PHY103 PHYSICS - I

VECTORS

Asst. Prof. Dr. Alper FIDAN

 INTRODUCTION

In our study of physics, we often need to work with physical

quantities that have both numerical and directional
properties. We discuss the addition and subtraction of
vector quantities, together with some common
applications to physical situations.

2
 Coordinate Systems

A coordinate system is used to describe location.

A coordinate system consists of:

• a fixed reference point called the origin
• a set of axes
• a definition of the coordinate variables

3
 Cartesian Coordinates
Many aspects of physics involve a
description of a location in space.
In Chapter 2, for example, we saw
that the mathematical description
of an object’s motion requires a
method for describing the object’s
position at various times. In two
dimensions, this description is
accomplished with the use of the
Cartesian coordinate system, in
which perpendicular axes intersect
at a point defined as the origin O.
Cartesian coordinates are also
called rectangular coordinates.
Example

y
(-3,5) The arrow indicates the
“positive” direction.

(4,2)

x
cartesian

The position of an object is its location

in a coordinate system.
5
 Polar Coordinates
Sometimes it is more
convenient to represent a
point in a plane by its plane
polar coordinates (r, u) as
shown in Figure. In this polar
coordinate system, r is the
distance from the origin to
the point having Cartesian
coordinates (x, y) and u is the
angle between a fixed axis
and a line drawn from the
origin to the point. The fixed
axis is often the positive x
axis, and u is usually measured
counterclockwise from it.
Polar Coordinates
 Coordinate Systems

r Cartesian Coordinates:
b (x,y)=(a,b)
Plane polar coordinates:
(r,)


a

r = a2 + b2
Frame transformation:
tan( ) = b / a
8
TRIGONOMETRY

sin=opposite/hypotenuse
cos=adjacent/hypotenuse
tan=opposite/adjacent

Pythagorean theorem:

c = a2 + b2
2

Note that sin,cos,tan are

dimensionless.

2 radians corresponds to 360o

9
Example

The Cartesian coordinates of a point in the xy plane are

(x, y) = (-3.50, -2.50) m as shown in Figure. Find the
polar coordinates of this point.
Example

The Cartesian coordinates of a point in the xy plane are

(x, y) = (-3.50, -2.50) m as shown in Figure. Find the
polar coordinates of this point.
 Vector and Scalar Quantities

A scalar quantity is completely specified by a single

value with an appropriate unit and has no direction.

• Other examples of scalar quantities are volume,

mass, speed, time, and time intervals.
• Some scalars are always positive, such as mass and
speed. Others, such as temperature, can have either
positive or negative values.

The rules of ordinary arithmetic are used to manipulate

scalar quantities.
 Vector and Scalar Quantities
A vector quantity is completely specified by a number
with an appropriate unit (the magnitude of the vector)
plus a direction.

• Examples of vector quantities are displacement,

velocity, acceleration, force etc.
• We use a boldface letter with an arrow over the
letter, such as 𝐀, to represent a vector. Another
common notation for vectors with which you should
be familiar is a simple boldface character: A. The
magnitude of the vector 𝐀 is written either A or
|𝐀 |. The magnitude of a vector has physical units,
such as meters for displacement or meters per
second for velocity. The magnitude of a vector is
always a positive number.
 Vector and Scalar Quantities
Displacement is a vector quantity, as you know from
previous chapter. Suppose a particle moves from some
point A to some point B along a straight path as shown
in Figure. We represent this displacement by drawing
an arrow from A to B, with the tip of the arrow
pointing away from the starting point. The direction of
the arrowhead represents the direction of the
displacement, and the length of the arrow represents
the magnitude of the displacement. If the particle
travels along some other path from A to B such as
shown by the broken line in Figure, its displacement is
still the arrow drawn from A to B. Displacement
depends only on the initial and final positions, so the
displacement vector is independent of the path taken
by the particle between these two points.
Vector and Scalar Quantities

As a particle moves from A

to B along an arbitrary path
represented by the broken
line; its displacement is a
vector quantity shown by the
arrow drawn from A to B.
 Quick Quiz

Which of the following are vector quantities and which are

scalar quantities?
(a) your age (b) acceleration (c) velocity (d) speed (e) mass
 Some Properties of Vectors

We will investigate general properties of vectors

representing physical quantities. We will also discuss how
to add and subtract vectors using both algebraic and
geometric methods.
 Equality of Two Vectors

For many purposes, two vectors 𝐀 and 𝐁 may be defined to

be equal if they have the same magnitude and if they point
in the same direction. That is, 𝐀=𝐁 only if A=B and if 𝐀 and
𝐁 point in the same direction along parallel lines. For
example, all the vectors in Figure are equal even though
they have different starting points. This property allows us
to move a vector to a position parallel to itself in a diagram
without affecting the vector.

These four vectors are equal because

they have equal lengths and point in
the same direction.
 Adding Vectors
The rules for adding vectors are conveniently described by
a graphical method. To add vector 𝐁 to vector 𝐀, first draw
vector 𝐀 on graph paper, with its magnitude represented
by a convenient length scale, and then draw vector 𝐁 to the
same scale, with its tail starting from the tip of 𝐀, as
shown in Figure. The resultant vector 𝐂Ԧ = 𝐀 + 𝐁 is the
vector drawn from the tail of 𝐀 to the tip of 𝐁 .
 Adding Vectors
A geometric construction can also be used to add more
than two vectors as shown in Figure for the case of four
vectors. The resultant vector 𝐑 = 𝐀 +𝐁+𝐂Ԧ +𝐃 is the vector
that completes the polygon. In other words, 𝐑 is the vector
drawn from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the
last vector. This technique for adding vectors is often
called the “head to tail method.”
 Adding Vectors
When two vectors are added, the sum is independent of
the order of the addition. (This fact may seem trivial, but
the order is important when vectors are multiplied.) This
property, which can be seen from the geometric
construction in Figure, is known as the commutative law of
addition:

𝐀+ 𝐁 = 𝐁 + 𝐀
 Adding Vectors
When three or more vectors are added, their sum is
independent of the way in which the individual vectors are
grouped together. A geometric proof of this rule for three
vectors is given in Figure. This property is called the
associative law of addition:

𝐀 + (𝐁 + 𝐂)
Ԧ = (𝐀 + 𝐁) + 𝐂Ԧ
 Negative of a Vector

The negative of the vector 𝐀 is defined as the vector that

when added to A gives zero for the vector sum. That is,
𝐀 + (−𝐀) = 0. The vectors 𝐀 and −𝐀 have the same
magnitude but point in opposite directions.
Subracting Vectors
 Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar

If vector 𝐀 is multiplied by a positive scalar quantity m,

the product m 𝐀 is a vector that has the same direction as
𝐀 and magnitude mA. If vector 𝐀 is multiplied by a negative
scalar quantity -m, the product -m𝐀 is directed opposite 𝐀
For example, the vector 5𝐀 is five times as long as 𝐀 and
points in the same direction as 𝐀 ; the vector -1/3𝐀 is one-
third the length of 𝐀 and points in the direction opposit 𝐀 .
Example
Example
Example
 Discuss
Does the angle β that we calculated agree with an estimate
made by looking at Figure 3.11a or with an actual angle
measured from the diagram using the graphical method? Is
it reasonable that the magnitude of R is larger than that
of both A and B ? Are the units of R correct?

Although the head to tail method of adding vectors works

well, it suffers from two disadvantages. First, some people
find using the laws of cosines and sines to be awkward.

Second, a triangle only results if you are adding two

vectors. If you are adding three or more vectors, the
resulting geometric shape is usually not a triangle. In
Section3, we will explore a new method of adding vectors
that will address both of these disadvantages.
 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

The graphical method of adding vectors is not

recommended whenever high accuracy is required or in
three-dimensional problems. In this section, we describe
a method of adding vectors that makes use of the
projections of vectors along coordinate axes. These
projections are called the components of the vector or
its rectangular components. Any vector can be completely
described by its components.
 The Vector Components
Consider a vector 𝐀 lying in the x-y plane and making an
arbitrary angle θ with the positive x axis as shown in Figure
3.12a. This vector can be expressed as the sum of two other
component vectors 𝐀x, which is parallel to the x axis, and 𝐀y,
which is parallel to the y axis. From Figure 3.12b, we see
that the three vectors form a right triangle and that 𝐀 =
𝐀 𝑥 + 𝐀 𝑦 . We shall often refer to the “components of a
vector 𝐀,” written 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦(without the boldface notation).
The component 𝐴𝑥 represents the projection of 𝐀 along the
x axis, and the component 𝐴𝑦 represents the projection of 𝐀
along the y axis. These components can be positive or
negative. The component 𝐴𝑥 is positive if the component
vector 𝐀 𝑥 points in the positive x direction and is negative if
𝐀 𝑥 points in the negative x direction. A similar statement is
made for the component 𝐴𝑦
(a) A vector 𝐀 lying in the x-y plane can be represented
by its component vectors 𝐀 𝑥 and 𝐀 𝑦 . (b) The y
component vector 𝐀 𝑦 can be moved to the right so that
it adds to 𝐀 𝑥 . The vector sum of the component
vectors is 𝐀. These three vectors form a right triangle.
From Figure 3.12 and the definition of sine and cosine,
𝐴
we see that cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑥ൗ𝐴 and that sin 𝜃 = 𝑦ൗ𝐴. Hence, the
components of 𝐀 are
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
The magnitudes of these components are the lengths of
the two sides of a right triangle with a hypotenuse of
length A. Therefore, the magnitude and direction of 𝐀
are related to its components through the expressions
A= 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦
𝐴𝑦
𝜃= tan−1
𝐴𝑥
 Note!!!
x and y components associate the
cosine of the angle with the x
component and the sine of the
angle with they component. This
association is true only because
we measured the angle u with
respect to the x axis, so do not
memorize these equations. If θ is
measured with respect to the y
axis (as in some problems), these
equations will be incorrect. Think
about which side of the triangle
containing the components is
adjacent to the angle and which
side is opposite and then assign
the cosine and sine accordingly.
 Unit Vectors

Vector quantities often are expressed in terms of unit

vectors. A unit vector is a dimensionless vector having
a magnitude of exactly 1. Unit vectors are used to
specify a given direction and have no other physical
significance. They are used solely as a bookkeeping
convenience in describing a direction in space.
 Unit Vectors

We shall use the symbols 𝒾,Ƹ 𝒿,Ƹ and 𝓀෠ to represent unit

vectors pointing in the positive x, y, and z directions,
respectively. (The “hats,” or circumflexes, on the
symbols are a standard notation for unit vectors.) The
unit vectors 𝒾Ƹ , 𝒿Ƹ , and 𝓀෠ form a set of mutually
perpendicular vectors in a right-handed coordinate
system. The magnitude of each unit vector equals 1;
that is, 𝒾Ƹ = 𝒿Ƹ = 𝓀෠ = 1 .
 Unit Vectors
Consider a vector 𝐀 lying in the x-y plane as shown in
Figure b. The product of the component 𝐴𝑥 and the unit
vector 𝒾Ƹ is the component vector 𝐴Ԧ𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒾,Ƹ which lies on
the x axis and has magnitude 𝐴𝑥 . Likewise, 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 𝒿Ƹ is
the component vector of magnitude 𝐴𝑦 lying on the y axis.
Therefore, the unit-vector notation for the vector 𝐀 is,
 𝐀 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒾Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝒿Ƹ

Now let us assume that the resultant

vector 𝐑 = 𝐀 + 𝐁 is

𝐑 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒾Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝒿Ƹ + 𝐵𝑥 𝒾Ƹ + 𝐵𝑦 𝒿Ƹ

𝐑 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 𝒾Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 𝒿Ƹ

Because 𝑹 = 𝑅𝑥 𝓲Ƹ + 𝑅𝑦 𝓳Ƹ then,

𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥
𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦
The magnitude of 𝑹
and the angle it
makes with the x axis
are obtained from its
components using the
relationships

2
𝑅= 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦

𝑅𝑦 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑅𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥
For three dimensions,

෡
𝐀 = 𝐴𝑥 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝓴
෡
𝑩 = 𝐵𝑥 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐵𝑦 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐵𝑧 𝓴

The sum of 𝐀 and 𝑩 and length are,

෡
𝐑 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 𝓴

𝐑 = 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑧2

The extension of our method to adding more than two vectors
is also straight forward. For example,

𝐀 + 𝐁 + 𝐂Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 𝒿Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶𝑧 𝓀෠

We have described adding displacement vectors in this

section because these types of vectors are easy to visualize.
The Sum of Two Vectors
The Sum of Two Vectors
The Sum of Two Vectors
 Dot Product of Two Vectors
Scalar product of two vectors (dot product) is

𝐶 = 𝑨 ∙ 𝑩 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 ∙ cos 𝜃

Here, A and B are the

magnitudes of vectors, and θ
is (⩽180o) the angle between
two vectors. The result of this
multiplication is scalar, as the
name suggests.
 Some Properties of Dot Product

Commutative law of dot product

𝐀∙𝐁=𝐁∙𝐀

Associative law of dot product

𝑨∙ 𝑩+𝑪 =𝑨∙𝑩+𝑨∙𝑪

Scalar multiplication of a vector by itself

𝐀 ∙ 𝐀 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 0 = 𝐴2
If two vectors are given to us as unit vectors, how can we do
the dot product?

෡
𝐀 = 𝐴𝑥 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝓴
෡
𝑩 = 𝐵𝑥 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐵𝑦 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐵𝑧 𝓴

𝒾Ƹ ∙ 𝒾Ƹ = 𝒿Ƹ ∙ 𝒿Ƹ = 𝓀෠ ∙ 𝓀෠ = 1
𝒾Ƹ ∙ 𝒿Ƹ = 𝒾Ƹ ∙ 𝓀෠ = 𝒿Ƹ ∙ 𝓀෠ = 0

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 ∙ 𝐵𝑥 𝓲Ƹ ∙ 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐴𝑥 ∙ 𝐵𝑦 ෡ +⋯
𝓲Ƹ ∙ 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐴𝑥 ∙ 𝐵𝑧 𝓲Ƹ ∙ 𝓴
⋯ + 𝐴𝑦 ∙ 𝐵𝑥 𝓳Ƹ ∙ 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 ∙ 𝐵𝑦 ෡ +⋯
𝓳Ƹ ∙ 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 ∙ 𝐵𝑧 𝓳Ƹ ∙ 𝓴
⋯ + 𝐴𝑧 ∙ 𝐵𝑥 ෡ ∙ 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 ∙ 𝐵𝑦
𝓴 𝓴෡ ∙ 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 ∙ 𝐵𝑧 𝓴 ෡ ∙𝓴෡

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 ∙ 𝐵𝑥 +𝐴𝑦 ∙ 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 ∙ 𝐵𝑧
 Vector Multiplication (Cross Product)

In general, the vector product of two vectors (let's say

𝐀 and 𝑩) is defined as 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵. In this multiplication
process, both the direction and size of the result
vector must be defined. Let's start with the easy one
first. The size of the result vector is:

𝐶 = 𝐀 × 𝐁 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃
Vector Multiplication (Cross Product)

A property of the cross product is that

the resulting vector is perpendicular to
both vectors entering the
multiplication operation.
Let's take the vectors AԦ ×BԦ .Both
vectors are on the horizontal plane (for
example, the top surface of a table)
shown in gray. (Note: There may be a
plane containing any two vectors.) The
cross product will be perpendicular to
this plane. So, the result vector will be
either upward or downward. We can
decide which direction it will be with
the right-hand rule. What we need to
do for this are
Vector Multiplication (Cross Product)

1- We place our hand flat on the first

vector with our 4 fingers pointing in
the direction of the first vector.

2- While our hand is still flat, we will

scan the small angle between the two
vectors with the palm of our hand.

3- Our thumb, held perpendicular to

our four fingers, gives the direction of
the result vector.
 Some Properties of Cross Product

No Commutative law for cross product

𝐀 × 𝐁 = −𝐁 × 𝐀

Associative law of cross product

𝑨× 𝑩+𝑪 =𝑨×𝑩+𝑨×𝑪

Cross product of a vector by itself

𝐀 × 𝐀 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 0 = 0
If two vectors are given to us as unit vectors, how can we
do the cross product?

෡
𝐀 = 𝐴𝑥 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝓴
෡
𝑩 = 𝐵𝑥 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐵𝑦 𝓳Ƹ + 𝐵𝑧 𝓴

𝒾Ƹ × 𝒾Ƹ = 𝒿Ƹ × 𝒿Ƹ = 𝓀෠ × 𝓀෠ = 0
𝒾Ƹ × 𝒿Ƹ = −𝒿Ƹ × 𝒾Ƹ = 𝓀෠
𝒿Ƹ × 𝓀෠ = −𝓀෠ × 𝒿Ƹ = 𝒾Ƹ
𝓀෠ × 𝒾Ƹ = −𝒾Ƹ × 𝓀෠ = 𝒿Ƹ

𝒾Ƹ 𝒿Ƹ 𝓀෠
𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
= 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝓲Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 ෡
𝓳Ƹ + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝓴
If vector 𝐴Ԧ = 3𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ and vector 𝐵 = 𝑖Ƹ − 2𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠

a) A.B =? b) AxB =?
 If vector 𝐴Ԧ = 3𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ and vector 𝐵 = 𝑖Ƹ − 2𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠

a) A.B =? b) AxB =?

a. 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = 3 ∙ 1 + 2 ∙ −2 + 1∙1

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = 3 − 4 + 1 = 0

b. 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 = 4𝑖Ƹ − 2𝑗Ƹ − 8𝑘෠

We use the opposite sign
when sweeping upwards
The magnitudes of the vectors
are given as 5 units. AԦ vector in
+y direction, BԦ vector makes an
angle of 37o with the x-axis. For
these two vectors;
a. 𝐀 + 𝐁 =?
b. 𝐀 − 𝐁 =?
x and y components of vector AԦ are -9.00 cm and 6.10
cm, x and y components of BԦ vector are given as 8.60
cm and -12.60 cm. If AԦ −2BԦ +3CԦ =0
Find the components of CԦ .
The x and y components of vector AԦ are -9.00 cm and
6.10 cm, x and y components of BԦ vector are given as
8.60 cm and -12.60 cm. If AԦ −2BԦ +3CԦ =0
Find the components of CԦ .
The x, y and z components of vector A are given 5.00
cm, 12.0 cm and 13.0 cm, respectively.

a. Write the vector AԦ in terms of unit vectors.

b. Calculate the magnitude of the vector, |AԦ |=A=?
 References
• https://inside.tamuc.edu/academics/colleges/scie
nceengineeringagriculture/departments/physicsAs
tronomy/worldOfPhysics/introPhysics1.aspx
• Physics for Scientists and Engineers” by R. A.
Serway & J. W. Hewett
• “Physics for Scientists&Engineers” by D.C.Giancoli

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