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 Computer Graphics
Programming in OpenGL
with Java
Second Edition

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 LICENSE, DISCLAIMER OF LIABILITY, AND LIMITED WARRANTY

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CGP_Java2E_CH00-2nd-Pass.indd 2 07-09-2018 11:16:12

 Computer Graphics
Programming in OpenGL
with Java
Second Edition

V. Scott Gordon, PhD

California State University, Sacramento

John Clevenger, PhD

California State University, Sacramento

Mercury Learning and Information

Dulles, Virginia
Boston, Massachusetts
New Delhi

CGP_Java2E_CH00-2nd-Pass.indd 3 07-09-2018 11:16:12

 Copyright ©2019 by Mercury Learning and inforMation LLC. All rights reserved.

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Publisher: David Pallai

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Computer Graphics Programming in OpenGL with Java, Second Edition
ISBN: 978-1-683922-19-3

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Books for programmers

CGP_Java2E_CH00-2nd-Pass.indd 4 07-09-2018 11:16:12
 Contents
Preface xi
What’s New in This Edition xiii
Intended Audience xiv
How to Use This Book xv
Acknowledgments xvii
About the Authors xix

Chapter 1 Getting Started 1

1.1 Languages and Libraries 1
1.1.1 Java 2
1.1.2 OpenGL / GLSL 2
1.1.3 JOGL 3
1.1.4 JOML 3
1.2 Installation and Configuration 4

Chapter 2 The OpenGL Graphics Pipeline 5

2.1 The OpenGL Pipeline 6
2.1.1 Java/JOGL Application 7
2.1.2 Vertex and Fragment Shaders 10
2.1.3 Tessellation 15
2.1.4 Geometry Shader 16
2.1.5 Rasterization 17
2.1.6 Fragment Shader 19
2.1.7 Pixel Operations 20

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 vi ■ C o n ten ts

2.2 Detecting OpenGL and GLSL Errors 21

2.3 Reading GLSL Source Code from Files 26
2.4 Building Objects from Vertices 27
2.5 Animating a Scene 28
2.6 Organizing the Java Code Files 32

Chapter 3 Mathematical Foundations 37

3.1 3D Coordinate Systems 38
3.2 Points 38
3.3 Matrices 39
3.4 Transformation Matrices 42
3.4.1 Translation 42
3.4.2 Scaling 43
3.4.3 Rotation 44
3.5 Vectors 45
3.5.1 Uses for Dot Product 47
3.5.2 Uses for Cross Product 48
3.6 Local and World Space 49
3.7 Eye Space and the Synthetic Camera 50
3.8 Projection Matrices 53
3.8.1 The Perspective Projection Matrix 53
3.8.2 The Orthographic Projection Matrix 56
3.9 Look-At Matrix 57
3.10 GLSL Functions for Building Matrix Transforms 58

Chapter 4 Managing 3D Graphics Data 63

4.1 Buffers and Vertex Attributes 64
4.2 Uniform Variables 67
4.3 Interpolation of Vertex Attributes 68
4.4 Model-View and Perspective Matrices 69
4.5 Our First 3D Program—A 3D Cube 71
4.6 Rendering Multiple Copies of an Object 80
4.6.1 Instancing 81
4.7 Rendering Multiple Different Models in a Scene 84
4.8 Matrix Stacks 87
4.9 Combating “Z-Fighting” Artifacts 94
4.10 Other Options for Primitives 95
4.11 Coding for Performance 97
4.11.1 Minimizing Dynamic Memory Allocation 97

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 C onte nts ■ vii

4.11.2 Pre-Computing the Perspective Matrix 99

4.11.3 Back-Face Culling 100

Chapter 5 Texture Mapping 107

5.1 Loading Texture Image Files 108
5.2 Texture Coordinates 110
5.3 Creating a Texture Object 112
5.4 Constructing Texture Coordinates 112
5.5 Loading Texture Coordinates into Buffers 114
5.6 Using the Texture in a Shader: Sampler Variables and Texture Units 114
5.7 Texture Mapping: Example Program 115
5.8 Mipmapping 118
5.9 Anisotropic Filtering 123
5.10 Wrapping and Tiling 124
5.11 Perspective Distortion 126
5.12 Loading Texture Image Files Using Java AWT Classes 128

Chapter 6 3D Models 133

6.1 Procedural Models—Building a Sphere 134
6.2 OpenGL Indexing—Building a Torus 142
6.2.1 The Torus 142
6.2.2 Indexing in OpenGL 143
6.3 Loading Externally Produced Models 148

Chapter 7 Lighting 161

7.1 Lighting Models 161
7.2 Lights 163
7.3 Materials 166
7.4 ADS Lighting Computations 168
7.5 Implementing ADS Lighting 171
7.5.1 Gouraud Shading 172
7.5.2 Phong Shading 180
7.6 Combining Lighting and Textures 185

Chapter 8 Shadows 191

8.1 The Importance of Shadows 191
8.2 Projective Shadows 192
8.3 Shadow Volumes 193

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 viii ■ Co n te n ts

8.4 Shadow Mapping 194

8.4.1 Shadow Mapping (Pass One)—“Draw” Objects from
Light Position 195
8.4.2 Shadow Mapping (Intermediate Step)—Copying the
Z-Buffer to a Texture 196
8.4.3 Shadow Mapping (Pass Two)—Rendering the Scene with
Shadows 197
8.5 A Shadow Mapping Example 201
8.6 Shadow Mapping Artifacts 208
8.7 Soft Shadows 210
8.7.1 Soft Shadows in the Real World 211
8.7.2 Generating Soft Shadows—Percentage Closer Filtering (PCF) 212
8.7.3 A Soft Shadow/PCF Program 216

Chapter 9 Sky and Backgrounds 221

9.1 Skyboxes 221
9.2 Skydomes 224
9.3 Implementing a Skybox 226
9.3.1 Building a Skybox from Scratch 226
9.3.2 Using OpenGL Cube Maps 229
9.4 Environment Mapping 234

Chapter 10 Enhancing Surface Detail 243

10.1 Bump Mapping 243
10.2 Normal Mapping 245
10.3 Height Mapping 254

Chapter 11 Parametric Surfaces 261

11.1 Quadratic Bézier Curves 261
11.2 Cubic Bézier Curves 263
11.3 Quadratic Bézier Surfaces 266
11.4 Cubic Bézier Surfaces 268

Chapter 12 Tessellation 273

12.1 Tessellation in OpenGL 273
12.2 Tessellation for Bézier Surfaces 279
12.3 Tessellation for Terrain/Height Maps 286
12.4 Controlling Level of Detail (LOD) 293

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 C onte nts ■ ix

Chapter 13 Geometry Shaders 299

13.1 Per-Primitive Processing in OpenGL 299
13.2 Altering Primitives 301
13.3 Deleting Primitives 305
13.4 Adding Primitives 306
13.5 Changing Primitive Types 309

Chapter 14 Other Techniques 313

14.1 Fog 313
14.2 Compositing/Blending/Transparency 316
14.3 User-Defined Clipping Planes 322
14.4 3D Textures 324
14.5 Noise 330
14.6 Noise Application—Marble 335
14.7 Noise Application—Wood 339
14.8 Noise Application—Clouds 342
14.9 Noise Application—Special Effects 347

Appendix A Installation and Setup for PC (Windows) 353

Appendix B Installation and Setup for Macintosh 357
Appendix C Using the Nsight Graphics Debugger 363

Index 371

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CGP_Java2E_CH00-2nd-Pass.indd 10 07-09-2018 11:16:12
 Preface
This book is designed primarily as a textbook for a typical computer science undergradu-
ate course in OpenGL 3D graphics programming. However, we have also endeavored to
create a text that could be used to teach oneself, without an accompanying course. With
both of those aims in mind, we have tried to explain things as clearly and simply as we
can. Every programming example is stripped down and simplified as much as possible,
but still complete so that the reader may run them all as presented.

One of the things that we hope is unique about this book is that we have strived to make
it accessible to a beginner—that is, someone new to 3D graphics programming. While
there is by no means a lack of information available on the topic—quite the ­contrary—
many students are initially overwhelmed. This text is our attempt to write the book we
wish we had had when we were starting out, with step-by-step explanations of the basics,
progressing in an organized manner up through advanced topics. We considered titling
the book Shader Programming Made Easy; however, we don’t think that there really is
any way of making shader programming “easy.” We hope that we have come close.

This book teaches OpenGL programming in Java, using JOGL—a Java “wrapper”
for OpenGL’s native C calls [JO16]. There are several advantages to learning graphics
programming in Java rather than in C:
• It is more convenient for students at schools that conduct most of their curriculum
in Java.
• Java’s I/O, window, and event handling are arguably cleaner than in C.
• Java’s excellent support for object-oriented design patterns can foster good ­design.
• JOGL includes some very nice tools, such as for loading textures, animation
loops, etc.

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 xii ■ Pr e fa c e

It is worth mentioning that there do exist other Java bindings for OpenGL. One that
has become very popular is Lightweight Java Game Library, or LWJGL [LW16]. Like
JOGL, LWJGL also offers bindings for OpenAL and OpenCL. This textbook focuses
only on JOGL.

Another thing that makes this book unique is that it has a “sister” textbook: Computer
Graphics Programming in OpenGL with C++. The two books are organized in lockstep,
with the same chapter and section numbers and topics, figures, exercises, and theoretical
descriptions. Wherever possible, the code is organized similarly. Of course, the use of
Java versus C++ leads to considerable programming differences. Still, we believe that we
have provided virtually identical learning paths, even allowing a student to choose either
option within a single classroom.

An important point of clarification is that there exist both different versions of OpenGL
(briefly discussed later) and different variants of OpenGL. For example, in addition to
“standard OpenGL” (sometimes called “desktop OpenGL”), there exists a variant called
“OpenGL ES” which is tailored for development of embedded systems (hence the “ES”).
“Embedded systems” include devices such as mobile phones, game consoles, automo-
biles, and industrial control systems. OpenGL ES is mostly a subset of standard OpenGL,
eliminating a large number of operations that are typically not needed for embedded sys-
tems. OpenGL ES also adds some additional functionality, typically application-specific
operations for particular target environments. The JOGL suite of Java bindings includes
interfaces for different versions of OpenGL ES, although we do not use them in this book.

Yet another variant of OpenGL is called “WebGL.” Based on OpenGL ES, WebGL is
designed to support the use of OpenGL in web browsers. WebGL allows an application to
use JavaScript1 to invoke OpenGL ES operations, which makes it easy to embed OpenGL
graphics into standard HTML (web) documents. Most modern web browsers support
WebGL, including Apple Safari, Google Chrome, Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla
Firefox, and Opera. Since web programming is outside the scope of this book, we will not
cover any WebGL specifics. Note however that because WebGL is based on OpenGL ES,
which in turn is based on standard OpenGL, much of what is covered in this book can be
transferred directly to learning about these OpenGL variants.

The very topic of 3D graphics lends itself to impressive, even beautiful images.
Indeed, many popular textbooks on the topic are filled with breathtaking scenes, and it
is enticing to leaf through their galleries. While we acknowledge the motivational utility

1 JavaScript is a scripting language that can be used to embed code in webpages. It has strong
similarities to Java, but also many important differences.

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 Pre fa c e ■ xiii

of such examples, our aim is to teach, not to impress. The images in this book are simply
the outputs of the example programs, and since this is an introductory text, the resulting
scenes are unlikely to impress an expert. However, the techniques presented do constitute
the foundational elements for producing today’s stunning 3D effects.

We also haven’t tried to create an OpenGL or JOGL “reference.” Our coverage of

OpenGL and JOGL represents only a tiny fraction of their capabilities. Rather, our aim is
to use OpenGL and JOGL as vehicles for teaching the fundamentals of modern shader-
based 3D graphics programming, and provide the reader with a sufficiently deep under-
standing for further study. If along the way this text helps to expand awareness of JOGL
and other related technologies, that would be nice too.

What’s New in This Edition

The biggest change we have made in this second edition is switching math libraries. In
the first edition, we used a math library called “graphicslib3D” which we had built our-
selves to support an advanced graphics course at California State University Sacramento.
Since then, a new Java-based math library called “JOML” has emerged that offers many
advantages over graphicslib3D. First, JOML was developed with speed in mind, and using
it enables us to more effectively introduce performance-related topics. Second, JOML is
becoming an extremely popular math library among JOGL users, and therefore learning
it is a valuable skill. Finally, JOML is an open source project with an active developer
community, and as such is likely to enjoy better long-term support than graphicslib3D.

The switch to JOML affects virtually every program in the book, although in most
cases the changes are small. Readers who have used our previous edition will find that
their existing code may not work without updating the code (and the library) to JOML.
We hope that any minor inconvenience will be offset by improved performance and the
benefits of standardization to a more widely used library.

As we did for graphicslib3D in our previous edition, we have included the latest ver-
sion of JOML on the companion disc distributed with this book. However, readers are
encouraged to seek out and utilize the newest version of JOML as it is being continually
updated. For this reason, our installation instructions describe how to obtain the latest
version of JOML from the Internet.

There are some new sections in the book that we hope readers will find exciting. As
alluded to above, we have added a section on coding for performance. We also added a
section on generating soft shadows that we promised in the instructor notes for our previ-
ous edition. The techniques for soft shadows also help with reducing jagged-edge shadow

CGP_Java2E_CH00-2nd-Pass.indd 13 07-09-2018 11:16:12

 xiv ■ P refa c e

artifacts, and so users are likely to use them frequently, even when soft shadows aren’t
necessary. We also added a new section in Chapter 13 (on geometry), showing how to
generate hair or fur by using a geometry shader to change primitive types.

Almost immediately after our first edition was released, we were asked how to run
the programs on a Macintosh. After getting all of our examples running on a Mac, we pub-
lished the steps on our website. That information has become an additional appendix in
this edition. In fact, for this edition, we have moved all installation details into appendices.

We also added an appendix on using NVIDIA’s Nsight graphics debugger. The first
time we saw this tool we were blown away and desperately wanted to include it in our
book. Nsight was developed for use with C++, but after some experimentation—and some
much appreciated help from NVIDIA—we were able to get it to work with Java/JOGL.
We are delighted to include it in this second edition.

We have made numerous corrections and—we hope—improvements. The chapter on

skyboxes is largely rewritten, for example. Throughout the book, much of the code has
been restructured, such as by moving commonly reused functions into a separate utility
module. We also went through the entire book and spruced up the quality and resolution
of the figures.

Intended Audience
This book is targeted at students of computer science. This could mean undergraduates
pursuing a BS degree, but it could also mean anyone who studies computer science. As
such, we are assuming that the reader has at least a solid background in object-oriented
programming, at the level of someone who is, say, a computer science major at the junior
or senior level.

There are also some specific things that we use in this book but don’t cover because
we assume the reader already has sufficient background, including the following:
• Java and its Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT) or Swing library, especially for
GUI-building
• Java configuration details, such as manipulating the CLASSPATH
• event-driven programming
• basic matrix algebra and trigonometry
• awareness of color models, such as RGB, RGBA, etc.

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 Pre fa c e ■ xv

The audience for this new second edition is also hoped to be expanded by the release
of its “sister” textbook, Computer Graphics Programming in OpenGL with C++. In par-
ticular, we envision the possibility of a learning environment where students are free to
utilize either Java or C++ in the same classroom, selecting one or the other book. The two
texts cover the material sufficiently in lockstep that we believe conducting a course in this
manner should be possible.

How to Use This Book

This book is designed to be read from front to back. That is, material in later chapters
frequently relies on information learned in earlier chapters. So it probably won’t work to
jump back and forth in the chapters; rather, work your way forward through the material.

This book is intended mostly as a practical, hands-on guide. While there is plenty of
theoretical material included, the reader should treat this text as a sort of “workbook,” in
which you learn basic concepts by actually programming them yourself. We have pro-
vided code for all of the examples, but to really learn the concepts you will want to “play”
with those examples—extend them to build your own 3D scenes.

At the end of each chapter are a few problems to solve. Some are very simple, involv-
ing merely making simple modifications to the provided code. The problems that are
marked “(PROJECT),” however, are expected to take some time to solve and require writ-
ing a significant amount of code, or combining techniques from various examples. There
are also a few marked “(RESEARCH)” that encourage independent study because this
textbook doesn’t provide sufficient detail to solve them.

OpenGL calls, whether made in C or in Java through JOGL, often involve long lists of
parameters. While writing this book, the authors debated whether or not to, in each case,
describe all of the parameters. We decided that at the very beginning we would describe
every detail. But as the topics progress, we decided to avoid getting bogged down in every
piece of minutiae in the OpenGL calls (and there are many), for fear of the reader losing
sight of the big picture. For this reason, it is essential when working through the examples
to have ready access to reference material for Java, OpenGL, and JOGL.

For this, there are a number of excellent reference sources that we recommend using
in conjunction with this book. The javadocs for Java and JOGL are absolutely essential,
and can be accessed online or downloaded. The reader should bookmark them for easy
access in a browser, and expect to access them continuously for looking up items such

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 xvi ■ P refa c e

as parameter and constructor details. Use the following URLs for the Java and JOGL
javadocs:

https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/
https://jogamp.org/deployment/webstart/javadoc/jogl/javadoc

Many of the entries in the JOGL javadoc are simply pointers to the corresponding
entry in the OpenGL documentation:

https://www.opengl.org/sdk/docs/man/

Our examples utilize a mathematics library called JOML. This is a Java library that
also has its own set of javadocs. After installing JOML (described in the appendices), the
reader should locate the accompanying javadoc link and bookmark it. At press time, the
current link is

https://joml-ci.github.io/JOML/apidocs/

There are many other books on 3D graphics programming that we recommend read-
ing in parallel with this book (such as for solving the “research” problems), including the
following five that we often refer to:
• (Sellers et al.) OpenGL SuperBible [SW15]
• (Kessenich et al.) OpenGL Programming Guide [KS16] (the “red book”)
• (Wolff) OpenGL 4 Shading Language Cookbook [WO13]
• (Angel and Shreiner) Interactive Computer Graphics [AS14]
• (Luna) Introduction to 3D Game Programming with DirectX 12 [LU16]

Companion Files
This book is accompanied by a companion disc that contains the following items:
• All of the Java/OpenGL programs and related utility class files and GLSL shader
code presented in the book, along with batch files for compiling and running them
• The models and texture files used in the various programs and examples
• The cubemap and skydome image files used to make the skies and horizons
• Normal maps and height maps for lighting and surface detail effects
• All of the figures in the book, as image files
• The JOML mathematics library (version 1.9.11)
Readers who have purchased the electronic version of this book may obtain these files
by contacting the publisher at info@merclearning.com.

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 Pre fa c e ■ xvii

Instructor Ancillaries
Instructors in a college or university setting are encouraged to obtain the instructor ancil­
lary package that is available for this book, which contains the following additional items:
• A complete set of PowerPoint slides covering all topics in the book
• Solutions to most of the exercises at the ends of the chapters, including code
where applicable
• Sample syllabus for a course based on the book
• Additional hints for presenting the material, chapter-by-chapter
This instructor ancillary package is available by contacting the publisher at info@
merclearning.com.

Acknowledgments
Early drafts of this book (prior to the first edition) were used in the CSc-155 (Advanced
Computer Graphics Programming) course at CSU Sacramento, and benefited from many
student corrections and comments (and in some cases, code). The authors would like to
particularly thank Mitchell Brannan, Tiffany Chiapuzio-Wong, Samson Chua, Anthony
Doan, Kian Faroughi, Cody Jackson, John Johnston, Zeeshan Khaliq, Raymond Rivera,
Oscar Solorzano, Darren Takemoto, Jon Tinney, James Womack, and Victor Zepeda for
their suggestions.

Feedback started coming in almost immediately after the first edition was published.
We were especially excited to hear from instructors who adopted the book for their
courses and shared their experiences. Dr. Mauricio Papa from the University of Tulsa
traded several useful emails with us. Sean McCrory prepared a wonderfully detailed set
of corrections to a couple of our lighting (Chapter 7) and Perlin noise (Chapter 14) imple-
mentations. We also heard from many students at various institutions, and their questions
helped us to assess strengths and weaknesses in our book.

A sort of “acid test” for our book came in the fall of 2017, when our colleague Dr. Pinar
Muyan-Ozcelik used the first edition while teaching our CSc-155 course for her first time.
This gave us an opportunity to assess whether our book achieved its goal as a “teach
yourself” resource. The course went well, and along the way Dr. Muyan-Ozcelik kept a
running log of questions and corrections for each chapter, which led to many improve-
ments in this second edition.

Kai Burjack, lead developer of the JOML math library, has been extraordinarily
generous with his time and assistance as we migrated from graphicslib3D to JOML. He
reviewed key segments of our book and gave us insight into some important aspects of
JOML. He also helped guide us in using JOML correctly.

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 xviii ■ P re fa c e

We are extremely grateful for the ongoing assistance provided to us by Julien Gouesse,
engine support maintainer at JogAmp. Mr. Gouesse has provided technical information
on JOGL textures, cube maps, buffer handling, proper loading of shader source files, and
a variety of other topics. His help has led to significant improvements in our text.

Jay Turberville of Studio 522 Productions in Scottsdale (Arizona) built the dolphin
model shown on the cover and used throughout this book. Our students love it. Studio 522
Productions does incredibly high-quality 3D animation and video production, as well as
custom 3D modeling. We were thrilled that Mr. Turberville kindly offered to build such a
wonderful model just for these books.

We wish to thank a few other artists and researchers who were gracious enough
to allow us to utilize their models and textures. James Hastings-Trew of Planet Pixel
Emporium provided many of the planetary surface textures. Paul Bourke allowed us to
use his wonderful star field. Dr. Marc Levoy of Stanford University granted us permis-
sion to use the famous “Stanford Dragon” model. Paul Baker’s bump-mapping tutorial
formed the basis of the “torus” model we used in many examples. We also thank Mercury
Learning for allowing us to use some of the textures from Introduction to 3D Game
Programming with DirectX 12 [LU16].

Dr. Danny Kopec connected us with Mercury Learning and introduced us to its
publisher, David Pallai. Dr. Kopec’s textbook, Artificial Intelligence in the 21st Century,
inspired us to consider Mercury, and our telephone conversations with him were extremely
informative. We were deeply saddened by Dr. Kopec’s untimely passing, and regret that
he didn’t have the chance to see our book come to fruition.

Finally, we wish to thank David Pallai and Jennifer Blaney of Mercury Learning for
their continued enthusiasm for this project and for guiding us through the textbook pub-
lishing process.

Errata
If you find any errors in our book, please let us know! Despite our best efforts, this book
certainly contains mistakes. We will do our best to post corrections as soon as errors are
reported to us. Shortly after the publication of the first edition, we established a webpage
for collecting errata and posting corrections—the same webpage will continue to be used
for the second edition:

http://athena.ecs.csus.edu/~gordonvs/errata.html

The publisher, Mercury Learning, also maintains a link to our errata page. So if the URL
for our errata page should ever change, check the Mercury Learning website for the latest link.

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 Pre fa c e ■ xix

About the Authors

Dr. V. Scott Gordon has been a professor in the California State University system
for over twenty years, and currently teaches advanced graphics and game engineering
courses at CSU Sacramento. He has authored or coauthored over thirty publications in a
variety of areas, including artificial intelligence, neural networks, evolutionary computa-
tion, software engineering, video and strategy game programming, and computer science
education. Dr. Gordon obtained his PhD at Colorado State University. He is also a jazz
drummer and a competitive table tennis player.

Dr. John Clevenger has over forty years of experience teaching a wide variety of courses,
including advanced graphics, game architecture, operating systems, VLSI chip design,
system simulation, and other topics. He is the developer of several software frameworks
and tools for teaching graphics and game architecture, including the graphicslib3D
library used in the first edition of this textbook. He is the technical director of the ACM
International Collegiate Programming Contest, and oversees the ongoing development
of PC^2, the most widely used programming contest support system in the world.
Dr. Clevenger obtained his PhD at the University of California, Davis. He is also a
performing jazz musician and spends summer vacations in his mountain cabin.

References
[AS14] 
E. Angel and D. Shreiner, Interactive Computer Graphics: A Top-Down Approach
with WebGL, 7th ed. (Pearson, 2014).

[JO16] 
JogAmp, accessed July 2016, http://jogamp.org/

[KS16] 
J. Kessenich, G. Sellers, and D. Shreiner, OpenGL Programming Guide: The
Official Guide to Learning OpenGL, Version 4.5 with SPIR-V, 9th ed. (Addison-
Wesley, 2016).

[LU16] 
F. Luna, Introduction to 3D Game Programming with DirectX 12, 2nd ed.
(Mercury Learning, 2016).

[LW16] Lightweight Java Game Library (LWJGL), accessed July 2016, https://www
.lwjgl.org/

[SW15] G. Sellers, R. Wright Jr., and N. Haemel, OpenGL SuperBible: Comprehensive
Tutorial and Reference, 7th ed. (Addison-Wesley, 2015).

[WO13] D. Wolff, OpenGL Shading Language Cookbook, 2nd ed. (Packt Publishing,
2013).

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CGP_Java2E_CH00-2nd-Pass.indd 20 07-09-2018 11:16:13
 C hapter 1
Getting Started

1.1 Languages and Libraries����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1

1.2 Installation and Configuration��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4

■ ■ ■■■
Graphics programming has a reputation for being among the most challeng-
ing computer science topics to learn. These days, graphics programming is shader
based—that is, some of the program is written in a standard language such as Java
or C++ for running on the CPU and some is written in a special-purpose shader
­language for running directly on the graphics card (GPU). Shader programming has
a steep learning curve, so that even drawing something simple requires a convoluted
set of steps to pass graphics data down a “pipeline.” Modern graphics cards are able
to process this data in parallel, and so the graphics programmer must understand the
parallel architecture of the GPU, even when drawing simple shapes.
The payoff, however, is extraordinary power. The blossoming of stunning virtual
reality in videogames and increasingly realistic effects in Hollywood movies can be
greatly attributed to advances in shader programming. If reading this book is your
entrée into 3D graphics, you are taking on a personal challenge that will reward you
not only with pretty pictures but with a level of control over your machine that you
never imagined was possible. Welcome to the exciting world of computer graphics
programming!

1.1 LANGUAGES AND LIBRARIES

Modern graphics programming is done using a graphics library. That is, the
p­ rogrammer writes code which invokes functions in a predefined library (or set
of libraries) that provide support for lower-level graphical operations. There are
many graphics libraries in use today, but the most common library for platform-
independent graphics programming is called OpenGL (Open Graphics Library). This
book describes how to use OpenGL for 3D graphics programming in Java.

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 2 ■ C o mp u te r G ra p h ic s P ro g ramming in O pe nG L w ith J a va , Se c ond Edition

Using OpenGL with Java requires configuring several libraries. In this sec-
tion, we describe which libraries are needed, some common options for each, and
the option(s) that we will use throughout the book. Details on how to install and
configure these libraries for your specific platform can be found in the appendices.
Running the programs in this book requires the following languages and
libraries:

• Java
• OpenGL / GLSL
• JOGL
• JOML
It is likely that the reader will need to do a few preparatory steps to ensure
that each of these are installed and properly accessible on his or her system. In the
following subsections we briefly describe each of them; see the appendices for
details on how to install and/or configure them for use.

1.1.1 Java
Java was developed at Sun Microsystems in the early 1990s, and the first stable
release of a development kit (JDK) occurred in 1995. In 2010, Oracle Corporation
acquired Sun and has maintained Java since that time [OR16]. This book assumes
at least Java version 8, which was released in 2014.

1.1.2 OpenGL / GLSL

Version 1.0 of OpenGL appeared in 1992 as an “open” alternative to vendor-­
specific application programming interfaces (APIs) for computer graphics.
Its specification and development was managed and controlled by the OpenGL
Architecture Review Board (ARB), a then newly formed group of industry par-
ticipants. In 2006 the ARB transferred control of the OpenGL specification to
the Khronos Group, a nonprofit consortium which manages not only the OpenGL
specification but a wide variety of other open industry standards.
Since its beginning OpenGL has been revised and extended regularly. In 2004,
version 2.0 introduced the OpenGL Shading Language (GLSL), allowing “shader
programs” to be installed and run directly in graphics pipeline stages.

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 C ha pte r 1 · G e tting Sta rte d ■ 3

In 2009, version 3.1 removed a large number of features that had been depre-
cated, to enforce the use of shader programming as opposed to earlier approaches
(referred to as “immediate mode”).1 Among the more recent features, version 4.0
(in 2010) added a tessellation stage to the programmable pipeline.
This textbook assumes that the user is using a machine with a graphics card
that supports at least version 4.3 of OpenGL. If you are not sure which version of
OpenGL your GPU supports, there are free applications available on the web that
can be used to find out. One such application is GLView, by a company named
“realtech VR” [GV16].

1.1.3 JOGL
JOGL is a set of OpenGL bindings (sometimes called a “wrapper”) which
provides a mechanism for invoking C-based OpenGL functions from Java code.
JOGL first appeared in 2003, published on the website Java.net. Since 2010 it has
been an independent open source project, part of a suite of Java bindings main-
tained by JogAmp [JO16], an online community of developers. JogAmp also main-
tains JOAL and JOCL, bindings for OpenAL and OpenCL, respectively. As new
versions of OpenGL and/or Java are released, new versions of JOGL are developed
to support continued compatibility. JogAmp also maintains a short online user’s
guide that includes valuable guidelines for installing and using JOGL efficiently
and effectively [JU16]. This book assumes at least version 2.3 of JOGL.

1.1.4 JOML
3D graphics programming makes heavy use of vector and matrix algebra. For
this reason, use of OpenGL is greatly facilitated by an accompanying function
library or class package to support common mathematical tasks. For example, the
popular OpenGL SuperBible [SW15] utilizes a C library called “vmath”; in this
book, we use a Java library called Java OpenGL Math Library, or JOML.
JOML provides classes and basic math functions related to graphics concepts,
such as vector, matrix, and quaternion. It also contains a variety of utility classes
for creating and using common 3D graphics structures, such as a stack for building

1 Despite this, many graphics card manufacturers (notably NVIDIA) continue to support
deprecated functionality.

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 4 ■ C o mp u te r G ra p h ic s P ro g ramming in O pe nG L w ith J a va , Se c ond Edition

hierarchical structures, perspective and look-at matrices, and a few basic shapes
such as a rectangle and a sphere.
JOML was conceived in mid-2015 by Richard Greenlees and is an open source
project currently being developed and maintained by Kai Burjack, who took over
the project shortly after its inception. While it is relatively new, it has enjoyed wide-
spread adoption because of its high-performance characteristics. JOML is specifi-
cally designed to maximize performance in an OpenGL render loop (animation).
The previous edition of this book utilized our own in-house Java mathematics
library called graphicslib3D. We hope that users of our earlier edition appreciate the
better support and performance of JOML.

1.2 INSTALLATION AND CONFIGURATION

While developing the second edition of this book, we decided to include
p­ latform-specific details for the Macintosh (which were omitted from the first
­edition). We then wrestled with the best approach for including the platform-specific
configuration information necessary to run the example programs. Configuring a
system for using OpenGL on a Mac is somewhat more complicated than the equiv-
alent configuration for the Windows PC. Ultimately, we opted to separate installa-
tion and configuration information into individual platform-specific appendices.
We hope that this will provide each reader with a single relevant place to look for
information regarding his or her specific system, while at the same time avoiding
bogging down the rest of the text with platform-specific details which may not be
relevant to every reader. In this edition, we provide detailed configuration instruc-
tions for Microsoft Windows in Appendix A and for the Macintosh in Appendix B.

References

[GV16] GLView, realtech-vr, accessed July 2016, http://www.realtech-vr.com/glview/

[JO16] JogAmp, accessed July 2016, http://jogamp.org/
[JU16] JOGL Users Guide, accessed July 2016, https://jogamp.org/jogl/doc/userguide/
[OR16] Java Software, Oracle Corp., accessed July 2016, https://www.oracle
.com/java/index.html
[SW15] G. Sellers, R. Wright Jr., and N. Haemel, OpenGL SuperBible: Comprehensive
Tutorial and Reference, 7th ed. (Addison-Wesley, 2015).

CGP_Java2E_CH01-2nd-Pass.indd 4 29-08-2018 13:17:19

 C hapter 2
The OpenGL Graphics Pipeline

2.1 The OpenGL Pipeline����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6

2.2 Detecting OpenGL and GLSL Errors ������������������������������������������������������������������������21
2.3 Reading GLSL Source Code from Files ��������������������������������������������������������������������26
2.4 Building Objects from Vertices������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27
2.5 Animating a Scene��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28
2.6 Organizing the Java Code Files����������������������������������������������������������������������������������32
Supplemental Notes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33

■ ■ ■■■
OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) is a multiplatform 2D and 3D graphics API
that incorporates both hardware and software. Using OpenGL requires a graphics
card (GPU) that supports a sufficiently up-to-date version of OpenGL (as described
in Chapter 1).
On the hardware side, OpenGL provides a multistage graphics pipeline that is
partially programmable using a language called GLSL (OpenGL Shading Language).
On the software side, OpenGL’s API is written in C, and thus the calls are directly
compatible with C and C++. However, stable language bindings (or “wrappers”) are
available for more than a dozen other popular languages (Java, Perl, Python, Visual
Basic, Delphi, Haskell, Lisp, Ruby, etc.) with virtually equivalent performance. This
textbook uses the popular Java wrapper JOGL (Java OpenGL). When using JOGL,
the programmer writes a Java program that runs on the CPU (more specifically, on
the Java Virtual Machine, or JVM) and includes JOGL (and thus, OpenGL) calls. We
will refer to a Java program that contains JOGL calls as a Java/JOGL application.
One important task of a Java/JOGL application is to install the programmer’s GLSL
code onto the GPU.
An overview of a JOGL-based graphics application is shown in Figure 2.1, with
the software components highlighted in pink.

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Some of the code we will write

will be in Java, with JOGL calls, and
some will be written in GLSL. Our
Java/JOGL application will work
together with our GLSL modules and
the hardware to create our 3D graph-
ics output. Once our application is
complete, the end user will interact
with the Java application.
GLSL is an example of a
shader language. Shader languages
Figure 2.1
Overview of a JOGL-based graphics application.
are intended to run on a GPU in
the context of a graphics pipeline.
There are other shader languages,
such as HLSL, which works with Microsoft’s 3D framework DirectX. GLSL is the
specific shader language that is compatible with OpenGL, and thus we will write
shader code in GLSL, in addition to our Java/JOGL application code.
For the rest of this chapter, we will take a brief “tour” of the OpenGL pipeline.
The reader is not expected to understand every detail thoroughly, but just to get a
feel for how the stages work together.

2.1 THE OPENGL PIPELINE

Modern 3D graphics programming utilizes a pipeline, in which the process
of converting a 3D scene to a 2D image is broken down into a series of steps.
OpenGL and DirectX both utilize similar pipelines.
A simplified overview of the OpenGL graphics pipeline is shown in Figure 2.2
(not every stage is shown, just the major ones we will study). The Java/JOGL appli-
cation sends graphics data into the vertex shader, processing proceeds through the
pipeline, and pixels emerge for display on the monitor.
The stages shaded in blue (vertex, tessellation, geometry, and fragment) are
programmable in GLSL. It is one of the responsibilities of the Java/JOGL applica-
tion to load GLSL programs into these shader stages, as follows:

1. It uses Java to obtain the GLSL shader code, either from text files or
­hardcoded as strings.

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 C h a pte r 2 · The O pe nG L G ra phic s Pipe line ■ 7

2. It then creates OpenGL shader

objects, and loads the GLSL
shader code into them.
3. Finally, it uses OpenGL com-
mands to compile and link
­objects and install them on the
GPU.
In practice, it is usually necessary
to provide GLSL code for at least the
vertex and fragment stages, whereas
the tessellation and geometry stages
are optional. Let’s walk through the Figure 2.2
Overview of the OpenGL pipeline.
entire process and see what takes place
at each step.

2.1.1 Java/JOGL Application

The bulk of our graphics application is written in Java. Depending on the ­purpose
of the program, it may interact with the end user using standard Java libraries such
as AWT or Swing. For tasks related to 3D rendering, it uses the JOGL library. Other
windowing libraries exist that interface with JOGL, such as SWT and NEWT, that
have some performance advantages; in this book, however, we use AWT and Swing
because of the likelihood the reader already has familiarity with them.
JOGL includes a class called GLCanvas that is compatible with the standard
Java JFrame, and on which we can draw 3D scenes. As already mentioned, JOGL
also gives us commands for installing GLSL programs onto the programmable
shader stages and compiling them. Finally, JOGL uses buffers for sending 3D
models and other related graphics data down the pipeline.
Before we try writing shaders, let’s write a simple Java/JOGL application that
instantiates a GLCanvas and sets its background color. Doing that won’t require any
shaders at all! The code is shown in Program 2.1. It extends JFrame and instantiates
a GLCanvas, adding it to the JFrame. It also implements GLEventListener, required
to utilize OpenGL—this necessitates implementing some methods, specifically
display(), init(), reshape(), and dispose(). The display() method is where we place code
that draws to the GLCanvas. In this example, we use the glClearColor() command to
specify the color value to be applied when clearing the background—in this case

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 8 ■ C o mp u ter G ra p h ic s P ro g ramming in O pe nG L w ith J a va , Se c ond Edition

(1,0,0,1), corresponding to the RGB values of the color red, plus a “1” for the opac-
ity component. We then use the OpenGL call glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT) to
actually fill the color buffer with that color.

Program 2.1 First Java/JOGL Application

import javax.swing.*;
import static com.jogamp.opengl.GL4.*;
import com.jogamp.opengl.*;
import com.jogamp.opengl.awt.GLCanvas;
public class Code extends JFrame implements GLEventListener
{ private GLCanvas myCanvas;
public Code()
{ setTitle("Chapter2 - program1");
setSize(600, 400);
setLocation(200, 200);
myCanvas = new GLCanvas();
myCanvas.addGLEventListener(this);
this.add(myCanvas);
this.setVisible(true);
}
public void display(GLAutoDrawable drawable)
{ GL4 gl = (GL4) GLContext.getCurrentGL();
gl.glClearColor(1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f);
gl.glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT);
}
public static void main(String[ ] args)
{ new Code();
}
public void init(GLAutoDrawable drawable) { }
public void reshape(GLAutoDrawable drawable, int x, int y, int width, int height) { }
public void dispose(GLAutoDrawable drawable) { }
}

When running a Java/JOGL application (such as Program 2.1) on a Microsoft

Windows machine, it is advisable to add a command-line option to disable the use
of Direct3D acceleration, such as
java -Dsun.java2d.d3d=false Code

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Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
This article was not accepted by Germany; she remains faithful to her Usages of War: Article
53, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th paragraphs, and applies their principles with extreme severity.
Nothing better illustrates the severity with which the Germans act than the little manual of
conversation which terminates the Tornisterwörterbuch, published by the Mentor publishing
house in Schöneberg, Berlin. It is a small dictionary, costing 60 pfennigs, and intended, as
the title indicates, to be carried in the soldier's knapsack. The French dictionary and the
English are conceived according to the same method; after information concerning the
country in question they give a summary of the rules of grammar; then comes the dictionary
properly so-called, with phonetic pronunciation; finally, a few common phrases, which to us
are the most interesting part of the book, since their choice naturally reflects the
requirements of those expected to employ them. Here are a few passages from paragraph
4: Service of Outposts and Patrols. In each passage we copy all the phrases without
exception, so as to avoid misrepresenting the spirit of the work; and this spirit, as will be
seen, is ferocious. The volume is not dated; but the 42nd edition, from which we quote,
describes (p. 44) the French campaigning uniform of 1912. These phrases were therefore
printed at least five years after the second Hague Conference (18th October, 1907). They
show clearly that the acts of cruelty committed by the patrols against those who refused to
betray their country were not improvised by the cavalry taking part in these
reconnaissances, but were systematically premeditated.
P. 175—
Silence! Speak only when I question you!
You seem to me a suspicious person.
Where is your pocket-book?
I must search it.
Remain here for the moment.
At the first attempt at flight you will be shot.
Sir, where does this road lead?
P. 176—
Is this village occupied by the French?
When did the troops arrive there?
What is roughly their composition?
Roughly? Two or three companies?
How many officers, roughly speaking?
Have they any artillery?
How many guns?
Have you seen cavalry too?
Tell us the truth. The least lie might cost you your life!
P. 177—
Has the village been placed in a state of defence?
Are there no cross-roads leading to the windmill?
Remain by my horse.
On the first attempt at flight, or if you try to mislead me, I shall send a
bullet after you.
Stop here! I will call the miller myself.
Hey! Miller!
 Have any French troops passed this way?
You lie! Here are visible traces, and quite fresh ones.
A little manual of conversation costing 20 pfennigs—Deutsch-Französischer-Soldaten-
Sprachführer, by Captain S. Th. Hoasmann, is conceived on the same lines. Here are a few
examples. The soldier, making a reconnaissance, declares: "Speak the truth or you will be
killed!" In the chapter on "Posts and Telegraphs" we find the phrase: "It is forbidden (on
pain of death) to send telegrams." And the sentinel should be able to say: "If you lie you will
be shot," etc.

Article 50.
No collective penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, shall be inflicted upon the population on
account of the acts of individuals for which it cannot be regarded as collectively
responsible.

This article proclaims the principle that in no case must the innocent suffer with the guilty,
nor in their place. We have already seen that our enemies oppose this idea; they maintain
that the innocent should suffer with the guilty, and even that if one cannot lay hands on the
guilty one may punish the innocent in their place (p. 84). It was by the application of this
German principle of collective punishment that Louvain, Dinant, Termonde, and other towns
were burned.
The placard of 1st October, 1914, clearly displays the German mentality; it states that
villages will be punished without mercy, whether guilty or not.

Notice.
On the evening of the 25th September the railway and telegraph lines were destroyed
between Lovenjoul and Vestryck. In consequence of which the two localities mentioned
were, on the morning of the 30th September, called to account and forced to supply
hostages.
In future the localities nearest the spot at which such acts have been committed—no
matter whether they are guilty of complicity or not—will be punished without pity. To
this end hostages have been taken from all localities adjacent to railway lines
threatened by such attacks, and at the first attempt to destroy the railway lines, or
telegraph or telephone wires, they will immediately be shot.
Moreover, all troops charged with the protection of railways have received orders to
shoot any person approaching railway lines or telephone or telegraph wires in a
suspicious manner.
The Governor-General in Belgium,
Baron von der Goltz,
General Field-Marshal.
Brussels, 1st October, 1914.

Fully to appreciate the horrible nature of this placard we must recall the fact that during the
siege of Antwerp (which terminated only on the 9th) Belgium patrols were penetrating into
the midst of the German troops, venturing thirty-five miles and more from Antwerp, their
mission being to harass the enemy's communications and to destroy the railways and the
telegraph and telephone line. It was one of these bodies of Belgian cyclists which cut the
railway and telegraph line between Louvain and Tirlemont on 25th September, 1914. Von der
Goltz was evidently aware that this destruction was a perfectly legitimate military operation,
so that his placard was intended simply to embarrass our military authorities by showing
them that in defiance of all justice Germany intended to hold the Belgian civilians
responsible for the activity of our army. In short, instead of saying "no matter whether these
localities are guilty of complicity or not," von der Goltz would have given a greater proof of
sincerity had he said, "although I know that these localities are in no way guilty of
complicity."
Here are two other placards, printed in Germany, which show plainly that it is according to a
system that our oppressors hold the entire community responsible for the act committed by
a single person; or rather, as we shall see, for the acts of the Belgian army.

Placard printed in German, French, Russian, and Polish, surrounded by a border of the German
Colours.
Notice.
Any person who shall have damaged a military telephone or telegraph will be shot.
Any person removing this notice will also receive the severest punishment. If the guilty
person is not found, the severest measures will be taken against the commune in which
the damage has been caused or the present notice removed.
The General Commanding the Army Corps.
(Posted at Bieghem, copy made 22nd October, 1914.)
Notice.
All damage done to the Telegraph, Telephone, or Railway lines will be punished by the
Military Court. According to the circumstances, the guilty person will be condemned to
death.
If the guilty person is not seized the severest measures will be taken against the
commune in which the damage has been done,
The General Government.
Printed by H. A. Heymann, Berlin, S.W.
(Posted at Tervueren, copy made 15th April, 1915.)

Very frequently the penalties with which the community is threatened are not specified in
these placards. One may suppose that it would consist of a fine; this is indeed the
punishment most frequently applied, doubtless because it is the most productive. Here are
some examples, for cutting the telegraph wires, various localities in Flanders were forced to
pay fines in December 1914.
The military chest does not lack for money; for in a garrison command a fine may be
inflicted more readily than elsewhere. Here is an example. An officer was choosing some
music in a shop; and found, amidst a heap of pieces of music, a copy of the Marseillaise.
Now it has never been stated that one must not possess the Marseillaise. Result: the
shopkeeper was condemned to pay a fine of 500 marks or to twenty days' imprisonment. "I
prefer the imprisonment," said the unfortunate man. "But, my good fellow, you can avoid
going to prison! Pay the fine!" "I know, but I have not got 500 marks. I could only scrape
together 150 frs. at most." "All right, give them to me!"

Fines for Telegraphic Interruptions.

The military chest is also replenished by the fines paid because the telegraph and telephone
do not work properly. Now it has often happened during the last six weeks that
communication has been obstructed in Flanders. The smallest communes have been forced
to pay fines.
Here is a brief list of such fines:
Gand 100,000 marks
Ledebourg 5,000 "
Destelbergen 30,000 "
Schellebelle 50,000 "
Sweveghem 4,900 "
Winckel Sainte-Croix 3,000 "
Wachtebeke 3,000 "
(N.R.C., 30th January, 1915, evening edition.)
Fines for "Attacks by Francs-tireurs."
We may observe, in passing, that in September 1914 the accusation—the accusation, we
say, not the offence—of having allowed a telegraph wire to deteriorate was punished, in
Brussels, by a stoppage of the telephone service; but in December the Germans preferred to
fill their treasury. The same observation is true of Mons and Bilsen; the accusation of
"francs-tireurs," which in September 1914 would have ended in a massacre of the
inhabitants and the burning of the town, was in October the motive for a tax of 100,000 frs.
At that time it no longer seemed essential to terrorize; the Germans no longer required
blood, but money.

On behalf of the German Military Authorities.

Warning.
The City of Mons has been forced to pay a tax of 100,000 frs. because a private person
fired upon a German soldier.
(Posted at Louvain.)

And indeed it is money that is demanded everywhere—5,000 frs. from the commune of
Grenbergen, near Termonde, because an inhabitant allowed his pigeons to fly. 5,000,000 frs.
was required of Brussels because a police agent maltreated a German spy (p. 157). It was
with a money fine that Mons was threatened should an Englishman be discovered on its soil
(placard posted at Mons, 6th November, 1914), and the city of Mons and the province of
Hainaut if any inhabitant retained for his own use any benzine or a motor-bicycle (placard
posted at Mons, 6th October, 1914). At Seraing, in February 1915, it was again money that
was demanded, because a bomb had burst within the limits of the commune. The more
surely to obtain the sum, a few hostages were imprisoned, with the promise that they would
be sent to a fortress in Germany if the communal treasury did not pay their ransom; but the
hostages themselves advised the commune to refuse. The Germans, fearing to be left in the
lurch, reduced their demands by half; finally, having obtained nothing, they released the
hostages. Singular justice, to regulate its penalties not by the gravity of the offence, but
according to the temper of the victims! We are waiting for the German newspapers to
publish a schedule of penalties as affected by the docility of the victims and the season.
Here is an amusing instance of a penalty which was inflicted upon Antwerp. When the
Germans posted up a statement that they had captured 52,000 Russians and 400 guns in
Eastern Prussia, a playful citizen replaced the first letter of Russians in the Flemish text by
an M and concealed the two first letters of canonen. The new version announced that the
Germans had captured 52,000 sparrows and 400 nuns. The Germans were annoyed and
imposed a fine of 25,000 frs. on the city. At Tirlemont, where the same pleasantry was
perpetrated, the Germans contented themselves with making vague threats.
The adventure of Eppeghem also deserves to be told in a few words.
In November 1914 a German soldier walking in the country fired at a hare or a pigeon. An
officer turned up and questioned the soldier. As all sport is reserved for officers, the soldier,
to avoid punishment, threw the blame on to the peasants. The matter was referred to
Brussels, and on the following day officers arrived with forty Uhlans. A fine of 10,000 frs.
was inflicted on the commune.
Some women living in a house which had by chance remained standing, near the field in
which the soldier had fired, asserted that no inhabitant had fired a shot, but that they had
seen the soldier fire. No one listened to them. "We must have 10,000 frs., and at once." But
in this village, ruined from end to end, where scarcely a house was habitable, from which all
the men had been deported into Germany, there was no means of collecting such a sum of
money. "Since that is so, hostages will be taken," said the officers. The Uhlans organized a
hunt, and seized the curé and three laymen, the only ones they could find; and even of
these one was an inhabitant of Vilverde, who had obligingly been acting as a citizen
policeman at Eppeghem. They were taken to Brussels, but on passing through Vilverde the
inhabitant of that place was released, owing to the protests of his fellow-citizens. After ten
days' imprisonment Baron von der Goltz, finding that there was nothing to be extracted from
the communal treasury of Eppeghem, and that the curé and his two parishioners were being
kept and fed at a loss, set them at liberty.
Hostages
The taking of hostages is also in flagrant opposition to the provisions of Article 50, but in
conformity with the German Usages of War. The hostage guarantees with his own life that
his fellow-citizens, with whom he has no influence, shall faithfully execute the orders of the
German authorities.
The first care of enemy troops arriving in any locality is always to demand the provision of
hostages; these are usually the curé, the burgomaster, the notary, the schoolmaster, and a
few other notables. We may recall Liége, where the bishop, Mgr. Rutten, was taken hostage;
Spa, Louvain, Charleroi, Gand, and Mons. In Brussels they demanded the delivery of 100
hostages, but afterwards withdrew the demand.
As to the fate which awaits the hostages if the German army is attacked, it is plainly
stipulated in the proclamations: they will be shot, "without previous judicial formalities."
Thus, it would have been enough for a Belgian patrol to renew its usual activities near
Forest, and two hostages would have immediately been shot "without previous judicial
formalities."

General Government in Belgium.

To the People of Forest.
Despite my repeated warnings attacks have again been made during the last few days
by the civil population of the neighbourhood against German troops, and also upon the
railway between Brussels and Mons.
By the order of the Military Governor-General of Brussels each locality must
consequently provide hostages.
Thus at Forest the following are arrested:
(1) M. Vanderkindere, Communal Councillor.
(2) M. le curé François.
I proclaim that these hostages will immediately be shot without previous judicial
formalities if any attack occurs on the part of the population upon our troops or the
railway lines occupied by us, and that moreover the most severe reprisals will be carried
out against the commune of Forest.
I request the population to keep calm and to refrain from all violence; in this case it will
not suffer the slightest harm.
The Commandant of the Landsturm,
Halberstadt Battalion,
von Lessel.

Forest, 26th September, 1914.

If hostages try to escape they will be hanged and their village burned.

Warning.
As fresh attempts at assassination have been made upon persons forming part of the
German army I have had persons from many localities arrested as hostages. These will
guarantee with their lives that no inhabitant will again dare to commit a malevolent
action against German soldiers or attempt to damage the railway, telegraph or
telephone line, or other objects useful to the operations of our army.
Persons not belonging to the army surprised in committing such actions will be shot or
hanged. The hostages of the surrounding localities will suffer the same fate. I shall then
have the neighbourhood burned to the last house, even if important towns are in
question. If the hostages attempt to escape the locality to which they belong will be
burned, and if captured the hostages will be hanged.
All inhabitants who give proof of their goodwill toward our troops are assured of the
safety of their lives and property.
The Commandant entrusted with the
Protection of the Railways,
Freiherr von Malzahn.
 (Posted at Spa, Aywaille, Châtelineau.... 17th August, 1914.)

We do not know if hostages were shot or hanged in Belgium. But in the north of France,
according to a military correspondent of the K.Z., at least one hostage was killed; this
assassination was the more criminal in that it punished not a hostile act of the inhabitants,
but a perfectly normal and regular operation of war: a bombardment.

A War Picture.
... A château stands beside the highway, at the back of a courtyard protected by a
French spear-headed railing. It is intact, and shelters the staff of an infantry regiment.
Facing it is the ruined façade of an incredibly pretentious building on whose pediment
sprawls in letters of gold the one word, "Bank." Beside it is a wholesale corn-chandler's
and a wholesale wine-merchant's. All this belonged to a single man. It was necessary to
shoot him as hostage, because the French were persisting, despite all warnings, in
throwing shells into the neighbourhood. In the wine-cellars stores of unexpected
importance were found; according to the estimates there are more than half a million
litres of red and white wine of very good quality. A great part of the wine was pumped
out of the tanks and received, like an old acquaintance, by the comrades far and near.
The rich man of this quarter of the town had a companion who was more lucky, who in
due time sought safety in flight.
(K.Z., 21st February, 1915.)

A very curious case of the punishment of innocent people in the case of "guilty" ones is the
following: On the 7th October, 1914, the Germans posted statements that the militia-men of
the occupied regions could not rejoin the Belgian army, and that in case of disobedience the
young men would expose themselves to the risk of being sent into Germany as prisoners of
war. So far, nothing illegal. But the placard then declared that in case of the departure of any
militia-man his family would be held responsible. Now, how are the parents guilty, if their
son intends at all costs to fulfil his obligations to his native country? On the 30th December,
1914, there was an aggravation of this measure: the burgomasters also were to be
punished. On the 28th January, 1915, a new notice appeared: all Belgians between the ages
of sixteen and forty years were to be regarded as capable of military service. So when a
man of forty goes to join the Belgian army the members of his family will be punished! Truly
the notice might have stated whether children would be punished for not preventing their
father's departure!
Have there been cases of repression? The N.R.C. states that at Hasselt the Germans actually
arrested the fathers and mothers of the young men who escaped.
The Tijd learns from Ruremonde:

At Hasselt and in the neighbourhood the Germans have hunted down the fathers of
those young men who, liable to be called to the colours, have been able, in spite of
strict prohibition and active supervision, to enter Holland, there to pass through England
and France with the intention of eventually joining the army.
But as soon as they heard that the fathers were being arrested, these latter also
crossed the frontier, and the Germans found that a great many birds had flown.
 They did not stop then: the mothers were arrested in their place.
At the same time the Germans made it known that all these people would be
transferred to the well-known camp at Münster, and warned the women to provide
themselves with as much body-linen as possible. The whole of the little town was in
consternation. Later arrived a telegram from General von Bissing, announcing that the
departure for Münster was postponed for a week, and the prisoners were taken to
Tongres.
(N.R.C., 3rd February, 1915.)

A last example of punishment inflicted upon the innocent, when the "guilty" person had
already suffered punishment. A Belgian, having made signals to the enemy (that is, to the
Belgian army), was killed while being arrested. Immediately the curé and the vicar were sent
to Germany as being responsible for the members of their parish.

Important Notice.
Alidor Vandamme, inhabitant of Cortemarck, committed espionage by making signals to
the enemy. Resisting arrest, he was killed by a rifle-bullet.
The German authority has taken the following measures of coercion in consequence of
the crime committed by Vandamme:
1. The curé Blancke and the vicar Barra, responsible for the members of their parish,
will be deported as prisoners of war to Germany.
2. The commune of Cortemarck must pay a fine of five thousand marks (5,000 M.).
(Posted at Thielt, Termonde, etc.)

This iniquity was not enough for the German authorities: they advertised it all through
Flanders (we copied it at Thielt and Termonde), and forced Le Bien Public to give it publicity.
Through lack of conscience or insolence?
Contributions and Requisitions.

Article 51.
No contribution shall be collected except under a written order, and on the responsibility
of a General in command.
The collection of the said contribution shall only be effected in accordance, as far as is
possible, with the legal basis and assessment of taxes in force at the time.
For every contribution a receipt shall be given to the contributories.
Article 52.
Requisitions in kind and services shall not be demanded from local authorities or
inhabitants except for the needs of the army of occupation. They shall be in proportion
to the resources of the country, and of such a nature as not to involve the inhabitants in
the obligation of taking part in military operations against their own country. Such
requisitions and services shall only be demanded on the authority of the commander in
the locality occupied.
 Contributions in kind shall as far as possible be paid for in ready money: if not, a receipt
shall be given and the payment of the amount due shall be made as soon as possible.

The last paragraph of Article 23, already cited, in reality presupposes that passage in Article
52 which forbids the occupant to force the inhabitants to do work which would assist
operations directed against their country (p. 112).
Among the forms of contribution included in Article 49 we must give first place to that which
fixes the value of the mark. The Düsseldorfer Zeitung of the 4th September announces that
the military commander of the occupied portion of Belgium and France fixed the value of
100 marks at 130 frs. And indeed placards posted at Charleroi, Saint-Trond, Namur, and
Liége required the Belgians to accept German marks at this exaggerated tariff, which has
caused certain of our merchants to lose considerable sums.

Proclamation.
The circulation of German money having given rise to perplexities, the value of the
German mark has been fixed at 130 centimes.
The attention of the public is called to the fact that all German paper money must be
accepted in financial transactions at the same rate as German coin.
The Governor.
The 25th August, 1914.
(Posted at Liége.)

The fraudulent intention in this measure was only too evident. A month later Baron von der
Goltz made it known that until further notice the mark was to be valued at the lowest at 1 fr.
25 (placard of the 3rd October, 1914). In reality the mark was worth only 1 fr. 08 to 1 fr. 15,
so that the Belgians naturally endeavoured to refuse German notes; whereupon fresh
placards were exhibited, compelling their acceptance (placards of the 4th and 15th
November, 1914). We must mention an unhappy phrase in a placard posted at Mons; it
states that the mark must be accepted at the actual value of the coin, and further on fixes
this value at 1 fr. 25, which is obviously incorrect.
Contributions demanded from the Cities.
Let us now consider the pecuniary contributions demanded from the cities. The most
important were: Liége, 20 million frs.; Namur, 32 millions; Antwerp, 40 millions; Brussels, 45
millions. The discussions excited by this last contribution are extremely instructive; they
have been reported by the N.R.C. We learn how the Germans violated, successively, all the
different agreements which they concluded with the city; finally they imposed a fine of 5
millions, which enabled them, in spite of everything, to complete the sum of 50 millions
which they had promised themselves they would extort from the capital.

Contribution imposed upon Brussels.

From one of our War Correspondents
... In the course of this journey I once more heard people speaking of the reasons
which resulted in the city of Brussels being fined the sum of fifty millions of francs, as
every one knows. What I relate here I had from one of the most eminent members of
the magistracy:—
At the time of their entry here, the Germans demanded fifty millions from the city, and
—don't cry out at this—450 millions from the province of Brabant. The communal
council of Brussels tried to demonstrate that the city could not pay this tax, and that the
tax imposed on the province was utterly exorbitant, seeing that Brabant, which draws
on the budget for an annual sum of five to six millions, employed this money before it
was paid, and could not, therefore, pay a fine, since the province had first to provide for
its expenditure.... Having discussed the matter at great length, the Germans finally
released Brabant from this war-tax, and at the same time gave the communal council a
week to find the fifty millions, during which period they would suspend all other
requisitions.
Burgomaster Max then had posted the well-known placard announcing that for the
coming week no requisitions whatever would be made by the German authorities.
But on the following day the burgomaster was called upon to justify his action, and
although he produced the written convention before the new Governor of the city, the
latter gave him to understand that his predecessor might possibly have granted such a
delay, but that he, being of superior rank, did not recognize the clause at issue. Fresh
negotiations were commenced, and it was at last arranged that twenty millions should
be paid in five instalments of four millions each. Four of these instalments were
punctually paid, and the fifth was about to be paid, when Max was summoned by the
Governor, who asked him what his arrangements were concerning the remaining thirty
millions.
Max did not conceal his extreme surprise, stating that he fully understood that the
remainder of the tax had been remitted, and that the twenty millions constituted the
whole amount.
The German Governor was by no means of this opinion, and demanded the remaining
thirty millions. Thereupon Max immediately sent an order to the bank to suspend
payment of the last four millions, which were ready for payment, until he was certain
that the Germans would accept them as the final instalment. There was then on either
side an equal degree of obstinacy. The Governor maintained that Max was breaking his
engagements; Max, on the other hand, maintained that the Germans had failed to keep
their word. The result was that the burgomaster was arrested, and he is at the present
moment imprisoned in a fortress at Glatz in Silesia.
The communal council was then warned that it would be deprived of its functions, and
that the Germans would take over the administration of the city if the war-tax was not
paid.
There were again interminable negotiations, and it was arranged that in all forty-five
millions should be paid.
The sum was paid. Still the Germans wanted to get hold of the five remaining millions,
so a police agent who had shown lack of respect for an officer was condemned to five
years' imprisonment, while Brussels was fined five million francs.
One might ask whether, if the Germans continue to act in this fashion, the city of
Brussels will be forced to pay a fine each time one of its functionaries is guilty of
offence: for it is impossible that the city can control all its employés.
 In this case the German officer who was insulted was in civilian clothes. Now to a
complaint of the communal council the Governor had replied, some time previously, that
there were no secret agents at work in civilian clothing; so that the police agent could
not have known that he was dealing with an officer, since the latter was not in uniform.
It may be imagined that lively protests were made, but once more the Germans
threatened to assume the direction of the commune if the sum was not paid by the
10th November at latest; so, although the council presented a memorandum on the
affair, it was nevertheless forced to pay in order to pursue its mission in peace.
(N.R.C., 9th November, 1914.)

Exactions of a Non-commissioned Officer.

Fines without rhyme and reason, and exorbitant war contributions have become so normal
and so customary that the Germans have finally learned to exploit the situation. The N.R.C.
for the 21st May, 1915, reported that the Council of War in Coblenz had condemned to
eighteen months' imprisonment the non-commissioned officer Garternich, who had
demanded from several occupied Belgian communes a war contribution of 3 frs. per head,
and had thus acquired, for his own personal profit, a sum of 27,393 frs. Does not this simple
fact reveal the habitual squeezing to which our poor country is subjected? Eighteen months'
imprisonment for having emptied the communal treasuries already officially despoiled by the
authorities—that truly is not much; especially when we compare this sentence with those
pronounced upon the communes when a telegraph wire breaks down: the threat of burning
a whole neighbourhood or a formidable fine.
Requisitions of Raw Materials and Machinery.
Requisitions may only be demanded, says Article 52, for the needs of the army of
occupation. Now our enemies have removed from Belgium enormous quantities of raw
material, and machinery which evidently cannot be of use to the army of occupation (see
Belg. Allem., pp. 113, 116, 117). What can the army do with raw cotton, wools, spun cotton,
nickel, jute, etc.? It can be of use only to the industries of Germany, paralysed by the
suppression of the mercantile marine. Among these requisitions are included machine-tools
for the manufacture of shells (notably those removed from the national arsenal at Herstal
and the royal cannon foundry at Liége), and metals, such as copper, which are indispensable
to the manufacture of munitions; so that the articles which have been taken from us,
contrary to Article 52 of the Hague Convention, subscribed to by Germany, are thus directly
employed in fighting against us.
The Germans cannot pretend that these requisitions of machinery were made by over-
zealous officers ignorant of the laws, for Baron von Bissing himself, in his quality of
Governor-General, signed the proclamation of the 17th February ordering the despatch of
our machine-tools to Germany. Moreover, in Berlin even people are perfectly aware of these
requisitions, and of their destination (N.R.C., 22nd February, 1915, morning edition).
We must insist on the fact that all these raw materials of industry, all this machinery, etc., is
not bought, but requisitioned. There is here no case of a commercial transaction, nor even
an expropriation; for we have no redress against the decision arrived at in Berlin as to the
prices which will be paid after the war. It is a theft, to express the matter in a word.
Requisitions in kind and in services ... shall be in proportion to the resources of the country,
says Article 52; which evidently means that requisitions must not exhaust the country to the
point of jeopardizing the lives of the inhabitants. If this stipulation had been respected we
should not have to deplore the famine which is ravaging our country, and to which we shall
return later on.
We shall confine ourselves—in order to give some idea of the excessive and inhuman
manner in which requisitions have been made—to referring the reader to certain articles
written by eye-witnesses, particularly those who have seen what has happened near the
frontier, and at Gand. It will at once be recognized that the requisitions made exceed that
which the inhabitants can reasonably provide (see N.R.C., 10th January, 1915, morning;
23rd January, 1915, morning; 16th January, 1915, evening; 30th January, 1915, evening;
12th January, 1915, morning; 22nd December, 1914, evening).
The Germans have always taken good care to demand wine. They demanded enormous
quantities in the little villages of the Campine of Limburg (N.R.C., 15th January, 1915).
Elsewhere they took for their own use all the cellars of the wine-merchants and the
inhabitants, without allowing the latter to make use of them (see Belg. Allem., p. 118).
A last point as to requisitions. They shall as far as possible be paid for in ready money; if
not, a receipt shall be given.
Very often no receipt has been given to the owners of property taken. Elsewhere the
receipts are fantastical and valueless.
It is the truth that those who do receive vouchers are requested to satisfy themselves of
their accuracy, but this prescription is obviously a dead letter. Imagine, on the one hand, a
peasant, Fleming or Walloon, terrorized into a condition of helplessness, and incapable of
reading a voucher scrawled in German; and on the other, soldiers whose customary
arguments are shooting and burning.

Article 53.
An army of occupation shall only take possession of cash, funds, and realizable
securities which are strictly the property of the State, depôts of arms, means of
transport, stores and supplies, and, generally, all movable property belonging to the
State which may be used for military operations....

From the very first days of the occupation the Germans, in defiance of law and justice,
seized upon the communal treasuries and the funds deposited in the branch establishments
of the National Bank, the post offices, etc. They were obliged to recognize the justice of the
protests made by the Belgian Government; but their love of pillage is incorrigible; on
entering Gand, on Monday, the 12th October, their first care was to lay hands on the
1,800,000 (£72,000) contained in the communal treasury.
According to Article 55 the Germans had no right to remove the furniture of the Ministries of
Brussels (p. 134), since this property was not of a kind to be useful in military operations.

Article 55.
The occupying State shall be regarded only as administrator and usufructuary of public
buildings, landed property, forests, and agricultural undertakings belonging to the
 hostile State, and situated in the occupied country. It must safeguard the capital of such
properties and administer them in accordance with the rules of usufruct.

The German respect for legality did not restrain them from violating this Article. From the
very first days of the war they employed the churches which they consented to leave
standing as stables; on reaching Liége they took possession of the Palais de Justice and
made a barracks of it. Why did they expel Justice? Herren Koester and Noske tell us (p. 30),
it was simply because the position is central and easy to defend (see a photograph facing p.
32). They did not take account of the fact that such employment of the building is doubly
contrary to the Hague Convention, since they did not respect the nature of the monument,
and exposed it to bombardment by Allied aviators on the look-out for the German garrison.
It was the same with the Palais de Justice of Brussels, which also serves as a German
barracks. To adapt it to its novel use, the soldiers have destroyed a great part of the
magnificent furnishings which adorned the halls; the immediate surroundings have been
fortified, and the cupola serves by night as a station for signalling to dirigibles. In short, all
preparations have been made with a view to the bombardment of Poelaert's masterpiece by
the Allies.
It is obviously with the idea of preventing their adversaries from attacking them that they
take up their quarters in our monuments; these are to serve them as artistic bucklers, just
as our compatriots are employed as living bucklers.
The violations of Article 55 are past counting. We will confine ourselves to mentioning a few
in Brussels; they will give us some idea of the diversity of the transformations which our
property has suffered at German hands. The offices of the Ministries are transformed into
bedrooms for officers. The Palais des Académies has become a military hospital; God knows
in what condition we shall find its libraries. In the Parc Royal of Brussels, in the centre of the
city, they have installed an automobile depôt, a riding-track, and a rifle range; on the 28th
October a shot fired from this range wounded a lady through the windows of the Schlobach
magasin in the Rue Royale.

Article 56.
The property of local authorities, as well as that of institutions dedicated to public
worship, charity, education, and to science and art, even when State property, shall be
treated as private property.
Any seizure or destruction of, or wilful damage to, institutions of this character, historic
monuments and works of science and art, is forbidden, and should be made the subject
of legal proceedings.

The first paragraph of this Article has been scrupulously observed; the property of the
communes, etc., has indeed been treated as private property has been treated: the latter
has everywhere been sacked and looted, and the Germans have done the same to collective
property.
As to the intentional character of these acts of vandalism, it is indubitable. How otherwise
explain the fact that in numerous villages the church has been the prey of the flames, in
many cases even when the surrounding houses have remained intact? A few examples will
suffice. The village of Haecht was occupied on the 19th and 20th August. On the 24th the
Belgians in Antwerp made a sortie which was repulsed. The Germans, infuriated, shot 17
civilians and pillaged all the houses, particularly remembering the wine in the cellars. Then
the inhabitants were expelled. A fresh sortie of the Belgians took place from the 9th to the
13th September; at noon on the last day our troops fell back; in the afternoon the Germans
set fire to the church and 41 houses. The strong-box of the church was broken open after
the fire. The destruction of the monument did not strike them as sufficient, and they
dynamited the whole on the 16th (or 17th) September. In the neighbouring village of
Werchter, after the battle of the 25th and 26th August, they shot 6 civilians and burned 267
houses out of the 513 which formed the village. After the second fight, on the 15th
September, they burned the church. In both villages most of the houses round the churches
were spared; it will therefore be difficult for the Germans to pretend, as at Louvain, that the
burning of these churches was an accident (Brandunglück) due to burning fragments carried
by the wind (p. 220). We have already (p. 73) noted another more significant case, that of
the chapel of the Béguinage of Termonde, which was alone burned, in the centre of the
Béguinage, not a dwelling of which was touched.
Conclusions—The Famine in Belgium.
Germany had need, in the conflict with France, of all the men who passed through Belgium;
also she could leave in Belgium only weak garrisons of the Landsturm. To safeguard them
against possible attack on the part of the Belgian population, it was necessary to terrorize
the latter to such a point that it no longer dared to stir. Such was the object of the carnage
and incendiarism which marked the beginning of the campaign, as was frankly admitted by
Herr Walter Blöm, adjutant to the Governor-General in Belgium (p. 84). No doubt the
massacres of Louvain, Andenne, Tamines, and Dinant, committed to order between the 19th
and the 26th August, appeared insufficient, for a new series was organized between the 4th
and 13th September.
At the news of this butchery a resounding cry of horror and indignation went up from all the
nations of the earth. That the Belgian Army, on the field of battle, should have paid large
tribute to the war unloosed upon us by Germany—that was to be expected, but no one
would have dared to suppose that Germany, after participating in the second Hague
Conference, would display towards our civil population such an implacable cruelty, such
exterminating fury, as history has never recorded since the Thirty Years' War. But facts are
facts; one must needs submit to the evidence; the German Army has destroyed our
treasures of art and science, has shot down in cold blood, often by machine-gun fire, hosts
of men, women, even old people and children; it has ordered the burning of thousands of
houses; it has turned whole districts into deserts.
Still, some semblance of motive was necessary; with a mathematical regularity the pretext of
"francs-tireurs" was alleged. "Man hat geschossen"—that was enough; immediately the
neighbourhood was given over to massacre, pillage, and fire. Never was any inquiry made,
no matter how summary. Yet when it was desired to show a foreigner of note—for example,
Dr. Sven Hedin—how they proceeded in the matter of punishing "francs-tireurs," a regular
Council of War was constituted ... which brought in a verdict of non-lieu (p. 78). We defy the
Germans to cite a single case in which a tribunal of this kind has sat before reprisals. In the
few rare cases when witnesses, etc., have been questioned the examination has taken place
after the firing of houses and the shooting of inhabitants. This is why we declare without the
slightest reservation that not one single attack by civilians has been established by any kind
of proof.
The Flight of the Belgians.
The inhabitants of our towns and our countryside soon realized to what they were exposing
themselves if they awaited the arrival of the Germans in their own homes. So, as the
Germans advanced, a void appeared before them. After the taking of Antwerp, the majority
of the peasants of the "Campine" of Antwerp fled in all haste toward Holland. If to them we
add the people of Antwerp, who had been driven out by the bombardment, and above all
the innumerable villages of Brabant, Limburg, and the provinces of Liége and Antwerp,
whose homes had been pillaged and reduced to ashes, we shall not be astonished to find
that in October there were more than a million Belgian refugees in Holland.[30] To our
northern neighbours we owe our profoundest gratitude for the fraternal manner in which
they welcomed our unfortunate compatriots.
The Causes of the Famine.
The horror provoked by the butchery at Dinant, Aerschot, etc., relegated to the background
the purely material crimes. But these—the pillage, methodically conducted, of our towns,
villages, farms, and châteaux—the outrageous requisitions of provisions and of the raw
material of industries—the formidable taxes which drain us of coin—the fines which rain
upon the communal administrations and on private persons—and many other infractions of
the Hague Convention—have exercised on our economical life an extremely depressing
effect, but have produced no echo abroad: doubtless because only those can understand the
whole extent of our misery who daily rub shoulders with the thousands of starving and
unemployed people who drag themselves from one end of the town to the other in quest of
work that is not to be found, or who mingle with the interminable files of women who go in
search of rations of bread and soup for their families.
Let us briefly consider the principal causes of famine which prevails in Belgium.
1. Exaggerated requisitions, out of all proportion to the resources of the country. They are of
two kinds:—
Firstly, those which have emptied the country of grain, cattle, forage, and other foodstuffs.
Then the requisitions of the raw materials intended for the factories, which have completely
paralysed industry, especially in the Flanders. One example will suffice. All the workshops of
Termonde were burned save one—the Escaut-Dendre establishment, which makes boots and
shoes. But the Germans sent into Germany both the leather and the shoes which were in the
warehouse. The factory is thus condemned to stand idle for lack of raw material, and also
for lack of funds. Those industries of which the machinery has been removed are also, of
course, doomed to paralysis. The German authorities threaten to despoil our factories of all
the copper forming part of the machinery, which would reduce them one and all to
impotence. It is an ironical fact that this measure was announced by a propagandist leaflet
addressed to the Belgians.
2. Having made a clean sweep of the greater portion of all that was indispensable to us, the
Germans have been careful to take our money from us. Under every imaginable pretext, and
often without any pretext at all, they have imposed crushing taxes upon us. The regular
payment of these taxes showing that the public coffers were not yet quite empty, the
Germans hastened to impose fines upon us, which vary from 5 frs. to 5 millions. The private
banks, too, are threatened every moment with the removal of a portion of their funds.
3. It is needless to insist on a third cause, which reduces our working-class families to
idleness and poverty: the destruction of an enormous number of factories—some
bombarded, but most of them burned of set purpose.
4. We have already seen that many factories which remained intact are condemned to
inactivity by the lack of raw material, or because they have been deprived of their
machinery. The others are equally paralysed.
The stoppage of traffic on the railway lines, the impediments of all kinds placed in the way
of inland navigation, the absence of maritime navigation, are causes more than sufficient to
prevent the importation of raw materials and the exportation of manufactured products. Of
all these obstacles the most important is assuredly the suppression of goods traffic on the
railways. "Why," say the Germans, "do not Belgian employés return to their work, since our
military trains would in any case be run by our own men?" Hypocrites! The slowness and
irregularity of the trains is highly inconvenient to the German army, and it would much like
to see them resume their normal speed; but for this it requires the assistance of the Belgian
staff. Is it not obvious that if our railway-men resumed their labours they would at the same
time facilitate the transport of German troops and munitions?
Let us again cite the prohibition of "circulation" between 8 or 9 o'clock and 6 o'clock, which
is an obstacle to night work, which is quite indispensable to the large industries; and the
suppression of the special trains by which the workers travelled.
5. Commerce has suffered no less than industry. There is no telegraph, no telephone, no
posting of closed letters; that is, no means of sending or receiving orders. No railway, no
horses, no motor-cars to deliver goods or to supply customers. And, to cap all, the slightest
journey necessitates all sorts of exaggerated expenses: there is the acquisition of a
passport, the train journey at the rate of 10 cm. per kilometre, hotel expenses, etc. The
expenditure might be a minor matter, but what of the waste of time? Before 1st July, 1915,
any one going from Liége to Brussels for business purposes had first of all to waste one or
two days in procuring his passport; the journey occupied at least half a day; and after
interviewing his client he would find that there was no train back to Liége on the same day.
In short, he would have to allow four days for a journey which in normal times took half a
day.

Other causes of famine are:

The scarcity and high cost of provisions.
The financial difficulties in which the public powers are involved.
The paralysis of industry and commerce, resulting in unemployment—that is, in suppression
of wages.
In short, a diminution of resources, accompanied by an increase of expenditure; so that the
public coffers are almost powerless to come to the aid of private distress.
That is how we stand in Belgium.
It is not our intention to depict the poignant distress which has overwhelmed our country.
We shall merely explain briefly how we try to cope with it; this will suffice to give some idea
of it.
Creation of Temporary Shelters.
Let us first of all consider the country districts. Even when a few houses only of a village
have escaped incendiarism the inhabitants have returned thither and have resumed their
customary labours. Must they not plough and sow, under penalty of preparing for
themselves another year of wretchedness? Where houses exist no longer they live in a cellar,
or an outhouse to which some kind of roof has been improvised; families passed the winter
of 1914-15 in a potato-silo,[31] under the shelter of a few mats of straw. In the ruined
villages the first anxiety of the public powers and the relief committees was therefore to
provide provisional shelter.
In the towns and industrial districts the most urgent necessities are of another kind. What is
lacking most particularly is employment. The administrations have therefore set themselves
to provide the unemployed with paid occupations which do not demand apprenticeship—the
clearing of ruins, the levelling of soil, the digging of reservoirs, etc. The communal coffers
being empty, communal vouchers are issued. L'Événement Illustré, in its fourth issue, gives
reproductions of some of these vouchers, of which, it states, there are more than 500. In
the communes near Louvain, where the poverty is particularly poignant, it has been
necessary to create vouchers for 2 centimes (at Wilsele) and 5 centimes (at Herent).
From the outset stringent measures were taken to make up for the insufficiency of
provisions and to prevent speculators from obtaining possession of existing stocks. The most
important of these regulations are the following:—

(a) Fixing of maximum prices.

(b) Prohibition of the exportation of provisions from the commune.
(c) It is forbidden to give animals provisions intended for human beings.
(d) Collective exploitation. Many communes have set up in business as bakers,
butchers, restaurant-keepers, coal merchants, dealers in colonial produce, etc. They
prepare bread and soup daily, and these are provided gratuitously to the poorest, or
sold at a low price to those who still have a few savings. In the Brussels district there
had been distributed by the 31st January, 1915, to adults, 30,060,608 rations,
comprising soup and bread, and to the children 932,838 rations, consisting chiefly of
milk, phosphatine, and powdered milk.

Certain communes also sell meat; others have installed communal stores for the sale of all
kinds of provisions, especially preserved foods, dried vegetables, salt, potatoes, etc.; almost
everywhere coal is sold retail; petroleum was sold as long as it could be obtained. Moreover,
the collectivities are distributing enormous quantities of clothes; in the Brussels district alone
by the end of January 660,865 frs. worth of clothing and footwear had been given to the
necessitous. Abuses have as far as possible been guarded against, (1) by the "household
card," the Carte de ménage, which indicates the number of persons composing each family;
and (2) by the limitation of the quantity of each kind of goods which the household can
obtain during the week.
The basis of alimentation is bread. Therefore particularly Draconian rules have been
elaborated for the bakeries.
The National Relief Committee.
Many problems presented themselves simultaneously, and with an extreme urgency. In all
communes local committees have been set up, entrusted with the equitable distribution of
provisions among all the inhabitants. We say "all the inhabitants," for the reader must not
form any illusions as to our condition: there is not a single Belgian family which, if left to
itself, could obtain its daily bread; the general rationing to which the whole population is
subjected makes rich and poor equally dependent on the National Committee of Relief and
Alimentation.
To organize the feeding of the public would have been a task above our strength if Belgium,
in her present distress, had been abandoned to her own resources. But the misfortunes
which have come upon us because we could not consent to comply with the orders of a
tyrannical and perjured neighbour—the poverty which cripples us more completely day by
day, as requisitions, pillage, taxes, and fines deprive us of our last resources—the massacres
and the incendiarism which have turned into deserts the most fertile and most densely
peopled provinces of Europe—the molestations and annoyances which have reduced to
unemployment a working population whose activity is proverbial—in short, the unmerited
misfortune which Kultur has inflicted upon us—all this has awakened, in all the civilized
nations, a current of sympathy and solidarity with poor Belgium.
By Germany our country was condemned to perish of starvation. The miracle which alone
could save us has been effected by the charity of Spain, Scandinavia, Holland, Italy,
Switzerland, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, the Argentine Republic, Brazil, and, above all,
the United States. Since the month of November 1914 vessels laden with provisions have
been regularly leaving the American ports for Rotterdam, whence the food is despatched,
principally by means of barges, into Belgium, and distributed, in the smallest villages even,
by the care of the National Committee of Relief and Alimentation. This Committee is an
extension throughout the whole country of a commission which was formed early in
September 1914 to succour the Brussels district; it is under the patronage of their
Excellencies the Marquis of Villalobar, the Spanish Minister, and Mr. Brand Whitlock, the
United States Minister. In January and February 1915 the Committee was induced to concern
itself also with the country round Maubeuge, and the Givet—Furnay—Sedan district.
The mission of the National Committee is equitably to distribute relief and provisions. But it
does not itself collect these resources; as they derive more particularly from the United
States it is an American Committee, the "Commission for Relief in Belgium," which
undertakes to collect and administer funds. It is the American Committee which despatches
to Rotterdam, from American ports, the steamers carrying food and clothing. In each
province the American Commission has a delegate who supervises the distribution of
provisions and relief; he assures himself that nothing is diverted to the use of the German
army. The Commission for Relief in Belgium sits in London, its chairman being Mr. Herbert
Hoover.

A serious difficulty cropped up immediately. Foreign beneficence was eager to aid the
Belgians, but not, obviously, the butchers who occupy our country. It was therefore
necessary at all costs to prevent the German army from seizing the provisions and subsidies
despatched by America.
On the 16th October, 1914, the German authorities undertook to exempt from all requisitions
the provisions imported by the National Committee. But this promise was promptly violated.
The Germans, it is true, did not requisition the wheat, but they did requisition the bread
made from that wheat. Moreover, they pretended that their engagement of the 16th
October, 1914, general as it was, did not affect Flanders, a territoire d'étape not subject to
the Governor-General. This is the effect of their letter of the 21st November, 1914. Up to the
present it has been impossible to get them to keep the engagements to which they
subscribed on the 16th October; for although they have extended to cattle-foods the
promise that nothing should be requisitioned by the troops placed under the orders of the
Governor-General—the territoire d'étape being thus excluded—they have, on the other hand,
forced the communes of Flanders to open grain markets, in which they make purchases,
thus continuing to impoverish the food-stores of the country.
While they exclude Flanders from the region exempted from requisitions, they take care not
to breathe a word of this exemption in their own newspapers. The K.Z., on the 4th January,
and Der Volksfreund on the 5th declared that requisitions of foodstuffs were suspended
throughout Belgium.
Despite the difficulties raised by the Germans, the National Committee of Relief and
Alimentation has rendered our country inestimable services, which only those who have
visited our towns and rural districts and have seen the work of the local Committees can
form any conception.
We borrow from the report of the Executive Committee for the month of January 1915
(published in Brussels 15th February, 1915) a few figures (see table, p. 176) as to the
distribution of relief during the month of January.
But the National Committee extends its beneficent action over many departments which are
not mentioned in this table.
Here, according to the same report, is the list of these departments:—

I. Department of Alimentation (Foodstuffs).

II. Agricultural Section of the National Committee.
III. Relief Department:

1. Subsidies to Provincial Committees.

2. Construction of Refuges (100,000 frs. for Luxemburg)
3. Organizations patronized:

A. Central Refugee Committee.

B. Assistance and support of families of officers and under-officers deprived of
their means of sustenance by the war (first subvention 50,000 frs.).
C. Assistance and support of Belgian physicians and druggists ruined by the
war (first subsidy of 10,000 frs.).
D. Assistance and support of artists (first subsidy 10,000 frs.).
E. Assistance and support of infantile charities.
F. Assistance and support of destitute persons.
G. Assistance and support of the homeless (Accommodation section).
H. Assistance and support of destitute churches (two subsidies of 5,000 frs.
each).
 I. Assistance and protection of the unemployed.
J. Assistance and protection of lace-makers (subsidy of 129,749 frs.).
K. Union of Belgian Towns and Communes.
L. Belgian Intelligence Agency for Prisoners of War and Persons Interned
(monthly subvention of 3,000 frs.).

4. Co-operative Society for Loans and Advances.

5. Advances to Provinces and Communes.
6. Clothing.

DISTRIBUTION OF FOODSTUFFS, CLOTHING, AND SUBSIDIES IN MONEY, IN THE

PROVINCES
Nature of Merchandise.
Quantities in Tons.

Despatched
Wheat Flour Rice Peas Salt Potatoes Bacon Maize Sundry Clothing Subsidies
or
Remitted to and (value to
Beans in Provincial
Francs) Committees
(in France)
Province of
Antwerp 3,525 1,247 126 2 713 100,880 300,000
Brussels
and
District 3,371 1,329 13 247 6 90 82 379,058 300,000
Brabant 2,962 1,486 31 116 4 24 548 57 101,916
Western
Flanders 542 519 59 48 20 23 41,059 170,000
Eastern
Flanders 4,419 1,982 37 46 4 3 1,120 14 300,000
Hainaut 5,602 3,739 258 350 74 181 293 81,493 550,000
Liége 3,356 1,242 5 200 80 4,860 280,000
Limburg 1,539 1,466 11 22 200 35 41,477 160,000
Luxemburg 209 853 1 58 16,656 160,000
Namur 1,011 346 60 150 89 95,307 203,000
General
Stock,
8
Brussels 446 119 38 239
2,268
Various
Charities 9,687
Totals 27,476 14,338 359 979 2,414 140 27 3,202 912 822,379 2,423,000
Since the month of January 1915 the National Committee has not ceased to extend its
activities. But it is impossible to give more precise data. The German authorities no longer
permit the Committee to publish its reports. In their dry, official manner they show us only
too clearly what we are to think of the present "prosperity" of Belgium and the "normal state
of the situation."

It will be seen that the activities of the National Committee are fruitful and extensive. But
more and more money is required, as savings are exhausted and as the public coffers are
emptied by the Germans.
In January 1915 the Sovereign Pontiff surrendered the Belgian contribution to Peter's Pence.
As 40 million frs. per month (£1,600,000) is being paid to the Germans, poverty is rapidly
increasing. The number of Belgians deprived of all resources and obliged to live entirely on
charity had risen by February to 1,500,000. It was estimated that by June it would be
2,500,000, or more than one-third of the total population. In February the nourishment of
this famishing host already demanded 10 million frs. (£400,000) per month; soon it will
demand 12 to 13 millions. In this conjuncture Mr. Hoover, the President of the American
Commission, went begging to the British Government, which promised £100,000 per month
provided Germany would cease to make requisitions in Flanders and levy the tax of 40
millions. Germany refused. How will it end?
Belgium's Gratitude to America.
Belgium knows that she owes her relief to the United States. Without American charity our
country would perish in the distress into which the German exactions have plunged her. No
one in Belgium will ever forget this, and it is in the name of the whole nation that King
Albert has publicly thanked America.
It was in sign of homage, and also of gratitude, that on the 22nd February, 1915, on the
anniversary of American Independence, the Belgians wore in their buttonholes a medallion
of the Stars and Stripes, while thousands of the citizens of Brussels left their cards at the
hotel of His Excellency Mr. Brand H. Whitlock. Baron von Bissing spoke of this as
childishness; at Liége German officers even snatched the American colours from women and
young girls. Massacre and arson are more familiar to Kultur than gratitude.

FOOTNOTES:
[14] And also justified by the laws of warfare as affecting invasion. Moreover: "The rules
which affect a levée en masse (a general rising of the people to repel invaders, without
organization) should be generously interpreted. The first duty of a citizen is to defend his
country, and provided he does so loyally he should not be treated as a marauder or
criminal." The Germans could not at the outset know that there was no levée en masse.
—(Trans.)
[15] The Germans have tried to persuade Rome that these priests were not assassinated
but killed in battle.
[16] To give an idea of these accusations, it was said that in the cellars of a Louvain
convent the corpses of fifty German soldiers were discovered, murdered by the monks.
[17] If organized and disciplined, the civic guards and francs-tireurs would have formed
part of the Belgian forces, provided they wore a recognizable sign and bore arms openly.
—(Trans.)
[18] We shall see later (p. 221) that at Louvain Dr. Hedin was shamefully deceived by
the military authorities who were guiding him through the city. It is this which makes us
fear that there may also have been deceit in the case of the villagers tried as "francs-
tireurs."
[19] Kriegsbrauch im Landkriege. Professor J. H. Morgan has published a translation,
with an introduction (John Murray). For a comparison between German, French, and
English usages see Frightfulness in Theory and Practice, by Charles Andler, ed. Bernard
Miall (T. Fisher Unwin).
[20] They are all, with a truly German lack of originality, with the genuine intellectual
slavishness of the "blonde beast," simply repeating the words of Clausewitz, as all
German military philosophers have done for the best part of a century.—(Trans.)
[21] A perusal of Clausewitz, von Hartmann, and the Kriegsbrauch would have dispelled
all doubt. None of these theories is new: how often does a German develop a new
theory? This peculiarly bloodless, mechanically ferocious barbarism is nearly a century
old. The French had seen it in action before.—(Trans.)
[22] The Germans even accuse the Belgian Government of paying its "francs-tireurs" "by
the piece"; that is, so much per German killed.
[23] If it had openly encouraged the civil population it would merely have ordered the
levée en masse, which it had a perfect right to do: as Germany did in 1813. But it is
interesting to note that in 1813 the German francs-tireurs were required not to wear
distinctive uniforms or badges, and were allowed to use any weapons and any means of
injuring the enemy. Germany invented the franc-tireur, and now expects Belgium to do
what she would do in a like case. The bogy so feared by the German soldier is, indeed,
his own shadow. Actually, of course, the Belgian Government called upon civilians to
keep quiet and to surrender arms.—(Trans.)
[24] Thus Der Grosse Krieg, pp. 51 and 52, published a Wolff telegram on the 3rd
August, 1914, saying that many spies had already been shot in Germany, but that the
public should none the less be careful to report suspects, particularly those who spoke a
foreign language.
[25] Étape (etappen, Germ.), stores, rations, or a halting-place.—(Trans.)
[26] If we mention Reims it is because the Germans have on eight occasions posted
placards in Belgium bearing declarations relating to this crime against civilization.
[27] We have not been able to verify the authenticity of the quotation from the Times.
[28] In Germany the phrase has a meaning sui generis.
[29] Names will be published later.
[30] See photographs in Panorama, 9B (26th August, 1914), 17A (16th October, 1914),
18A (16th October, 1914).
[31] A pit for storing potatoes in good condition.
 CHAPTER III
THE GERMAN MIND, SELF-DEPICTED
In those chapters in which we have dealt with the violations of international treaties, and of
the Hague Convention, we have often been led to comment on the mode of thought
displayed by those who committed these crimes. But hitherto we have touched upon the
subject of German mentality only in an incidental fashion; it will doubtless be interesting to
consider it more closely.
We shall utilize, by preference, documents of German origin. In cases where these are
lacking, for example, in the case of the cruelties committed, we shall have recourse to
observations which we ourselves have collected, and whose authenticity is indisputable.
In place of passing in review all the peculiarities of the modern German mind, which would
occupy too much space, we shall confine ourselves to those from which Belgium has
suffered most cruelly; but we shall not speak—it would be superfluous—of the obscene spirit
of rape, and rapacity, and drunkenness. The three psychological elements which we shall
consider are pride, duplicity, and spitefulness.

A.—Pride.
Some Manifestations of Pride and the Spirit of Boasting.
"The German nation is the Chosen People, and God is with us." That is the prevailing idea of
the speeches and proclamations of the Kaiser. In his Speech from the Throne on the 4th
August, 1914, he declared: "It is not the spirit of conquest which urges us forward; but we
are animated by the inflexible determination to retain the position in which God has set us,
for ourselves and for all the generations to come."
In her pride Germany is unanimous. No German is permitted to doubt the indisputable
superiority of his nation over all other nations. As soon as he learns to lisp his first words, his
brain is steeped in the conviction that no people is comparable to his own, even remotely.
This longing to exalt his own country is accompanied by a corresponding desire to abase all
others. Hardly is a discovery of any kind made in a neighbouring country than a German
appropriates it in order to give it a new trade-mark. One example will suffice.
All the world knows that Louis Pasteur was the founder of the science of bacteriology, a
science whose consequences, in the spheres of hygiene and medicine, are incalculable.
Germany ignores Pasteur and has heard only of Koch. A Belgian, who attended the Berlin
celebrations in honour of Koch, returned disgusted with the fact that the name of Pasteur
was systematically suppressed throughout the ceremonies. In an obituary notice devoted to
Koch a Belgian bacteriologist, M. Jules Bordet, remarked with great justice, in speaking of
the German biographies of the scientist who had just died:—
"They made Koch the absolute creator of modern medicine: all other glory pales before his;
he is the founder of bacteriology. Their obituary articles, emanating, for the most part, from
disciples of the master, and which are, one feels, steeped in pious gratitude, and also,
perhaps, to a certain extent, in a somewhat exclusive patriotism, attribute to him the honour
of having shown the organic origin of contagious diseases." "It would be," said Herr Pfeiffer,
the distinguished Breslau bacteriologist, "a real act of justice were posterity to divide the
history of medicine into two periods, one before Koch and the other after him."
Reading such notices it would almost seem as though Pasteur had never lived!
We think M. Bordet shows himself far too indulgent toward the German biographers when
he says, in conclusion: "And one could not take it amiss of these disciples if, in their filial
solicitude, they left on the tomb of their Master a few leaves from the laurels of Pasteur."
Here is another example of boasting, interesting principally by reason of the charlatanesque
manner in which it was published. Every one has heard of the Cooper-Hewitt mercury-
vapour lamp, with its strange blue-violet light, so rich in ultra-violet rays. The most summary
treatises on physics explain that quartz will allow the ultra-violet rays to pass, and that the
Cooper-Hewitt quartz lamp is in constant employment in the laboratories. But if you read the
communication which the Germans imposed upon L'Ami de l'Ordre on the 27th December,
1914, you will see that the Germans invented the whole affair.
If you want to be initiated into the perfections of the German, Herr Momme Nissen, in Der
Krieg und die Deutsche Kunst, will enumerate them for you. "The qualities of the German,"
he says, "integrity and courage, profundity of mind and fidelity, insight and the sense of
inwardness, modesty and piety, are also the ornaments of our art."
The Germans compare themselves with their Allies.
Here is a last point to be considered. The Germans do not merely consider themselves to be
superior to their adversaries; they are equally modest on behalf of their allies. To their
minds, and in their writings, the present war is "the German war." The most complete
chronological compilation which has appeared hitherto is entitled Chronik des Deutschen
Krieges. The official publications deliberately ignore the Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs,
Croats, Turks, etc. The first of the pamphlets of propaganda distributed by the Germans
(Journal de la Guerre) begins thus: "The name this war will one day bear in history is
already determined; it can only be the German War, for it is a war destined to establish the
position of the German nation in the world." By what name shall we call the German's sense
of superiority over all other nations: is it pride, presumption, or impudence?
Herr Paul Rohrbach, who is generally more moderate in his expressions, has written a
pamphlet entitled Warum es der Deutsche Krieg ist ("Why this is the German War").
It would be useless to insist on the general aspects of the question. Let us consider only a
few of the immediate consequences of this frame of mind: militarism, disdain for others,
cynicism, and absence of the critical spirit.

1. Militarism.
Might comes before Right.
Bismarck has given us a precise formula of the cult of brute force, "Might comes before
right!" Nietzsche has gone further, "Might creates right." "You say that a good cause
sanctifies even war? I tell you that a good war sanctifies any cause!" (Thus Spake
Zarathustra).
Herr Maximilian Harden, the well-known polemical writer, expressed the same idea in a
lecture delivered at Duisbourg and reproduced in K.Z. (8th December, 1914). It is expressed
with equal lucidity in an article published in Zeit im Bild (19th November, 1914), and signed
Vitus Bug; the author, after inquiring into the reasons which make Germany hated, adds:
"Let us be victorious, and people will immediately discover that we were in the right!"
It is, consequently, towards the army that the essential aspirations of the German nation
converge; everything must give way to the military interest; the moment this is in question
there is no longer any room for morality, says Professor Rein, of the University of Jena
(N.R.C., 22nd January, 1915, morning), nor for humanity, says Herr Erzberger (N.R.C., 6th
February, 1915, evening), nor even for the law of nations, declares Professor Beer, of the
University of Leipzig (Völkerrecht und Krieg). In other countries people have remained
simple enough to believe that it is precisely in time of war that the prescriptions of
international law should be most strictly respected. Nothing of the sort, say the Germans;
the moment war breaks out everyday justice can only efface itself. On the slightest
accusation, the least pretext, or even without any, they begin to shoot and to burn. If by
accident those put to death are innocent, or if there was in truth no complaint to be made
against the inhabitants of the houses burned to ashes, it is obviously regrettable; but such
commonplace considerations will not prevent the German army from inflicting on the nearest
village a punishment any less exemplary. Es ist Krieg: in this phrase is contained the whole
psychology of the German soldier in war-time. "Do you suppose," said a German at Louvain,
"that we've got time to make inquiries?" (N.R.C., 9th September, 1914, morning). "You
understand clearly," said an officer at Francorchamps, "that we cannot stop the German
army to inquire if this man has really fired on us; he was accused of doing so; isn't that
sufficient reason for shooting him?"

Before leaving the subject of militarism, we will cite one insignificant fact which, however
trifling, clearly reveals the importance which the military idea has assumed in the
conceptions of the German people. According to the N.R.C. of the 6th February, 1915
(evening), Vorwärts has protested against the following measure: The German wife whose
husband is under arms cannot be expelled from her dwelling for non-payment of rent; but if
her husband should be killed in the war the landlord immediately recovers the right to turn
her out.

2. Disdain of Others.
We have seen that the Germans are seeking by all possible means to accentuate their
superiority over their neighbours. An elementary procedure for increasing the vertical
distance between them and their rivals consists in depreciating the latter. Germany has so
often, in every tone of voice, proclaimed the irremediable inferiority of all the other peoples
inhabiting our planet, that she has at last come to believe it herself, and has begun to act in
conformity with her belief.
Some Inept Proclamations, etc.
Thus, to speak only of our own experience, they assuredly under-estimated our national
integrity when they believed us capable of becoming accomplices in the violation of an
international treaty. They also greatly under-estimated our army's powers of resistance, or
they would have taken good care not to lose a fortnight in Belgium, a delay which spoiled
their sudden attack upon France. Finally, they show us every day, by their placards, that they
do not think much of our intelligence. Some of those entitled "News published by the
German General Government" are really inimitable.
Imagine our laughter when the authorities to whom we are forced to submit officially
announced that a German squadron had captured fifteen fishing-boats; or that the Serbians
had taken Semlin in order to obtain food; or that the star of Paschitsch was growing pale; or
that the Austrians had evacuated Lemberg for strategic and humanitarian reasons; or that
the British Army is so ill-equipped that the soldiers are without writing-paper and shoelaces;
or that the river of the "gifts of love" continues to flow; or that General Joffre (in a French
that could only have come from a German pen) informs his troops that "the moment is come
to profit by the weakness which offers itself to us, after we have reinforced ourselves in men
and material." In the last days of September 1914, when a citizen of Brussels met a fair-
haired comrade, he hastened to measure him, to make sure that he was not Charles-Alice
Yate, "being about 5 ft. 9 in. in height."
Here are some of these placards:—

News published by the German Government.

Berlin, 6th September, 1914.—The Austria-Hungarian Ambassador publishes the
following dispatch which has been forwarded to him by the Minister of Foreign Affairs in
Vienna:—
"The Russian news on the subject of the battle of Lemberg and the triumphant capture
of the city is a lie. The open town of Lemberg was evacuated by us without a battle for
strategical and humanitarian reasons."
The General German Government.
London, 8th September, 1914 (Reuter's Agency).—A German squadron, composed of two
cruisers and four torpedo-boats, has captured fifteen English fishing-boats in the North
Sea, and has brought numerous prisoners to Wilhelmshaven.
The German General Government.
Berlin, 22nd September, 1914.—On the night of the 19th September Major Charles-Alice
Yate, of the regiment of the Yorkshire Light Infantry, escaped from Torgau, where he
was prisoner of war. Yate is that English officer of superior rank concerning whom it was
announced the other day that he did not deny, upon inquiry, that the English troops
have been supplied with dum-dum bullets; in the course of this interrogatory he
declared that the soldier must obviously use the ammunition which is furnished to him
by the Government.
 The fugitive is about 5 ft. 9 in. in height; he is slender, fair-haired, and speaks German
well.
The German General Government.
Vienna, 29th September, 1914.—The Reichspost announces from Sofia: The
correspondent of the Volja, the organ of Ghenadjev, writes from Nish: The Austrian
offensive has serious consequences for Serbia; rebellion is muttering in the country and
the army, and every day may see the outbreak of the revolution. During the last few
days several regiments of artillery have revolted. A certain number of guns have been
demolished....
King Peter has returned; he is completely apathetic, and the Crown Prince Alexander
does not know what to do. The star of Paschitsch is paling, and it is feared there may
soon be victims in his entourage.
The German General Government.
London, 6th October, 1914.—The Daily Chronicle announces that at Aldershot, in round
figures, 135,000 militia belonging to all arms should be prepared to depart for the army
as soon as they are ready. However, the training, despite the most brilliant efforts, could
not give satisfactory results, the troops being insufficiently equipped. The newspaper
appeals for the assistance of the public, and remarks that, for example, no officer of
Lord Kitchener's first army possesses field-glasses. They also lack socks, handkerchiefs,
shoelaces, writing-paper and materials, and drums and fifes for the Scottish regiments.
The German General Government.

What is even more strange than their insistence in offering us their sophisticated views, is
their virtuous indignation when they discover that we are not receptive of this kind of truth.
Thus the people of Liége, who would not believe the German placards and preferred their
secret newspapers, were warned by Lieut.-General von Kolewe that they were in danger of
appearing ridiculous in the eyes of intelligent people.

To the Population of Liége and Neighbourhood.

Considering the continual successes of the German troops, it is impossible to
understand why the people of Liége are still so credulous as to believe the absurd and
frivolous news spread by the manufactories of falsehoods installed in Liége. Those who
busy themselves in propagating such news are risking severe punishment. They are
playing a dangerous game in abusing the credulity of their fellow-citizens and in inciting
them to reckless actions. The reasonable population of Liége will resist all temptations
of the kind.
Otherwise it is exposing itself not merely to the gravest disappointment, but also to
appearing ridiculous in the eyes of intelligent people.
Kolewe,
Lieut.-General and German Governor of the
Fortress of Liége.
It is forbidden to tear down this placard or to paste another over it.

Lies concerning the Situation in Belgium.

Before other placards the shrugging of shoulders gave way to disgust. Baron von der Goltz,
at Sofia, boasted of having rendered "the situation in Belgium entirely normal." What of it?
We were so glad to be rid of him that we were ready to overlook any ineptitudes. But when
his successor, Baron von Bissing, after levying a contribution of 480 million frs.
(£19,200,000), had the audacity to declare that he hoped "to do much for the economic
situation," and would especially apply himself "to doing everything to assist the weak in
Belgium, and to encourage them," he passed the bounds of cynicism and presumption.
However, two months later, on the 18th February, 1915, after having despoiled us of 120
million francs, he found occasion to go still farther, affirming his "solicitude for the welfare
and prosperity of the population."
Lies concerning "Francs-tireurs."
What shall we say of the accusations made against Belgian civilians? From August, at the
time of the first sortie of our troops from Antwerp, the Germans posted up statements in
Brussels that the Belgian population was again taking part in the conflict.

Official Statement by the Commandant of the German Army.

Brussels, 28th August, 1914.—On the 26th and 27th August several Belgian divisions
made a sortie from Antwerp in order to attack our lines of communication, but they
were repulsed by those of our troops left behind to invest the city. Five Belgian guns fell
into our hands....
The Belgian population almost everywhere took part in the fighting. It became
necessary to take the most drastic measures to repress the bands of francs-tireurs....

Now certain of these battles took place at a distance of only six miles from Brussels;
peasants were shot at Houtem (a hamlet of Vilvorde) and at Eppeghem: that is, in villages
whence people went into the city every morning with vegetables, milk, etc., so that the
inhabitants of the capital were perfectly informed as to the behaviour of the German troops
toward the Belgian civilians. They knew, too, that these pretended attacks of "francs-tireurs"
had been delivered by detachments of the Belgian army (see E. Waxweiler in La Belgique
neutre et loyale, p. 219). The keen indignation against the German liars was still further
aggravated when, three weeks later, the Kaiser repeated these calumnies. The fact of their
having placarded the walls of Brussels with these obviously false accusations shows once
more in what low esteem the Germans hold the mental faculties of their victims.

News published by the German Government.

Brussels, 7th October.—From the leader of a troop of cyclists near Hennuyères written
instructions were taken, intended for the leaders of the so-called "destructive
detachment," in which they are told, among other things: "Spread false news: landing
of the English at Antwerp, Russians at Calais."

That the Germans should seek to deceive their own compatriots as to the situation is natural
enough—they are quite content with official news. But in Belgium we still, in spite of all
obstacles, continue to receive foreign newspapers, which keep us informed of the military
operations. Why, then, did the Germans try to impose on us over the battle of the Marne,
when nothing was easier than to learn the truth from the Times and the French Press?
A still more curious case was that of the battle of Ypres. During a whole fortnight the official
placards daily informed the Belgians of the latest German success ... and at the end of three
weeks the army was still as far from Ypres. The whole of this Yser campaign is interesting as
throwing a light upon the German mentality. From the outset the Germans tried to establish
a confusion between the "canalized" Yser and the "canalized" Yperlée, that is, the canal
running from Ypres to the Yser. What they call "the canal of the Yser" in their placard of the
22nd October is the canalized Yser between Dixmude and Nieuport. In the placard of the
2nd November they spoke of the "canal from the Yser to Ypres, near Nieuport," an
absolutely fantastic description. Finally, on the 4th April, when they claimed to have crossed
"the Yser canal" to occupy Driegrachten, it was really the Yperlée that was in question, and
not the Yser at all. This is, as will be seen, on a par with the intentional confusion which they
sought to create between the city of Liége and its forts (pp. 50, 58). Such confusions may
deceive the Germans, but the Belgians, familiar with the geography of their country,
naturally laugh at them.
Another point relating to this astonishing campaign on the Yser: On the 2nd November the
Germans announced that operations were rendered difficult by the inundation. On the
following day, having expressed their pity for the Belgians "whose fields were devastated for
a long time to come," they added that the water was in parts deeper than a man's height,
but that they had lost neither man, nor horse, nor gun. How can they impose such idle stuff
on people who know the polders of the coast region, with their innumerable canals and
ditches, and who know, moreover, than an inundation there renders all retreat impossible?

3. Cynicism.
They must require a good stock of effrontery to put before us such assertions as that of the
Kaiser, whose falsity is obvious at sight. They cannot be ignorant of the fact that these
impostures are instantly exposed. But this consideration does not give them pause; German
superiority appears to them so indisputable that they have no need to trouble about the
opinion of other people; if they occasionally indicate the reasons for their actions, it is to
reassure their own conscience, not to justify themselves to their victims. They are, in short,
in the situation of the sportsman who brings down the game passing within gunshot, but is
not required to render an account of it to the rabbits and partridges. To the sportsman's way
of thinking there is no cynicism in so acting: between the hunter and the game there is too
great a difference to make such a justification necessary. Similarly, the Germans occupy, in
the scale of Kultur, so exalted a position as compared with the Belgians, that they believe in
good faith that all is permitted to them in dealing with this horde, and that they need not
justify their actions. They behave toward us as the Conquistadores toward the Aztecs.
More, they actually advertise their contempt for the rules of justice. We have already
mentioned the placard posted at Gand, according to which they openly placed themselves in
conflict with the Hague Convention. They have gone yet farther in this direction. What are
we to say, for example, of the placard posted at Menin, in July 1915, by order of
Commandant Schmidt, in which it is ordained that the families of those "who do not work
regularly on the military works" shall be allowed to die of starvation?

Order.
 From to-day the town can no longer grant relief—of whatever kind, even for families,
women and children—save only to those workmen who are working regularly on the
military works and on other works prescribed.
All other workmen and their families cannot henceforth be assisted in any way
whatever.

And this is not the gem of the collection. At Roubaix and the vicinity (in French Flanders,
close against the Belgian frontier) they advertised their decision to prevent all sales of
comestibles if work were not resumed by the 7th July, and they even threatened completely
to suppress "circulation," which would have resulted in the lingering death of the whole
population.
And this is not the worst. In a neighbouring town, Halluin, Commandant Schranck caused a
declaration to be read to the assembled notables which stated that he denied their right to
invoke the Hague Convention, since the German military authorities had determined to
enforce the fulfilment of all their demands, "even if a city of 15,000 inhabitants had to
perish."

(Read at Halluin, on the 30th June, at 11.30 p.m., to the Municipal Council and notables
of the Town of Halluin.)
Gentlemen,
What is happening is known to all these gentlemen. It is the conception and
interpretation of Article 52 of the Hague Convention which has created difficulties
between you and the German military authority. On which side is the right? It is not for
us to discuss that, for we are not competent, and we shall never arrive at an
understanding on this point. It will be the business of the diplomatists and the
representatives of the various States after the war.
To-day it is exclusively the interpretation of German military authority which is valid, and
for that reason we intend that all that we shall need for the maintenance of our troops
shall be made by the workers of the territory occupied. I can assure you that the
German authority will not under any circumstances desist from demanding its rights,
even if a town of 15,000 inhabitants should have to perish. The measures introduced up
to the present are only a beginning, and every day severe measures will be taken until
our object is obtained.
This is the last word, and it is good advice I give you to-night. Return to reason, and
arrange for the workers to resume work without delay; otherwise you will expose your
town, your families, and your persons to the greatest misfortunes.
To-day, and perhaps for a long time yet, there is for Halluin neither a prefecture nor a
French Government. There is only one will, and that is the will of German authority.
The Commandant of theTown,
Schranck.

Do you not agree that a cynicism so shameless is a sign of perplexity and an admission of
impotence? The Germans realize that they are driven to the worst expedients!
A host of similar facts might be cited, but it would mean useless repetition. Let us rather
examine some examples of graphic cynicisms.
Photographs and Picture Postcards.
The Germans have published, in their newspapers, photographs representing the population
of a village, consisting principally of women, being driven away as prisoners (Berl. Ill. Zeit.,
No. 36, 6th September, 1914); a military observation-post installed by them on the tower of
Malines Cathedral during the siege of Antwerp (Berl. Ill. Zeit., No. 44, 1st November, 1914);
doctors detained as prisoners in Germany, contrary to the Geneva Convention (Berl. Ill. Zeit.,
No. 15, 11th April, 1915); soldiers taken prisoners, whom they are forcing, despite Article 6
of the Hague Convention, to do work directed against their country (Die Wochenschau, No.
44, 1914).
We find the same effrontery in respect of the conflagrations started by their troops: Scharr
and Dathe, of Trèves, have edited and placed on sale, in Belgium itself, a series of fifty
picture postcards, representing localities which the German army has destroyed by fire. We
may mention Dinant, Namur, Louvain, Aerschot, Termonde; and in Belgium, Luxemburg,
Barranzy, Etalles, Èthe, Izel, Jamoigne, Musson, Eossignol, Tintigny. Let us add that these
photographs commonly show German soldiers and officers striking triumphant attitudes
amid the ruins. The most instructive card of this kind which we have seen is one
representing General Beeger amid the ruins of Dinant. To understand the full significance of
this card, one must remember that it was this officer who ordered 1,200 of the houses of
Dinant to be burned and 700 of the inhabitants to be massacred. It is surprising that he did
not have a few corpses of "francs-tireurs" arranged about him when the photograph was
taken—preferably selected from the old men, women, and children at the breast.
After the torpedoing of the Lusitania they sold in Belgium a series of cards entitled Kriegs-
Errinerungs-Karte, edited by Dr. Trenkler & Co., of Leipzig, which pictured the operations of
submarines. Card No. 2, of Series XXXIII, represents—very inaccurately, by the way—a
German submarine stopping the Lusitania. It is as well to recall the fact that in this disaster
more than 1,500 non-combatants perished, among them Mme. Antoine Depage, the wife of
the well-known Belgian surgeon.
Nothing ought to surprise us on the part of those who prove that every means is good
provided it is efficacious. Here is what a newspaper, much respected in Germany, the
Hamburger Fremdenblatt, has to say in its weekly illustrated supplement for the 16th May,
1915:—

"In the situation in which Germany now finds herself, attacked on three sides at once
with all the means that cruelty and perfidy can invent, we must not ask ourselves
whether a means of defence is permitted or prohibited; but whether it is effectual. All
that facilitates the defence must be employed; this is especially true of the submarine
war, and consequently of the destruction of the Lusitania."

Alfred Heymel on the Battle of Charleroi.

We have already spoken of the articles of Alfred Heymel and Walter Blöm. Here are some
extracts from an article by the former:—

The Battle of Charleroi.

One regiment of cavalry was detrained near the enemy frontier. For a little while it
halted on a manœuvring ground where the division to which we were to be attached as
scouts was to assemble.
Already many of us were impatient at having to wait longer before marching to the
front; we heard the growling thunder of the howitzers of the great fortress near the
frontier, around which there had been violent fighting these last few days; we were told
of cruelties that made our hair stand on end, committed, in its fury, by a people which
had for years been excited against us deeds of cruelty committed against our
compatriots, soldiers, civilians, women and children, because of our violation of a
neutrality which it had itself violated a thousand times over in advance. On our side we
were boiling inwardly to avenge these infamies.... We breathed more freely only when,
in our march beyond the frontier, we saw the first houses burned in reprisal; a curé,
who had revolted, was hanging from a tree in a neighbouring thicket, swinging at the
will of the wind, when at last the noise of battle grew plainer....
(They arrive near Charleroi.)
The head of one regiment, led by my friend Lieutenant S——, trotted forward again,
and seized as hostages what civilians it could catch; some 12 to 16 persons, old and
young, fat and thin, had to march before or between the lancers; more, this portion of
the regiment had received the order from its comrades not to ride too far ahead.
Something that alarmed me quite particularly, giving me a presentiment of misfortune,
was the fact that the wives of these civilians burst into weeping: one red-headed
woman, frantic, threw herself down in the road and gave vent to wild screams; others,
behind us, their emaciated arms stretched in the air, threatened us, although they were
several times assured that so long as nothing was done to us nothing would happen to
their husbands, sons, friends, and lovers. All these significant scenes took place in the
side streets....
(A volley is fired from a barricade—or a railway crossing the street; it is not clear
which.)
I saw two or three cavalrymen fall back in front, and with them the hostages fell to the
ground; my friend was standing, near his horse. A violent and rapid fire alternated with
volleys; we could not escape on either side; naturally we immediately faced about and
returned in the direction whence we had come; there was a furious pursuit along the
uneven road, with the balls whistling at our backs. The horses fell, one after another....
Thus from the advance-guard we had become the rear-guard. We had to consider how
we could regain the main body of the troop. In the first place hostages were taken,
some curés among them; the cavalry and artillery were no longer marching alone and
unprotected, but flanked by the infantry and pioneers; one soon learns when once one
has been caught. With great difficulty we again penetrated the streets in the smoke and
heat, in the midst of the flames we ourselves had lit; now we continually heard the
popping of cartridges, bursting harmlessly, piled up in the houses, and betraying the
friendly intention of the ex-inmates![32]...
We learned later, when we had found the uniforms, that two battalions of crack French
infantry were distributed everywhere, in order to organize and discipline the fire of the
Belgian civic guard and the francs-tireurs. The rumour (of marksmen on the
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