Per-unit System

by

Don Ely Joseph A. Hojilla

John David O. Cordova
Romjan D. Alpas
Selwyn P. Sanducal

Submission date: 4-Jan-2025

Submission ID: 2400215818
File name: Per Unit System.docx (272.95K)
Word count: 3042
Character count: 19951
PER-UNIT SYSTEM

This section presents the definition, history, nature, and significance of the per
unit system. It explores the fundamental concepts involved, including per-unit formulae
for single phase systems, per-unit quantities for three phase systems, and changing
bases in the per-unit system. The chapter will delve into the application of the per-unit
system to electrical circuits and power systems, developing the necessary skills to solve
problems involving voltage, current, impedance, and power. Students will learn how to
apply per-unit concepts to various electrical engineering scenarios, such as transformer
analysis, fault studies, and system stability assessments.

The material is structured to provide a gradual progression of topics, starting

from the basic principles of the per-unit system and building up to more complex
applications. Each chapter includes theoretical explanations, illustrative examples, and
practical exercises to reinforce understanding and problem-solving skills.

1.1 Definition, History, Nature and Significance of Per-unit System

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the topic, the students should be able to:
 Define common terms in Per-Unit System;
 Trace the history of Per-Unit System; and
 Cite the significance and advantages of Per-Unit System in different fields
specifically in electrical engineering.

MOTIVATION

"Success is not final, failure is not fatal: It is the courage to continue that counts. You
have to keep pushing forward, even when the path seems uncertain or the road is
rough. It’s in those moments of adversity that you find your true strength. Remember,
the journey is not about avoiding obstacles, but about how you rise after each setback.
Each step, no matter how challenging, brings you closer to your dreams."
— Winston
Churchill

CONCEPTS
Definition
Per-unit systems are nothing more than normalizations of voltage, current,
impedance and power. These normalizations of system parameters because they
provide simplifications in many network calculations and are often expressed in per-unit
or percent of specified base values. For example, if a base voltage of 20 kV is specified,
then the voltage 18 kV is (18/20) = 0.9 per unit or 90%. Calculations can then be made
with per-unit quantities rather than with the actual quantities. The per unit value of a
quantity is thus defined as

Actual value
pu value=
Reference∨base value of the same dimension

History
The per-unit system gained prominence in the mid-20th century as electrical
engineers sought standardized methods to analyze complex power systems. This work
provided a comprehensive framework for applying the per-unit system, particularly in
the context of electrical machines, and has been influential in the field of electrical
engineering.

Significance
The per-unit system offers several advantages in power system analysis, making
it a valuable tool for engineers. Per-unit quantities eliminate the need for constant
conversions between different voltage levels, especially when dealing with transformers.
This simplifies calculations and reduces the risk of errors. Similar types of apparatus,
like generators, transformers, and transmission lines, have similar per-unit impedances
and losses when expressed on their own rating, regardless of their absolute size. This
allows for easier comparison and identification of potential errors. Per-unit impedances
remain unchanged when referred from one side of a transformer to the other. This
eliminates the need to consider the turns ratio of the transformer in calculations. The
per-unit system reduces the use of the constant √3 in three-phase calculations, further
simplifying analysis. Per-unit representation improves the numerical stability of
automatic calculation methods, leading to more accurate results. Per-unit values
provide valuable information about the relative magnitudes of different quantities in the
system, aiding in understanding the overall system behavior. Manufacturers typically
specify the impedance of equipment in per unit values, making it easier to compare
different devices.

Advantages

One advantage of the per-unit system is that by properly specifying base

quantities, the transformer equivalent circuit can be simplified. The ideal transformer
winding can be eliminated, such that voltages, currents, and external impedances and
admittances expressed in per-unit do not change when they are referred from one side
of a transformer to the other. This can be a significant advantage even in a power
system of moderate size, where hundreds of transformers may be encountered. The
per-unit system allows us to avoid the possibility of making serious calculation errors
when referring quantities from one side of a transformer to the other. Another advantage
of the per-unit system is that the per-unit impedances of electrical equipment of similar
type usually lie within a narrow numerical range when the equipment ratings are used
as base values. Because of this, per-unit impedance data can be checked rapidly for
gross errors by someone familiar with per-unit quantities.

NOTES:
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1.2 Per-Unit Formulae for Single Phase System
The per-unit (pu) system is a normalized method of expressing electrical
quantities in a single-phase system. The per-unit system represent actual quantities
(voltage, current, power and impedance) relative to selected base values. For single
phase circuits, or three phase circuits analyze per phase basis, the formulae give the
base quantities. Define the power units used in the equations:

VA ≡ V x A KVA ≡ 1000VA

Sbase ≔ 100000 KVA

To illustrates the per-unit system, let the single-phase power and voltage base be

Vbase ≔ 69 KVA

The derived base quantities for single-phase or per-phase calculations are

Ibase ≔ Sbase / Vbase (Use for Sbase in kVA and Vbase in KV)
Zbase ≔ Vbase / Ibase (Use for Ibase in KVA and Vbase in KV)
Zbase ≔ Vbase2 x 1000 / Sbase
Zbase ≔ Vbase / Sbase (Use for Sbase in MVA and Vbase in KV)
(Use for Sbase in KVA Vbase in KV)

Pbase ≔ Sbase
2

Example

Find the base power (Sbase) in a single-phase system with:

Base Voltage (Vbase) =120 V
Base Current (Ibase) = 50 A

Solution
Base Power (Sbase) = Base Voltage (Vbase) × Base Current (Ibase)
Sbase = 120 V × 50 A
Sbase = 6,000 VA
Sbase = 6 k

The following equations compute the pu values of voltage, current, impedance, and
power from the corresponding actual values.
Zpu (Zact) ≔ Zact / Zbase
 Ipu (Iact) ≔ Iact / Ibase
Vpu (Vact) ≔ Vact / Vbase
Ppu (Pact) ≔ Pact / Pbase

Example

Find the per-unit (pu) value of a 138 kV voltage in a system with:

Base Voltage (Vbase)*: 120 kV

Solution
pu Voltage (Vpu) = Actual Voltage (V) / Base Voltage (Vbase)
Vpu = 138 kV / 120 kV
Vpu = 1.15 pu

1.3 Per-Unit Quantities for Three Phase System

Three-phase power systems are prevalent in electrical grids due to their
numerous advantages over single-phase systems. These advantages are particularly
apparent when analyzing such systems, making the per-unit system a valuable tool.

The per-unit system simplifies three-phase power system analysis by

streamlining calculations and reducing the need for constant conversions between
phase and line quantities. It makes the representation of transformers and other
equipment more straightforward while providing a standardized way to express
impedance values, allowing for easier comparisons across different components. By
minimizing complexity, especially in balanced systems, the per-unit system enhances
the efficiency of power system analysis. Additionally, it improves the numerical stability
of simulations, making it a valuable tool for engineers dealing with three-phase power
systems.

Per-Unit Transformation
The per-unit system is a powerful tool for simplifying power system analysis,
particularly when dealing with transformers and complex circuits. This system
expresses electrical quantities as fractions of a defined base value, making calculations
more manageable. The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of its actual
value to the chosen base value of the same dimension. This results in a dimensionless
value.

For example:
If the base voltage is 100 kV and the actual voltage is 80 kV, the per-unit voltage
would be 80 kV / 100 kV = 0.8 pu.
Steps for Per-Unit Transformation:

1. Choose Base Values:

Select base power (Sbase) and base voltage (Vbase) for the system.
Base Power (Sbase): Typically chosen as the system’s total apparent power or a
convenient round number representative of the system’s size.
Base Voltage (Vbase): Usually selected as the nominal voltage of the system or a
specific voltage level within the system.

2. Calculate Derived Base Values:

Determine base current (Ibase) and base impedance (Zbase) using the following
relationships:
Ibase = Sbase / (√3 * Vbase) for three-phase systems
Zbase = (Vbase) 2 / Sbase (Use for Sbase in total MVA and Vbase in kV line-to-line.)

3. Convert Actual Values to Per-Unit:

For any quantity, divide its actual value by the corresponding base value.

Example
Consider a transformer with a rated power of 100 MVA and a voltage ratio of 138
kV/13.8 kV. To transform its impedance to per-unit values:

1. Choose Base Values:

Sbase = 100 MVA, Vbase (high-voltage side) = 138 kV.

2. Calculate Derived Base Values:

Ibase = 100 MVA / (√3 * 138 kV) = 416.7 A, Zbase = (138 kV)^2 / 100 MVA = 190.44 Ω.

3. Convert Actual Impedance to Per-Unit:

If the actual impedance of the transformer is 10 Ω, the per-unit impedance would be
10 Ω / 190.44 Ω = 0.052 pu.

Per Unit Conversion for Three-Phase Systems

The per-unit system simplifies power system calculations by expressing all

quantities as fractions of a chosen base value. This is particularly helpful in three-phase
systems, where different voltage levels and transformer connections can complicate
analysis.

Example

Transformer Impedance Conversion

Problem: A 100 MVA, 138/13.8 kV, three-phase transformer has a 10% impedance.
Convert this impedance to per-unit on a 100 MVA base.

Solution:

1. Choose Base Values:

Sbase = 100 MVA (given)
Vbase (HV) = 138 kV (transformer rating)
Vbase (LV) = 13.8 kV (transformer rating)

2. Calculate Base Impedance:

Zbase = (Vbase) 2 / Sbase
Zbase (HV) = (138 kV) 2 / 100 MVA = 190.44 Ω
Zbase (LV) = (13.8 kV) 2 / 100 MVA = 1.9044 Ω

3. Convert Actual Impedance to Per Unit:

Zpu = Zact / Zbase
Zpu (HV) = 0.1 × Zbase (HV) / Zbase (HV) = 0.1 pu (since 10% impedance is given)
Zpu (LV) = 0.1 × Zbase (LV) / Zbase (LV) = 0.1 pu

Example

Line Impedance Conversion

Problem: A 100 km, three-phase transmission line has a series impedance of 0.1 + j0.5
Ω/km per phase. Convert this impedance to per-unit on a 100 MVA, 138 kV base.
Solution:

1. Choose Base Values:

Sbase = 100 MVA (given)
Vbase = 138 kV (given)

2. Calculate Base Impedance:

Zbase = (Vbase) 2 / Sbase = (138 kV) 2 / 100 MVA = 190.44 Ω

3. Calculate Total Line Impedance per Phase:

Zline = 0.1 + j0.5 Ω/km * 100 km = 10 + j50 Ω

4. Convert Total Line Impedance to Per Unit:

Zpu = Zline / Zbase = (10 + j50 Ω) / 190.44 Ω = 0.052 + j0.262 pu
Example

Load Impedance Conversion

Problem: A three-phase load consumes 50 MW at 0.8 power factor lagging at 13.8 kV
(line-to-line). Convert this load impedance to per-unit on a 100 MVA, 13.8 kV base.
Solution:

1. Choose Base Values:

Sbase = 100 MVA (given)
Vbase = 13.8 kV (given)

2. Calculate Base Impedance:

Zbase = (Vbase) 2 / Sbase = (13.8 kV) 2 / 100 MVA = 1.9044 Ω

3. Calculate Load Impedance per Phase:

S = √3 × Vline × Iline
Iline = S / (√3 × Vline) = 50 MW / (√3 ×13.8 kV) = 2083 A
Zload = Vline / Iline = 13.8 kV / 2083 A = 6.62 Ω
θ = arcos (0.8) = 36.87° (power factor angle)
Zload = 6.62∠36.87° Ω = 5.296 + j4.00 Ω

4. Convert Load Impedance to Per Unit:

Zpu = Zload / Zbase = (5.296 + j4.00 Ω) / 1.9044 Ω = 2.78 + j2.10 pu

1.4 Changing Bases in the Per Unit System

The impedance of individual generators and transformers, as supplied by the

manufacturer, are generally in terms of percent or per-unit quantities based on their own
ratings. The impedance of transmission lines are usually expressed by their ohmic
values. For power system analysis, all impedances must be expressed in per unit on a
common system base. To accomplish this, an arbitrary base for apparent power is
selected; for example, 100 MVA. Then, the voltage bases must be selected. Once a
voltage base has been selected for a point in a system, the remaining voltage bases are
no longer independent; they are determined by the various transformer turns ratios. For
example, if on a low-voltage side of a 34.5/115-kV transformer the base voltage of 36
kV is selected, the base voltage on the high-voltage side must be 36(115/34.5) = 120
kV. Normally, we try to select the voltage bases that are the same as the nominal
values.

Let Zoldpu be the per-unit impedance on the power base SoldB and the voltage base VoldB
which is expressed by
Zoldpu = z Ω / (ZoldB) = z Ω (SoldB) / (VoldB) 2 (1)

Expressing z Ω to a new power base and a new voltage base, results in the new
per-unit impedance
Znewpu = z Ω / (ZnewB) = z Ω (SnewB) / (VnewB) 2 (2)

From (1) and (2), the relationship between the old and the new per-unit values is
Znewpu = Zoldpu × (SnewB) / (SoldB) × [(VoldB) / (VnewB)] 2 (3)

If the voltage bases are the same, (3) reduces to

Znewpu = Zoldpu × (SnewB) / (SoldB) (4)

Where:
Znewpu is the impedance on the new base.
Zoldpu is the impedance on the old base.
SnewB and SoldB are the new and old power bases, respectively.
VnewB and VoldB are the new and old voltage bases, respectively.

Example

The reactance of a generator designated Zoldpu is given as 0.25 per unit based on
the generator's nameplate rating of 18 kV, 500 MVA. The base for calculations is 20 kV,
100 MVA. Find Znewpu on the new base.

Znewpu = Zoldpu × (SnewB) / (SoldB) × [(VoldB) / (VnewB)] 2

= 0.25 ×100/500 × (18/20) 2
= 0.25 ×0.2 × 0.81
=0.0405 pu
 Example

Determine the per-unit values of the following single-line diagram.

5 MVA 100 MVA 50 MVA

275 kV/132 kV Transmission line 132 kV/66 kV
Xg = 16%
j 3.48 

XT1 = 0.1 pu XT2 = 0.04 pu Load

40 MW, 0.8 p.f. lagging

PER UNIT CALCULATIONS:

Generator G1:
Znewpu = Zoldpu × (SnewB) / (SoldB) × [(VoldB) / (VnewB)] 2
Xg (pu) = 0.16 × 100/32 = 0.32 pu

Transformer T1:
XT1 (pu) = 0.1 pu

Transmission line TL:

Zbase = (kVbase) 2 / MVAbase Zpu = Zact / Zbase
2
XTL (pu) = (3.4) (100) / 132 = 0.0195 pu

Inductive Load:
Zact = (66×103 / √ 3) / (40×106 / √ 3) = 87.12∠36.87° 
ZL (pu) = 87.12∠36.87° / 662 = 2∠36.87° pu

Transformer T2:
XT2 (pu) = (0.04) (100) / 50 = 0.08 pu

Problem Set 1

Solve the following problems. Show your solution and encircle your final answer.

1. Find the base current in a single-phase electrical system with a base voltage of 240
volts and a base power of 10 kilovolt-amperes.
2. Find the base power (SB) in a single-phase system with:
*Base Voltage (VB)*: 480 V
*Base Current (IB)*: 200 A

3. A transmission line operates at 230 kV. Determine its per-unit value given a base
voltage of 200 kV.

4. A distribution system has a base voltage of 24.9 kV. Find the per-unit value of a 26.5
kV feeder.

5. A 100 MVA, 230/13.8 kV, three-phase transformer has a per-unit impedance of 0.08
pu on a 100 MVA base. Calculate the actual impedance of the transformer in ohms on
both the high-voltage and low-voltage sides.

6. A 50 km, three-phase transmission line has a per-unit series impedance of 0.04 + j0.2
pu on a 100 MVA, 220 kV base. Calculate the actual impedance of the line in ohms per
kilometer.

7. A three-phase load connected to a 13.8 kV bus has a per-unit impedance of 3.5 +

j2.5 pu on a 50 MVA base. Calculate the actual impedance of the load in ohms.

8. The Direct axis reactance of a synchronous generator is given as 0.4 pu based on

the generators name plate rating of 10KV, 75 MVA. The base for calculation is 11KV,
100 MVA. What is the pu value of Generator on the new base?

9. For the following power system network shown in the figure, the specifications of the
component are as follows:

G1: 25 KV, 100 MVA, X=9%

G2: 25 KV, 100 MVA, X=9%
T1: 25 / 220 kV, 90 MVA, X=12%
T2: 220 KV/25 kV, 90 MVA, X=12%
Transmission Line 1: 220 KV, X=150 ohms
Choose 25 KV as the base voltage at the generator G1 and 200 MVA as the MVA base.

LINE1

T1 BUS1 BUS2 T2

G1 G2
Answer Key:

1. (41.67 A)
2. (96 KVA)
3. (1.15 pu)
4. (1.063 pu)
5. (42.32 Ω and 0.1524 Ω)
6. (0.3872 + j1.936 Ω/km)
7. (13.33 + j9.52 Ω)
8. (0.44 p.u.)
9. (Xg1 = j0.18pu, XT1 (pu) = j0.27pu, X1 = j0.62 pu, XT2 (pu) = j0.62 pu, Xg2 =j0.18pu)
References:

Glover, J.D., Sarma, M., and Overbye, T. (2008) Power System Analysis and Design
(4th ed.). Thomson.

EI-Hawary, M.E. (1995) Electrical power systems: design and analysis (Rev.ed.).Reston
Publishing Company.

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3.07:_Introduction_To_Per-Unit_Systems