shape, and symmetry.

Vector spaces play a crucial role in modern geometry by providing a foundational framework to
study and analyze geometric concepts and structures. They offer a mathematical structure that allows
us to define and manipulate various geometric objects and transformations in a coherent and abstract
manner.Here’s how vector spaces are related to modern geometry:

Geometric Objects as Vectors: In modern geometry, various geometric objects such as points,
lines, planes, and curves can be represented as vectors. For example, in a two-dimensional vector space,
a point can be represented as a position vector, a line can be represented using a direction vector, and
a plane can be described using a normal vector.

Linear Transformations and Symmetry: Many geometric transformations, such as translations,

rotations, reflections, and dilations, can be represented as linear transformations. Vector spaces provide
a natural setting to study these transformations, enabling us to analyze their properties, compositions,
and relationships. This is particularly important in the study of group theory and symmetry, which are
central to modern geometry.

Affine Geometry: Affine geometry studies properties that are preserved under affine transforma-
tions, which include translations, rotations, and dilations. Affine transformations can be represented

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using linear transformations and translations, making vector spaces an essential tool in understanding
affine geometry.

Projective Geometry: Projective geometry deals with the properties of geometric objects that
are preserved under projection. Vector spaces and projective spaces are closely related, and projective
transformations can be represented using linear transformations in a higher-dimensional vector space.

1.1 VECTOR SPACE R2

Vector space, a set of multidimensional quantities, known as vectors, together with a set of one-
dimensional quantities, known as scalars, such that vectors can be added together and vectors can be
multiplied by scalars while preserving the ordinary arithmetic properties (associativity, commutativity,
distributivity, and so forth).

1.1.1 Scalar Multiplication and Vector Addition

The two basic vector operations are scalar multiplication and vector addition. In general when working
with vectors, numbers or constants are called scalars.

Scalar multiplication is when a vector is multiplied by a scalar (a number or a constant). If a vector

v is multiplied by a scalar k the result is kv. If k is positive then kv will have the same directions as v.
If k is negative, kv will have the opposite direction as v.

To add two vectors u and v, place the initial point of the second vector (without changing length or
direction) on the terminal point of the first vector. Then join the initial point of the first vector to the
terminus of the second vector. This joining line represents the sum of the two vectors.

Graphically, vectors can be added using the ‘nose-to-tail’ method or ”head-to-tail” method. Two
vectors u and v represented by the line segments can be added by joining the ‘tail’ of vector v to the
‘nose’ of vector u. Alternatively, the ‘tail’ of vector u can be joined to the ‘nose’ of vector v. Figures below
show how to add vectors graphically using the Triangle or Head-to-Tail Method and the Parallelogram
Method.

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 If c is a real number and x is a vector, then we define the scalar multiplication by

cx = (cx1 , cx2 ).

If c = −1, the vector cx is denoted by −x. The vector 0 = (0, 0) is called the zero vector.

Theorem 1: For all vectors x, y and z, and real numbers c and d,

1. (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)

2. x+y =y+x

3. x+0=x

4. x + (−x) = 0

5. 1x = x

6. c(x + y) = cx + cy

7. (c + d)x = cx + dx

8. c(dx) = (cd)x

Verifying property 1 of Theorem 1, consider the case for vectors x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ) and
z = (z1 , z2 ) in R2 . Then we have

(x + y) + z = ((x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 )) + (z1 , z2 )

= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) + (z1 , z2 )

= (x1 + y1 + z1 , x2 + y2 + z2 )

= (x1 + (y1 + z1 ), x2 + (y2 + z2 ))

= ((x1 , x2 ) + (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ))

= x + (y + z)

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Example : Let (1, 5) and (4, 2) be vectors in R2 . Then the vector (5, 7) = (1 + 4, 5 + 2) = (1, 5) + (4, 2).
Figure below shows the vector addition.

1.1.2 Coordinate Vectors

Coordinate vectors are a fundamental concept in linear algebra and vector spaces. They allow us
to represent vectors in a specific basis or coordinate system, which simplifies calculations and makes it
easier to analyze vector operations. In essence, coordinate vectors provide a way to express vectors as a
linear combination of basis vectors.

Coordinate vectors can be added together by first placing their tails at the origin of a coordinate
system such that their lengths and directions are unchanged. Then the coordinates of their heads are
added pairwise; e.g., in two dimensions, their x-coordinates and their y-coordinates are added separately
to obtain the resulting vector sum. Equivalently, let x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ) be vectors in R2 , then
we define the vector addition by
x + y = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ).

Equivalently, a coordinate vector is a representation of a vector as an ordered list of numbers that

describes the vector in terms of a particular ordered basis. Coordinates are always specified relative to
an ordered basis. Bases and their associated coordinate representations let one realize vector spaces and
linear transformations concretely as column vectors, row vectors, and matrices; hence, they are useful
in calculations. Let V be a vector space. If v ∈ V, then we can always express v in exactly one way
as a linear combination of the the vectors in the basis B. Specifically, for any v ∈ V there are scalars
x1 , · · · , xn such that
v = x 1 v1 + x 2 v2 + · · · + x n vn .

Definition: Let V be a vector space of dimension n over a field F and let

B = {b1 , b2 . . . , bn }

be an ordered basis for V. Then for every v ∈ V there is a unique linear combination of the basis vectors

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that equals v :
v = α1 b1 + α2 b2 + · · · + αn bn .

The coordinate vector of v relative to B is the sequence of coordinates

[v]B = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ).

In Euclidean geometry, each ordered pair (p1 , p2 ) of real numbers determine exactly one point P of
the plane. The point determined by (0, 0) is called the origin. The ordered pair (p1 , p2 ) is also referred
to as the coordinate vector of P.

To determine the coordinates of a vector P in the plane, the first step is to translate the vector so
that its tail is at the origin of the coordinate system. Then, the head of the vector will be at some point
(p1 , p2 ) in the plane. We call (p1 , p2 ) the coordinates or the components of the vector P. We often write
P ∈ R2 to denote that it can be described by two real coordinates.

Example 1: Let {x, y} be a basis. Then the coordinate vector of 3x + 2y with respect to the given basis
is (3, 2).

Example 2: Let B = {(1, 2), (2, 1)}. The vector with respect to the given basis such that vB = (1, −2)
is
vB = 1 · (1, 2) − 2 · (2, 1) = (1 − 4, 2 − 2) = (−3, 0).

Example 3: Let V = P2 and B = {1, x, x2 }. The coordinate vector of [5 + 3x − x2 ]B is given by

[5 + 3x − x2 ]B = (5, 3, −1).

Example 4: The coordinate vector of (1 + t)2 with respect to the basis {1, t, t2 } is

(1 + t)2 = 1 · 1 + 2 · t + 1 · t2 .

Hence, the coordinate vector is (1, 2, 1).

1.1.3 Parallel and Perpendicular Vectors

A vector in space is defined by two quantities: its magnitude and its direction. A special relationship
forms between two or more vectors when they point in the same direction or in opposite directions.
When this is the case, we say that the vectors are parallel.

The second special relationship that can occur between two vectors is when the directions of the two
vectors form a 90o angle. When this happens, we say that the two vectors are perpendicular to one
another. In order to identify when two vectors are perpendicular, we can use the dot product.

Definition: Let u and v be vectors. We say that the two vectors is

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 (i) perpendicular if u · v = 0.

(ii) parallel if for every k ∈ R, u = kv.

Example 1: Given the vectors u = (1, 5), v = (5, 10) and w = (6, −3), then we have

u · v = (1, 5) · (5, 10) = 5 + 50 = 55 6= 0

u · w = (1, 5) · (6, −3) = 6 − 15 = −9 6= 0

v · w = (5, 10) · (6, −3) = 30 − 30 = 0.

Thus, v and w are perpendicular vectors while u and v, u and w are not.

Example 2: The vectors m = (1, 5), n = (3, 15) are parallel vectors because

n = (3, 15) = 3(1, 5) = 3m.

Exercises

I. Perform the indicated operation and sketch the graph in 2-dimensional plane.

1. Find the coordinate vector of x = (−1, 2, 4) with respect to the basis B = {(1, 4, 6), (0, 1, −4), (0, 0, 1)}.

2. Find the coordinate vector of t(1 − t) in the basis {t, t2 } of the space V = {f ∈ P2 |f (0) = 0}.

3. Find the coordinate vector of 1 − 2t in the basis {1 + 2t, 2 + t} of P1 .

4. Let u = (1, 2), v = (4, −1). Find u + v and u − v.

5. Let u = (3, −2), v = (2, 2) and c = 3. Find c(u + v) and c(u − v).

6. Let u = (3, −2), v = (2, 2) and c = 3. Show that c(u + v) = cu + cv

7. Given the vectors v1 = (0, 1) and v2 (−1, 1), show that v1 + v2 = v2 + v1 .

8. Illustrate u + v = v + u and u − v = −(v − u) in item 4 without starting the tail from the origin.

II. Determine the parallel and perpendicular vectors.

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9. Which of the given vectors a = 2, 4 , b = (2, 16), c = (2, 1), d = (3, −6) in R2 , are parallel?

6
 1

√ √
10. Which of the given vectors a = 2 , −5 , b = (3 3, −1), c = (10, 1), d = ( 3, 9) in R2 , are
perpendicular?

11. Given two parallel vectors (2, −3) and (8, m), find the value of m.

12. Let u = (x, 3) and v = (x, −3) be vectors in R2 where x ∈ R. If u and v are perpendicular, find
the value of x.

13. Which of the following vectors is not perpendicular to the line whose direction vector is
(2, −3, 5)?

A. (10, 10, 2)

B. (−10, −5, 1)

C. (2, −2, −2)

D. (1, −2, 3)

E. (2, 3, 1)

14. Find the real number a so that the vectors u = (2a, 16) and v = (3a + 2, −2) are perpendicular

15. Find the real number k so that the points A(−2, k), B(2, 3) and C(2k, −4) are the vertices of
a right triangle with right angle at B.

1.2 INNER PRODUCT SPACE R2

An inner product space is a vector space with a binary operation called an inner product. This
operation associates each pair of vectors in the space with a scalar quantity known as the inner product
of the vectors, often denoted using angle brackets ha, bi. Inner products allow the rigorous introduction of
intuitive geometrical notions, such as the length of a vector or the angle between two vectors. They also
provide the means of defining orthogonality between vectors (zero inner product). Inner product spaces
generalize Euclidean spaces (in which the inner product is the dot product, also known as the scalar
product) to vector spaces of any (possibly infinite) dimension, and are studied in functional analysis.
Inner product spaces over the field of complex numbers are sometimes referred to as unitary spaces.

Recall the dot product in R2 and R3 . Dot product helped us to compute the length of vectors and
angle between vectors. This enabled us to rephrase geometrical problems in R2 and R3 in the language
of vectors. We generalize the idea of dot product to achieve similar goal for a general vector space over
R.

Definition: Given two vectors x and y in R2 , we define

hx, yi = x1 y1 + x2 y2 .

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The number hx, yi is called the inner product of x and y. It is also called dot product or scalar product
of x and y.

Definition: An inner product on V is a function that takes each ordered pair (u, v) of elements of V to
a number hu, vi ∈ F and has the following properties:

positivity: hv, vi ≥ 0 for all v ∈ V ;

definiteness: hv, vi = 0 if and only if v = 0;

additivity in first slot: hu + v, wi = hu, wi + hv, wi for all u, v, w ∈ V ;

homogeneity in first slot: hλu, vi = λhu, vi for all λ ∈ F and all u, v, ∈ V ;

conjugate symmetry: hu, vi = hv, ui for all u, v ∈ V.

Theorem 2: Properties of Inner Product

1. hx, y + zi = hx, yi + hx, zi for all x, y, z ∈ R2 .

2. hx, cyi = chx, yi for all x, y ∈ R2 and all c ∈ R.

3. hx, yi = hy, xi for all x, y ∈ R2 .

4. If hx, yi = 0 for all x ∈ R2 , then y must be the zero vector.

Proof: (1) Let x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ) and z = (z1 , z2 ) be vectors in R2 . Thus

hx, y + zi = h(x1 , x2 ), (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 )i

= x1 (y1 + z1 ) + x2 (y2 + z2 )

= x1 y1 + x1 z1 + x2 y2 + x2 z2

= (x1 y1 + x2 y2 ) + (x1 z1 + x2 z2 )

= hx, yi + hx, zi

(2),(3) and (4) are left as an exercise. 

1.2.1 Length

The length of a vector allows us to understand how large the vector is in terms of dimensions. This
also helps us understand vector quantities such as displacement, velocity, force, and more. In addition,
the length of a vector (commonly known as the magnitude) allows us to quantify the property of a given
vector. To find the length of a vector, simply add the square of its components then take the square root
of the result.

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 In this section we define the norms or length of vectors in which it can be associated by inner products.
Thus we can see that each inner product determines a norm or length.

Definition: For any vector x ∈ R2 , we define the length of x to be

q
|x| = x21 + x22 .

Note that
|x|2 = hx, xi.

Thus the length and inner product are related to each other.

Theorem 3: The length function has the following properties:

1. |x| ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R2 .

2. If |x| = 0, then x = 0.

3. |cx| = c|x| for all x ∈ R2 and all c ∈ R.

Example: The vector u has an initial point at (−4, 2, −2)and an endpoint at (−1, 3, 1). The component
of the vector u is given by
(−4 + 1, 2 − 3, −2 − 1) = (−3, −1, −3).

Thus, the vector’s length is given by

|u|2 = h(−3, −1, −3)i

p
|u| = −32 + −12 + −32
√
= 9+1+9
√
= 19

1.2.2 Normalized Vector

Definition: A unit vector in a vector space is a vector (often a spatial vector) of length 1. The term
direction vector is used to describe a unit vector being used to represent spatial direction.

Definition: The normalized vector u of a non-zero vector u is the unit vector in the direction of u.
That is,
u
u=
|u|
where |u| is the norm (or length) of u. The term normalized vector is sometimes used as a synonym for
unit vector.

x
Remark: Let x be a nonzero vector in Rn . The unit vector in the direction of x is the vector |x| .

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Example: The vectors (0, 1) and (1, 0) are unit vectors since their length is 1. However, the vector (1, 1)
√ √
is not a unit vector since |(1, 1)| = 12 + 12 = 2.
√
To normalize the vector (1, 1), note that |(1, 1)| = 2. Thus
 
(1, 1) 1 1
√ = √ ,√ .
2 2 2
 
This vector √12 , √12 is a unit vector since its length is 1.

Definition: Let V be a real vector space. If θ ∈ [0, π] is the angle between u, v ∈ V \ {0} then we define

hu, vi
cos θ = .
|u| · |v|

Example 1: Take u = (1, 0), v = (1, 1) ∈ R2 . Then,

hu, vi
cos θ =
|u| · |v|
1·1+0·1
=√ √
1 + 02 · 11 + 12
2

1
=√
2
π
Thus, θ = 4.

Example 2: Take u = (1, 1, 0), v = (1, 1, 1) ∈ R3 . Then,

hu, vi
cos θ =
|u| · |v|
1·1+1·1+0·1
=√ √
1 + 12 + 02 · 11 + 12 + 12
2

2
=√
6
Thus, θ = arccos √26 .

We now state and prove a less immediate property of the inner product function and its consequence
for length.

Theorem 4: (Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality) For two vectors x and y in R2 we have

|hx, yi| ≤ |x||y|.

Equality holds if and only if x and y are proportional.

Proof: If x or y is zero, then we are done. Suppose that the vectors x and y are nonzero. Consider
the real- valued function f defined by

f (t) = |x + ty|2 for t ∈ R.

Note that f (t) is nonnegative for all t and that f (t) assumes the value 0 if and only if x is a multiple of
y.

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 On the other hand, f is a polynomial of degree 2. Specifically,

f (t) = |x|2 + 2thx, yi + t2 |y|2 .

and as such remains nonnegative only if hx, yi2 . That is, |hx, yi| ≤ |x||y|.

In addition, f (t) assumes the value of zero only if |hx, yi| = |x||y|. Therefore, |hx, yi| = |x||y| if and
only if x and y are proportional.

Corollary 5: For x, y ∈ R2 ,
|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

Equality holds if and only if x and y are proportional with a nonnegative proportionality factor.

Exercises

1. Normalize the following vectors.

a) v = (2, 3)

b) v = (−2, −5)

c) v = (−1, 2, −3)

d) v = (−1, 21 , −3, 1)

e) v = (0, 1, 2, −3, −1)

2. Find the angle between two vectors (3, 4, −1) and (2, −1, 1).

3. Find the angle between two vectors and draw the angle in 2-dimensional Euclidean plane.

a) v = (2, −3), w = (3, 2)

b) v = (2, 3), w = (3, 4)

a) v = (1, 1), w = (−1, −1)

4. Prove that hx, cyi = chx, yi for all x, y ∈ R2 and all c ∈ R.

2 THE EUCLIDEAN PLANE E2

The Euclidean plane is the plane that is the object of study in Euclidean geometry (high-school
geometry). The plane and the geometry are named after the ancient-Greek mathematician Euclid. The
Euclidean plane is a collection of points P, Q, R, · · · between which a distance d is defined. The symbol
E2 is used to represent the set R2 equipped with the distance function d.

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Definition: If P and Q are points, we define the distance between P and Q by the equation

d(P, Q) = |Q − P |.

Theorem 6: Let P, Q, and R be points of E2 . Then

1. d(P, Q) ≥ 0.

2. d(P, Q) = 0 if and only if P = Q.

3. d(P, Q) = d(Q, P ).

4. d(P, Q) + d(Q, R) ≥ d(P, R)

Proof. (2) Suppose d(P, Q) = 0. Then

|Q − P | = 0 =⇒ Q − P = 0

=⇒ Q = P.

(3) We have d(P, Q) = |Q − P | = | − (P − Q)| = |P − Q| = d(Q, P ).

(4) We have

d(P, Q) + d(Q, R) = |Q − P | + |R − Q| ≥ |Q − P + R − Q| = |R − P | = d(P, R).

Moreover, equality holds if and only if Q − R = u(R − Q) for some nonnegative number u. 

2.1 LINES

Well-known subsets of the Euclidean plane are straight lines. Any two non-coinciding points P and
Q where d(P, Q) 6= 0 in the plane lie on a unique straight line. That is, P and Q determine a unique
straight line. The length of the straight line segment connecting the points P and Q is by definition the
Euclidean distance d(P, Q). In a Euclidean plane no upper bound exists on the distance between two
points: given a fixed point P and a ”running” point Q, the distance d(P, Q) is unbounded, so that Q
can ”run to infinity” without leaving the plane. The straight line segment connecting P and Q may be
extended to a half-line, which is a line segment terminated in P and unbounded on the other side. If P
also runs to infinity (away from Q), i.e., the straight segment is unbounded on both sides, the segment
becomes a straight line. Hence, lines and half-lines in a Euclidean plane are of infinite length.

Straight lines may be intersecting. Two straight lines that do not intersect are called parallel. The
point of intersection of two non-parallel straight lines is a single unique point. Angles between intersecting
lines can be measured and expressed in degrees. In particular, straight lines may be perpendicular, that

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is, their angle of intersection is 90o . The maximum number of perpendicular lines that can intersect at a
point of a Euclidean plane is equal for all points; this maximum is two for a Euclidean plane. This fact
is expressed by the statement that a Euclidean plane is two-dimensional.

A line in analytic geometry is characterized by the property that the vectors joining pairs of points
are proportional.

Definition: A direction is defined to be the set of all vectors proportional to a given nonzero vector.

For a given vector v let

[v] = {tv | t ∈ R}.

If P is any point and v is a nonzero vector, then

l = {X | X − P ∈ [v]}

is called the line through P with the direction [v]. We can also write l as l = P + [v]. When l = P + [v]
is a line, we say that v is a direction vector of l. The line l is illustrated in the figure below.

If l is a line and X is a point , there are many phrases used to express the relationship of X ∈ l. The
following are synonymous.

i. X ∈ l.

ii. l contains X.

iii. X lies on l.

iv. l passes through X.

v. Xand l are incident.

vi. X is incident with l.

vii. l is incident with x.

Remark: In axiomatic geometry, one usually takes points and lines as fundamental objects and
incidence as fundamental relation. Then an incidence geometry would consist of sets P and L and a
relation P × L.

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 A fundamental property of a line is that it is uniquely determined by any two points that lie on it.
Thus, it is important to mention the following result:

Theorem 7: Let P and Q be distinct points of E2 . Then there is a unique line containing P and Q,
←→
which we denote by P Q.

Proof : Let v be a nonzero vector. The line P + [v] passes through Q if and only if Q − P ∈ [v]. This
means that [Q − P ] = [v]. Hence, the unique line is P + [Q − P ]. 

The following figures below illustrates the line l and the direction vector v and the paramectric
representation of the line l.

←→
A point X on the line l = P Q is written by

α(t) = P + t(Q − P ) = (1 − t)P + tQ.

Now, α(t) is the parametric representation of the line. As t ranges through the real numbers, α(t) ranges
over the line. The parameter is related to distance along l by the formula

d(α(t1 ), α(t2 )) = |t2 − t1 ||Q − P |.

If X = (1 − t)P + tQ, where 0 < t < 1 we say that X is between P and Q. This algebraic characterization
of betweeness is equivalent to the following geometrical aspect.

Theorem 8: Let P, X and Q be distinct points in E2 . Then X is between P and Q if and only if

d(P, X) + d(X, Q) = d(P, Q).

Proof : Suppose that X is between P and Q. Then for some t ∈ (0, 1), we have X = (1 − t)P + tQ. Then

d(P, X) = |X − P |

= |(1 − t)P + tQ − P |

= |tQ − tP |

= t|(Q − P )|

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Also,

d(X, Q) = |Q − X|

= |Q − (1 − t)P − tQ|

= |(1 − t)(Q − P )|

= (1 − t)|Q − P |

Thus

d(P, X) + d(X, Q) = t|(Q − P )| + (1 − t)|Q − P |

= |Q − P |

= d(P, Q).

Conversely, suppose that X is a point of E2 such that d(P, X) + d(X, Q) = d(P, Q). Then by Theorem
5(4), there is a positive number u such that X − P = u(Q − X). Solving for X we have

1 u
X= P+ Q.
1+u 1+u
u 1
Setting t = 1+u we see that 0 < t < 1 and 1 − t = 1+u . Thus

X = (1 − t)P + tQ.

Therefore, X is between Q and P. 

Example: Consider the points P = (1, 2), Q = (3, 4) and X = (2, 3) in E2 . Note that X is between P
and Q. If t = 21 , then    
1 1 1 3
X= (1, 2) + (3, 4) = ,1 + ,2 .
2 2 2 2
Thus

1p 2 √
d(X, Q) = 2 + 22 = 2
2
1p 2 √
d(P, X) = 2 + 22 = 2
2
√
and so d(X, Q) + d(P, X) = 2 2

Moreover,
p √
d(P, Q) = 22 + 22 = 2 2.

Therefore, d(P, X) + d(X, Q) = d(P, Q).

Definition: Let P and Q be distinct points. The set consisting of P, Q and all points between them
is called a segment and is denoted by P Q. The points P and Q are the endpoints of the segment. All
other points of the segment are called interior points.

If M is a point satisfying
1
d(P, M ) = d(M, Q) = d(P, Q),
2

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then M is a midpoint of P Q

Definition: If two lines l and m pass through a point P, we say that they intersect at P and P is their
point of intersection.

Theorem 9: Two distinct lines have at most one point of intersection.

Exercises

1. Find a point X that is between the two given points P , Q and t = 21 .

a) P = (−2, 2), Q = (4, 5)

b) P = (2, 0), Q = (4, −3)

c) P = (0, 5), Q = (−1, 4)

d) P = (1, 1), Q = (3, 0)

e) P = (−3, 2), Q = (2, 3)

2. Determine and draw the line of the form P + [v] with the given vectors.

a) P = (0, 1), v = (3, 2)

b) P = (2, 0), v = (−1, −1)

c) P = (1, 1), v = (0, 4)

d) P = (3, 2), v = (3, 2)

e) P = (−1, −1), v = (−2, 2)

3. If 0 < t < 1, and X = (1 − t)P + tQ, and P 6= Q, show that

d(P, X) t
=
d(X, Q) 1−t
Use this to find the point X that divides the segment P Q in the ratio r : s. Illustrate using
r = 2, s = 3, P = (−3, 5), Q = (8, 4).

ORTHONORMAL PAIRS

Definition: Two vectors v and w are said to be orthogonal if hv, wi = 0. If v = (v1 , v2 ), then we define
v ⊥ = (−v2 , v1 ). Observe that v and v ⊥ are orthogonal and have the same length. Also,

v ⊥⊥ = −v.

A vector of length 1 is said to be a unit vector. A pair {v, w} of unit orthogonal vectors is called an
orthonormal pair.

16
 √ √
Example: The vectors (1, 0, −1), (1, 2, 1) and (1, − 2, 1) are mutually orthogonal since
√
(1, 0, −1) · (1, 2, 1) = 1 + 0 − 1 = 0
√ √
(1, 2, 1) · (1, − 2, 1) = 1 − 2 + 1 = 0
√
(1, 0, −1) · (1, − 2, 1) = 1 + 0 − 1 = 0

However,
p √
12 + 02 + (−1)2 = 2 6= 1
q √
12 + ( 2)2 + 12 = 2 6= 1
q √
12 + (− 2)2 + 12 = 2 = 6 1

√ √
Hence, the given set of vectors are not unit vectors and so {(1, 0, −1), (1, 2, 1), (1, − 2, 1)} is not an
orthonormal pair. To make the given set of vectors orthonormal, we use the Gram-Schmidt Algorithm.
Let
 
1 1 1
u1 = √ (1, 0, −1) = √ , 0, − √
2 2 2
√ !
1 √ 1 2 1
u2 = (1, 2, 1) = , ,
2 2 2 2
√ !
1 √ 1 2 1
u2 = (1, − 2, 1) = ,− ,
2 2 2 2

Note that u1 · u2 = 0, u2 · u3 = 0 and u1 · u3 = 0. Also,

s 2  2
1 1
√ +0 + √
2 =1
2 2
√ !2  2
v
u 2
u 1 2 1
t + + =1
2 2 2
√ !2  2
v
u 2
u 1 2 1
t + + =1
2 2 2

Therefore, the set of vectors {u1 , u2 , u3 } is orthonormal.

The next result is an existence of a coordinate vector having a pair of unit orthogonal vectors.

Theorem 10: Let {v, w} be an orthonormal pair of vectors in R2 . Then for all x ∈ R2 ,

x = hx, viv + hx, wiw.

17
Proof : Since v and w are linearly independent, then they form a basis for R2 . Thus for any x ∈ R2 , there
exists a unique constants λ and µ such that x = λv + µw. By fundamental properties of inner product,
we have
hx, viv = λhv, vi + µhv, wi = λ

and
hx, wiv = λhv, wi + µhw, wi = µ.

Therefore,

x = λv + µw

= hx, viv + hx, wiw. 

Example: Consider the coordinate vector x = (1, 1) in the Euclidean plane R2 . The vectors v = (1, 0)
and w = (0, 1) are unit orthogonal vectors. Then by Theorem 10, we have

x = hx, viv + hx, wiw

= h(1, 1), (1, 0)i(1, 0) + h(1, 1), (0, 1)i(0, 1)

= 1 · (1, 0) + 1 · (0, 1)

= (1, 1)

TANGENT, NORMAL AND BINORMAL VECTORS

0
Definition: Given the vector v(t), we call v (t) the tangent vector provided it exists and provided
0
v (t) 6= 0. The tangent line to v(t) at P is then the line that passes through the point P and is parallel
0
to the tangent vector. If v (t) = 0, then we have a vector that had no magnitude and so we could not
give us the direction of the tangent. The unit tangent vector to the curve is given by
0
v (t)
T (t) =
||v 0 (t)||

Definition: The unit normal vector is defined to be

0
T (t)
N (t) = .
||T 0 (t)||

18
The unit normal vector is orthogonal to the unit tangent vector and hence the curve as well.

The definition of the unit normal vector follows directly from the following result.

0
Theorem: Suppose v(t) is a vector such that ||v(t)|| = c for all t. Then v (t) is orthogonal to v(t).

The definition of the unit normal vector then falls directly from the given result. Since T (t) is a unit
0
vector, we know from the fact that ||T (t)|| = 1 for all t and hence by the fact that T (t) is orthogonal to
0
T (t). However, since T (t) is tangent to the curve, T (t) must be orthogonal, or normal, to the curve as
well and so be a normal vector to the curve.

Definition: The binormal vector is defined to be

B(t) = T (t) × N (t).

The binormal vector is the cross product of the unit tangent vector and the unit normal vector. We then
know that the binormal vector is orthogonal to both the tangent vector and the normal vector.

Example 1: Find the general formula for the tangent vector and unit tangent vector to the curve

→
− →
− →
−
v(t) = t2 i + 2 sin t j + 2 cos t k .

π
Determine the vector equation of the tangent line to the given curve at t = 3.

Solution: We have
0 →
− →
− →
−
v (t) = 2t i + 2 cos t j − 2 sin t k .

Now
0
p p p
||v (t)|| = 4t2 + 4 cos2 t + 4 sin2 t = 4t2 + 4 = 2 t2 + 1.

Then the unit tangent vector is given by

→
− →
− →
−
2t i + 2 cos t j − 2 sin t k
T (t) = √
2 t2 + 1
t →
− cos t →
− sin →
−
=√ i +√ j −√ k.
2
t +1 2
t +1 2
t +1

π
At t = 3 we have,
0
π 2π →
− →− √ → −
v = i + j − 3k.
3 3
π
We also need the point on the line at t = 3. Then
π − √ →
π2 → − →−
v = i + 3j + k.
3 9

Hence, the vector equation of the line is

π √ √
 2   
2π
v (t) = , 3, 1 + t ,1 − 3 .
9 3

Example 2: Find the normal and binormal vectors for v(t) = (t, 3 sin t, 3 cos t).

19
 Exercises

1. Find the tangent, normal and binormal vectors of the following.

a) v(t) = (t2 − t, t2 + t)

b) v(t) = (t, t2 )

c) v(t) = (et , e−t )

d) v(t) = (t2 + 1, 3 − t, t3 )

e) v(t) = (te2 t, 2 − t2 , −e2 t)

f) v(t) = (8t, 23 − t6 , t4 )

g) v(t) = (ln6t, e1−t , 5t)

h) v(t) = (cos 2t, sin 2t, 3)

i) v(t) = (t2 , − cos 8t, sin 8t)

j) v(t) = (3 cos t, 3 sin t, 4t)

2. Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve at the indicated t-value using the unit tangent
vector.

π
a) r(t) = (t, cos t) at t = 4

b) r(t) = (sin t, cos t) at t = π

c) r(t) = (2t2 , t2 − t) at t = 1

d) r(t) = (sin3 t, cos3 t) at t = π

4

e) r(t) = r(t) = (3 cos 4t, 3 sin 4t, t3 ) at t = π

2.2 THE EQUATION OF THE LINE

To find the equation of a line in the x − y plane, we need two pieces of information: a point and the
slope. The slope conveys direction information. As vertical lines have an undefined slope, the following
statement is more accurate:

To define a line, one needs a point on the line and the direction of the line.

This holds true for lines in space.

Let P be a point in space, let p be the vector with initial point at the origin and terminal point at P
(i.e., p “points” to P ), and let v be a vector. Consider the points on the line through P in the direction
of v.

20
 Clearly one point on the line is P ; we can say that the vector p lies at this point on the line. To find
another point on the line, we can start at p and move in a direction parallel to v . For instance, starting
at v and traveling one length of v places one at another point on the line. Figure below illustrates how
every point on the line can be obtained by starting with v and moving a certain distance in the direction
of v .

That is, we can define the line as a function of t :

l(t) = p + tv.

This is the vector equation of the line.

2.2.1 Direction and Normal Vectors

Consider p = (x0 , y0 ). Then

l(t) = p + tv ⇐⇒ (x, y) = (x0 , y0 ) + [v]

⇐⇒ (x − x0 , y − y0 ) = [v]

If ax + by = c, let

c  c
x = 0 then y = − =⇒ 0, −
b b
c  c 
y = 0 then c = − =⇒ − ,0
a b

Hence,
 c c 
[v] = 0 + , − − 0
a b
c c
= ,−
a b
= (b, −a).

21
 ab
By multiplying c , we change only the length of the vectors not the direction. By definition, a normal
vector is
v ⊥ = (−v2 , v1 ) = (a, b).

To find a direction vector or a normal vector for a straight line all we have to do is write the equation
in the general form. We can then read directly from the equation. We can use these vectors to find the
angle between straight lines by using the scalar product of the vectors. The angle between the lines is
the same as the angle between their direction vectors. Simple geometry shows that the angle between
the lines is also equal to the angle between their normal vectors.

Definition: If l is a line with direction vector v, the vector v ⊥ is called the normal vector to l. Any two
normal vectors to the same line are proportional

Example: Find one vector that is parallel to the line y = 3x+2 and a second vector that is perpendicular
to the line.

Solution: We begin by finding two points that lie on the line. Choose x = 0 and find the corresponding
y value.Then y = 3 · 0 + 2 = 2. The point (0, 2) lies on the line. Choose x = 1 and find y. Then
y = 3 · 1 + 2 = 5. The point (1, 5) lies on the line.

Find a vector that joins these two points and can call it [v].Now [v] has the same direction as the line
and so we have

[v] = (1 − 0, 5 − 2) = (1, 3).

o
If we rotate the vector by 90 we get a vector that is perpendicular to the line and we call it
[v0 ] = (3, −1). Figure below illustrates the two vectors obtained from the given line.

22
We now derive a characterization of a line in terms of its normal vector.

Theorem 11: Let P be a point and let {v, N } be an orthonormal pair of vectors. Then P + [v] =
{X|hX − P, N i = 0}.

Proof. By Theorem 10, we have

X − P = hX − P, viv + hX − P, N iN

for any point X in R2 . We show that X lies on the line P + [v] iff hX − P, N i = 0. Suppose that
X = P + tv for some real number t. Then

hX − P, N i = htv, N i = thv, N i = 0.

Conversely, if hX − P, N i = 0 then we have

X − P = hX − P, viv = 0

23
which implies that
X = P + hX − P, viv ∈ P + [v]. 

Corollary 12: If N is any nonzero vector , {X|hX − P, N i = 0} is the line through P with normal
vector N and hence direction vector N ⊥ .

Theorem 13: Let a, b, and c be real numbers. Then {(x, y)|ax + by + c = 0} is

i. the empty set if a = 0, b = 0, and c 6= 0.

ii. the whole R2 if a = 0, b = 0, and c = 0.

iii. a line with normal vector (a, b) otherwise.

Proof. Cases (i) and (ii) are obvious. Consider the case where a2 +b2 6= 0. Then {(x, y)|ax+by+c = 0} =
6 ∅
Let P = (x1 , y1 ) be the point that satisfy the equation. Then c = −(ax1 + by1 ). Thus ax + by + c = 0 if
and only if a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) = 0. Letting N = (a, b), then the set is a line through P with normal
vector N.

Definition: The angle θ between the lines l and m is given by

hN1 , N2 i
cos θ =
|N1 | · |N2 |

where N1 and N2 are normal vectors of l and m, respectively.

Example: Find the angle θ between the lines l : 3x − y + 2 = 0 and m : x − y + 4 = 0.

Solution: The normal vector of l is (3, −1). Also, the normal vector of m is (1, −1). Then

hN1 , N2 i
cos θ =
|N1 ||N2 |
h(3, −1), (1, −1)i
=
|(3, −1)| · |(1, −1)|
3 · 1 + −1 · −1
= √ √
10 2
4
= √
2 10
√
2 10
=
10
 √ 
Thus, θ = cos−1 2 10
10 .

2.2.2 PERPENDICULAR LINES

Definition: Two lines l and m are said to be perpendicular if they have orthogonal vectors. In this
case, we write l ⊥ m. Two segments are perpendicular if the lines on which they lie are perpendicular.

24
Example: The lines l : 2x + 3y − 5 = 0 and m : 3x − 2y − 1 = 0 are perpendicular since their normal
vectors are N1 = (2, 3) and N2 = (3, −2), are orthogonal. That is,

hN1 , N2 i = h(2, 3), (3, −2)i = 6 − 6 = 0.

An important manifestation of perpendicularity is the famous theorem of Pythagoras.

Theorem 14 (Pythagoras): Let P, Q and R be three distinct points. Then |R − P |2 = |Q − P |2 +

|R − Q|2 .

Proof : Recall that

|x + y|2 = |x|2 + 2hx, yi + |y|2 .

Then |x + y|2 = |x|2 + |y|2 if and only if hx, yi = 0. Put x = Q − P and y = R − Q. Then we have
x + y = R − P. Thus |R − P |2 = |Q − P |2 + |R − Q|2 if and only if hQ − P, R − Qi = 0. This means that
the segment P Q and QR are perpendicular. 

The next property of perpendicular lines is more evident intuitively than Pythagoras’ theorem but
more difficult to prove.

Theorem 15: If l ⊥ m, then l and m have a unique point in common.

Proof : Let l = P + [v] and m = Q + [w]. Assume that v and w are unit vectors. Then {v, w} are
orthonormal set. By Theorem 10,

P − Q = hP − Q, viv + hP − Q, wiw.

and so,
P − hP − Q, viv = Q + hP − Q, wiw.

Let
F = P − hP − Q, viv = Q + hP − Q, wiw.

Then we see that F lies on both l and m. Now, F is the only common point, because if there were two,
by Theorem 9, the lines would have to coincide. 

25
 The next result is a motivation by construction of Euclid.

Theorem 16: Let X be a point and let l be a line. Then there is a unique line m through X perpendicular
to l. Furthermore,

1. m = X + [N ], where N is a unit normal vector to l;

2. l and m intersect in the point F = X − hX − P, N iN, where P is any point on l;

3. d(X, F ) = |hX − P, N i|.

Example 1: Let l : 2x + 3y − 6 = 0 be a line and X = (2, 3) ∈ l. Find a line through X perpendicular

to l.

Solution: Let X = (2, 3) ∈ l. Notice that the normal vector is n = (2, 3) and so the unit normal vector is
 
2 3
N = √ ,√ .
13 13

Now,

 
2 3
m = X + [N ] =⇒ m = (2, 3) + t √ ,√
13 13
 
2 3
=⇒ (x, y) = (2, 3) + t √ , √
13 13
 
2t 3t
=⇒ (x − 2, y − 3) = √ , √
13 13

Then √ √
13(x − 2) 13(y − 3)
t= and t= .
2 3

26
Hence,

t=t
√ √
13(x − 2) 13(y − 3)
=
2 3
3(x − 2) = 2(y − 3)

3x − 2y = 0

Example 2: Find the point of intersection and the distance of the lines l and m in Example 1.

Solution: Let P = (0, 2) ∈ l and X = (2, 3) ∈ m. The unit normal vector of l is given by
 
2 3
N = √ ,√ .
13 13

Thus
   
2 3 2 3
F = (2, 3) − h(2, 3) − (0, 2), √ , √ i √ ,√
13 13 13 13
   
2 3 2 3
= (2, 3) − h(2, 1), √ , √ i √ ,√
13 13 13 13
 
1 2 3
= (2, 3) − √ h(2, 1), (2, 3)i √ , √
13 13 13
7
= (2, 3) − (2, 3)
13
 
14 21
= (2, 3) − ,
13 13
 
14 21
= 2 − ,3 −
13 13
 
12 18
= , .
13 13

Also,

d(X, F ) = |hX − P, N i|
  
2 3
= (2, 3) − (0, 2), √ , √
13 13
  
2 3
= (2, 1), √ , √
13 13
4 3
= √ +√
13 13
7
= √
13
√
7 13
=
13

Remark : The construction of m when l and X are given is called erection a perpendicular to l at X
if X happens to lie on l. Otherwise, it is called dropping a perpendicular to l from X. The unique point
of intersection of l and m is called the foot F of the perpendicular.

27
Theorem 17: Let l be any line and let x be a point not in l. Let F be the foot of the perpendicular
from X to l. Then F is the point of l nearest to X.

Proof : Let P be any point on l. Since P F ⊥ F X, by Pythagorean Theorem,

|X − P |2 = |X − F |2 + |F − P |2 .

Thus
|X − P |2 ≥ |X − F |2

with equality holds if and only if F = P. 

Definition: The number d(X, F ) is called the distance from the point X to the line l and is written
d(X, l).

Corollary 18: Let l be a line with unit normal vector N. Let X be any point of R2 . If P is any point
on l then
d(X, l) = |hX − P, N i|.

Definition: Let P Q be a segment. The line through the midpoint M of P Q that is perpendicular to
←→
P Q is called perpendicular bisector of the segment P Q.

2.2.3 PARALLEL AND INTERSECTING LINES

Definition: Two distinct line l and m are said to be parallel if they have no point of intersection. In
this case, we write l || m. That is, l || m if and only if [v] = k[w] for all direction vectors v, w of lines l
and m respectively.

Example: The lines l : x + y − 2 = 0 and m : 2x + 2y − 3 = 0 are parallel since

[v] = (1, −1) ∈ l, [w] = (2, −2) ∈ m =⇒ [w] = 2[v].

We have the following criterion for parallelism.

28
Theorem 19: Two distinct lines l and m are parallel if and only if they have the same direction.

Proof : Suppose that l and m have a common point F. Then write l = F + [v] and m = F + [w]. Since l
and m are distinct, we have [v] 6= [w].

Conversely, suppose that l and m have different directions [v] and [w]. Let P be any point on l and
let Q be any point on m. Since l and m are not proportional, by Theorem 10, there exist numbers t and
s such that
P − Q = tv + sw.

This means that P − tv = Q + sw. Let F = P − tv = Q + sw. Then F is a common point of l and m. 

Parallel lines come in families, one for each direction. A line m perpendicular to one member l of
the family is also perpendicular to all the others. Thus, it is possible to parametrize the family by real
numbers, essentially by measuring the distance along m.

Theorem 20:

i. If l || m and m || n, then either l = n or l || n.

ii. If l || m and m ⊥ n, then l ⊥ n.

iii. If l ⊥ n and m ⊥ n, then either l || m or l = m.

Figures below illustrate Theorem 20.

Proof. (i) Suppose that l || m and m || n. Let l = P + [v], m = Q + [w] and n = R + [z]. Then [v] = k0 [w]
and [w] = k1 [z]. Thus,
[v] = k0 [w] = k0 k1 [z].

Therefore, l = n or l || n.

29
Example: Given the lines

l : x + 2y − 5 = 0

m : 2x + 4y + 3 = 0

n : 8x + 16y = 0.

Observe that (2, −1) ∈ l, (4, −2) ∈ m and(16, −8) ∈ n are direction vectors of the given lines. Now,
(4, −2) = 2(2, −1) and so m is parallel to l. Also, (16, −8) = 2(4, −2) and so n is parallel to m. Moreover,
(16, −8) = 8(2, −1) and hence n is parallel to l.

Theorem 21: Let l and m be parallel lines. Then there is a unique number d(l, m) such that

d(X, l) = d(Y, m) = d(l, m)

for all X ∈ m and all Y ∈ l. If N is a unit normal vector to l and m, then for any points on X on m
and Y on l,
|hX − Y, N i| = d(l, m).

Example: Consider the lines l : 2x + 3y − 1 = 0 and m : 2x + 3y − 2 = 0. Let 0, 23 ∈ m and 0, 31 ∈ l.

Then
    
1 2 3 2
d(l, m) = 0, − 0, , √ ,√
3 3 13 13
   
1 3 2
= 0, − , √ ,√
3 13 13
2
= 0− √
3 13
2
= √
3 13
√
2 13
=
39

Observe that parallel lines remain equidistant. Intersecting lines, on the other hand, behave as follows.

Theorem 22: Let l be any line and let m be a line intersecting l at a point P. Let v and w be unit
direction vectors of l and m respectively. Let α(t) = P + tw be a parametrization of m. Then

d(α(t), l) = |t || hw, v ⊥ i|.

Thus as X ranges through m, d(X, l) ranges through all nonnegative real numbers, each positive real
number occurring twice.

30
2.2.4 Distance of a Point from the Line

The general equation of a straight line is ax + by + c = 0. Choose a point with coordinates (x1 , y1 ).
Now we can write the following equation:

(x − x1 , y − y1 ) = t(a, b).

We solve this vector equation for x and y. We have

ta = x − x1 and tb = y − y1

x = ta + x − 1 y = tb + y − 1

Putting these values into the equation and solving for t :

ax + by + c = 0

a(ta + x1 ) + b(tb + y1 ) + c = 0

ta2 + ax1 + tb2 + by1 + c = 0

ta2 + tb2 = −ax1 − by1 − c

t(a2 + b2 ) = −ax1 − by1 − c

The length of the normal vector is given by |n|2 = a2 + b2 so we can rewrite the equation as:

t · |n|2 = −ax1 − by1 − c.

If we divide through by |n|2 we get a value for t, which we can multiply by the length of the normal
vector . We need to remember that length cannot be negative so we use the absolute value sign.

| − ax1 − by1 − c|
t= .
|n|2

If we multiply by |n|2 we get the following formula:

31
 which is the distance of the point (x1 , y1 ) from the line ax + by + c = 0.

| − ax1 − by1 − c| | − ax1 − by1 − c|

or
|n|2 a2 + b2

Example: Reflect the point (−3, 5) in the line 3x − y − 6 = 0 and find the point of reflection.

Solution: We find a vector that is perpendicular to the line 3x − y − 6 = 0 going from the point (−3, 5)
to the point P = (x, y), which lies on the line. This will be the normal vector tn. We find the reflected
point S by adding the vector tn to the position vector of P. Note that n = (3, −) and hence

t(3, −1) = (x + 3, y − 5).

Solving these two equations for x and y we get:

3t = x + 3 and −t = y − 5

x = 3t − 3 y = −t + 5

Putting these values for x and y into the equation we can find t.

3x − y − 6 = 0

3(3t − 3) − (−t + 5) − 6 = 0

9t − 9 + t − 5 − 6 = 0

10t = 20

t = 2.

This gives us the vector

tn = 2n = 2(3, −1) = (6, −2)

and we can find the coordinates of the position vector of P.

−−→
OP = (−3 + 6, 5 − 2) = (3, 3).

Thus

Now we add 2n and get the position vector for S. We have

−→ −→
OS = OS + 2n = (3, 3) + (6, −2) = (9, 1).

32
Therefore, the coordinates of the point of reflection is S = (9, 1).

33
 Exercises

1. Let A = (1, 2), B = (3, −1) and C = (4, 2).

a) Find the vector equation of the line AB.

b) Find the vector equation of the line l through C parallel to AB.

c) Find the vector equation of the line m through C perpendicular to AB.

d) Find the point of intersection of the line m with AB.

e) Find the distance of C from AB.

f) Sketch the lines AB, l and m.

2. Find all unit direction and normal vectors to the line 3x + 2y + 10 = 0. Graph the line and its unit
normal and direction vectors.

3. Find the value of k if lines r : x + 2y − 3 = 0 and s : x − ky + 4 = 0 are parallel.

4. Determine the equation for the line parallel to r : x + 2y + 3 = 0 that passes through the point
A = (3, 5).

5. Determine the equation for the line parallel to s : 3x + 2y − 4 = 0 that passes through the point
B = (2, 3).

6. Find the equation of two straight lines l and m that intersect in the point (3, 3). Line l is parallel
and m is perpendicular to the line 3x − y + 2 = 0.

7. Find the distance between the lines 3x − y + 2 = 0 and 3x − y − 6 = 0.

8. Find the equations of two lines l1 and l2 that intersect in the point (3, 4) and are parallel to the
direction vectors v = (3, 1)and w = (1, 3), respectively.

9. Let P + [v] and Q + [w] be intersecting lines. Let D be a matrix whose first row is v and whose
second row is w. If P −tv = Q+sw is the point of intersection, prove that (t, s) = (P −Q)D−1 . Here
(t, s) and P − Q are regarded as 1 x 2 matrices. Use this method to find the point of intersection
in the case P = (1, 5), Q = (3, 7), v = (8, 1), w = (6, 2).

v2
10. Suppose that v = (v1 , v2 ) is a direction vector of a line l, the number α = v1 is called the slope of
l, provided that v1 6= 0.

(i) Show that the concept of slope is well-defined.

(ii) Show that if l is a line with slope α, the vector (1, α) is a direction vector of l.

(iii) Show that the line through P = (x0 , y0 ) with slope α has the equation

y − y0 = α(x − x0 ).

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