The Mythology of the Constellations Most ancient cultures saw pictures in the stars of the night sky.

The earliest known efforts to catalogue the stars date to cuneiform texts and artifacts dating back roughly 6000 years. These remnants, found in the valley of the Euphrates River, suggest that the ancients observing the heavens saw the lion, the bull, and the scorpion in the stars. The constellations as we know them today are undoubtedly very different from those first few--our night sky is a compendium of images from a number of different societies, both ancient and modern. By far, though, we owe the greatest debt to the mythology of the ancient Greeks and Romans. The earliest references to the mythological significance of the Greek constellations may be found in the works of Homer, which probably date to the 7th century B.C. In the Iliad, for instance, Homer describes the creation of Achilleus's shield by the craftsman god Hephaistos: On it he made the earth, and sky, and sea, the weariless sun and the moon waxing full, and all the constellations that crown the heavens, Pleiades and Hyades, the mighty Orion and the Bear, which men also call by the name of Wain: she wheels round in the same place and watches for Orion, and is the only one not to bathe in Ocean (Iliad XVIII 486-490).
At the time of Homer, however, most of the constellations were not associated with any particular myth, hero, or god. They were instead known simply as the objects or animals which they represented--the Lyre, for instance, or the Ram. By the 5th century B.C., however, most of the constellations had come to be associated with myths, and the Catasterismi of Eratosthenes completed the mythologization of the stars. "At this stage, the fusion between astronomy and mythology is so complete that no further distinction is made between them"--the stars were no longer merely identified with

certain gods or heroes, but actually were perceived as divine (Seznec, 37-40). Despite the many mentions of the stars in Greek and early Roman texts, by far the most thorough star catalogue from ancient times belongs to the Roman Ptolemy of Alexandria, who grouped 1022 stars into 48 constellations during the 2nd century A.D. Although Ptolemy's Almagest does not include the constellations which may only be seen from the southern hemisphere, it forms the basis for the modern list of 88 constellations officially designated by the International Astronomical Union (Pasachoff, 134-135). The influence of both the Greek and Roman cultures may be plainly seen; the myths behind the constellations date back to ancient Greece, but we use their Latin names. The Major Constellations: Andromeda | Aquarius | Aries | Cancer | Capricornus | Cassiopeia | Cepheus | C etus | Corona Borealis | Cygnus | Draco | Eridanus | Gemini | Hercules | Hydra | Leo | Libra |

Lyra | Orion | Perseus | Pisces | Sagittarius | Scorpius | Taurus |Ursa Major | Ursa Minor | Virgo Mythology, of course, influenced the naming of many objects in the night sky, not just the constellations. The planets all bear names from Roman mythology which reflect their characteristics: Mercury, named for the speedy messenger god, revolves fastest around the sun; Venus, named for the goddess of love and beauty, shines most brightly; Mars, named for the god of war, appears bloodred; Jupiter, named for the single most important god, is the largest planet in our solar system. Even the names of the Galilean moons of Jupiter (the four largest, which may be seen with even a small telescope) are drawn from mythology. Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto were all desired--and taken by force--by Jupiter. It is ironic that the mythological characters mythological women the king of the gods so ardently pursued now revolve around him.
PERSEUS Perseus was one of the great heroes of classical mythology. He was the son of Jupiter and Danae, and is best known for his killing of the Gorgon Medusa. This was a rather complex task, as anyone who saw her hideous face would be turned immediately to stone--the Gorgons, according to Bulfinch, were "monstrous females with huge teeth like those of swine, brazen claws, and snaky hair" (Bulfinch's Mythology, 109). Perseus accomplishes it, however, by the aid of Pluto, Mercury and Minerva. Pluto lent his helmet of invisibility to Perseus, Mercury lent the hero his winged sandals, and Minerva allowed him the use of her shield. With the aid of the helmet and the sandals, Perseus was able to get within striking range without being detected by Medusa or the two immortal Gorgons. He then used the reflection on the shield to guide his killing blow, and flew off unharmed bearing the head of Medusa: He was bringing back the Gorgon's head, the memorable trophy he had won in his contest with that snaky-haired monster. As the victorious hero hovered over Libya's desert sands, drops of blood fell from the head. The earth caught them as they fell, and changed them into snakes of different kinds. So it came about that that land is full of deadly serpents. Thereafter, Perseus was driven by warring winds all over the vast expanse of sky: like a raincloud, he was blown this way and that. He flew over the whole earth, looking down from the heights of heaven to the land which lay far below (Metamorphoses IV 615-624). He was rather tired and wanted to rest when he arrived at the lands of Atlas, at the ends of the earth. Atlas, however, tried to turn him away with his considerably greater strength. Perseus was infuriated and showed him the head of Medusa, turning the Titan into "a mountain as huge as the giant he had been. His beard and hair were turned into trees, his hands and shoulders were mountain ridges, and what had been his head was now the mountain top. His bones became rock. Then, expanding in all directions, he increased to a tremendous size--such was the will of the gods--and the whole sky with its many stars rested upon him" (Metamorphoses IV 656-662). Perseus flew on until he spotted the beautiful

maiden Andromeda, who was chained to the rocky shore as a sacrifice to a sea monster. Perseus promptly fell in love with her, killed the monster, and married the princess. There are some variants on the myth of Perseus. According to some versions, he had to win the winged sandals and the helmet from the three Graeae, sisters of the Gorgons who shared one eye and one tooth among them. He stole the eye and the tooth, returning them only in exchange for the sandals and the helmet he needed to defeat Medusa. When he died many years later, Perseus was immortalized as a constellation. He may be found near Andromeda and her parents, Cepheus and Cassiopeia, in the northern sky. The hero is depicted with a sword in one hand and the head of Medusa in the other; it is interesting to note the the eye of Medusa is the star Algol. Algol, which means "Demon Star" in Arabic, is an eclipsing binary star--it is normally about as bright as Polaris (second magnitude), but every two and a half days it becomes dimmer for roughly eight hours as the dimmer star of the pair passes between the brighter and the earth.

ANDROMEDA

Andromeda was the princess of Ethiopia, daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia was a boastful woman, and foolishly bragged that she was more beautiful than Juno, the queen of the gods, and the Nereids. In order to avenge the insult to his nymphs, Neptune sent a sea monster to ravage the Ethiopian coast. (Some accounts state that the constellation Cetus represents the sea monster, but a more common view of Cetus is that he is a peaceful whale.) The horrified king consulted Ammon, the oracle of Jupiter, who said that Neptune could be appeased only by sacrificing Cassiopeia's beautiful virgin daughter, Andromeda, to the monster. Andromeda was duly chained to a rock on the coast, fully exposed to the monster. Fortunately for her, the hero Perseus happened to be flying by on his way back from killing the Gorgon Medusa: When Perseus saw the princess, her arms chained to the hard rock, he would have taken her for a marble statue, had not the light breeze stirred her hair, and warm tears streamed from her eyes. Without realizing it, he fell in love. Amazed at the sight of such rare beauty, he stood still in wonder, and almost forgot to keep his wings moving in the air. As he came to a halt, he called out: "You should not be wearing such chains as these--the proper bonds for you are those which bind the hearts of fond lovers! Tell me your name, I pray, and the name of your country, and why you are in chains." At first she was silent; for, being a girl, she did not dare to speak to a man. She would have concealed her face modestly behind her hands, had they not been bound fast. What she could do, she did, filling her eyes with starting tears. When Perseus persisted, questioning her again and again, she became afraid lest her unwillingness to talk might seem due to guilt; so she told him the name of her country, and her own name, and she also told him how her mother, a beautiful woman, had been too confident in her beauty.

Before she had finished, the waters roared and from the ocean wastes there came a menacing monster, its breast covering the waves far and wide. The girl screamed. Her sorrowing father was close at hand, and her mother too. They were both in deep distress, though the mother had more cause to be so (Metamorphoses IV 674-692). Perseus tells Andromeda's parents that he'll kill the monster if they agree to give him their daughter's hand in marriage. They of course give him their consent, and Perseus kills the monster. (His exact method of doing so varies in different versions of the myth. Ovid has Perseus stab the monster to death after a drawn-out, bloody battle, while other versions have the hero simply hold up the head of Medusa, turning the monster to stone.) Andromeda is freed, and the two joyously marry. Andromeda is represented in the sky as the figure of a woman with her arms outstreched and chained at the wrists. CEPHEUS

Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, was married to the beautiful Cassiopeia, and together they had a daughter, Andromeda. Although his name is most well-known in connection with his daughter, Cepheus was placed in the sky of his own right: He voyaged as an Argonaut with Jason on the quest for the Golden Fleece. All three members of the family may be found in the northern sky; Cepheus and Cassiopeia are quite close to the northern celestial pole. Cepheus is generally represented as a robed king with a crown of stars, standing with his left foot planted over the pole and his scepter extended towards his queen. Aquarius The Water Carrier

The water carrier represented by the zodiacal constellation Aquarius is Ganymede, a beautiful Phrygian youth. Ganymede was the son of Tros, king of Troy (according to Lucian, he was also son of Dardanus). While tending his father's flocks on Mount Ida, Ganymede was spotted by Jupiter. The king of gods became enamored of the boy and flew down to the mountain in the form of a large bird, whisking Ganymede away to the heavens. Ever since, the boy has served as cupbearer to the gods. Ovid has Orpheus sing the tale: "The king of the gods was once fired with love for Phrygian Ganymede, and when that happened Jupiter found another shape preferable to his own. Wishing to turn himself into a bird, he none the less scorned to change into any save that which can carry his thunderbolts. Then without delay, beating the air on borrowed pinions, he snatched away the shepherd of Ilium, who even now mixes the winecups, and supplies Jove with nectar, to the annoyance of Juno" (Metamorphoses X 154-160).
Aquarius is a summer constellation in the northern hemisphere, found near Pisces and Cetus. It is especially notable as the radiant for four meteor showers, the largest of which is the Delta Aquarid meteor shower in late July and early August.

Aries The Ram

Aries is a zodiacal constellation representing the ram of the Golden Fleece sought by Jason and the Argonauts. The ram had originally been presented to Nephele by Mercury when her husband took a new wife, Ino, who persecuted Nephele's children. To keep them safe, Nephele sent Phrixus and Helle away on the back of the magical ram, who flew away to the east. Helle fell off into the Hellespont (now the Dardanelles) between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, but Phrixus safely made it to Colchis on the eastern shore of the Black Sea. Phrixus sacrificed the ram and presented the Golden Fleece to the king, Aeetes. Roughly 2000 years ago, the vernal equinox was in the constellation Aries. This is no longer the case, due to precession of the earth's axis, but Aries is still regarded as the first constellation in the zodiac.

Cancer The Crab

Cancer is a zodiacal constellation. As with many other constellations, its exact mythological origin is uncertain; however, the most widely accepted story is that Cancer was the crab sent to harass Hercules while he was on his second labor. As he battled the Lernaean Hydra, the ever-jealous Juno sent Cancer to nip at the hero's heels. The crab was eventually crushed beneath Hercules's feet, but Juno placed it in the heavens as a reward for its faithful service. Cancer may be found between the constellations of Leo and Gemini.
This zodiacal constellation, like Pisces, depicts the result of the sudden appearance of the earthborn giant Typhoeus. Bacchus was feasting on the banks of the Nile at the time, and jumped into the river. The part of him that was below water was transformed into a fish, while his upper body became that of a goat. From this point of view, he saw that Typhoeus was attempting to tear Jupiter into pieces; he blew a shrill note on his pipes, and Typhoeus fled. Jupiter then placed the new shape of Bacchus in the heavens out of thanks for the rescue. Capricornus has therefore from antiquity been represented by a figure with the head and body of a goat and the tail of a fish. It may be seen between Aquarius and Sagittarius low on the southern horizon. Cetus The Whale

Cetus deserves mention because some say the constellation represents the sea monster sent to Ethiopia as punishment for the boasting of Queen Cassiopeia.

The monster nearly kills Andromeda, daughter of Cassiopeia and Cepheus, but is itself killed by the hero Perseus. More frequently, though, Cetus is represented as a whale, which implies no connection to the Andromeda myth--though it certainly is possible that the ancients perceived whales as monstrous creatures. Either way, the constellation is appropriately a large one, and is relegated to the southern sky--far from Andromeda, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, and Perseus.

Corona Borealis The Northern Crown

This constellation is generally associated with Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos of Crete. His wife had borne a hideous monster, half-man and half-bull, and Minos had it shut up in a labyrinth designed by the famous architect Daedalus. The maze was so complex and confusing that Daedalus "was himself scarcely able to find his way back to the entrance" (Metamorphoses VIII 166-167). Periodically, the Minotaur needed to be fed, and a number of Athenians would be put into the labyrinth for it to eat. This happened twice; on the third feeding, the hero Theseus was one of those chosen as a sacrifice. Ariadne fell in love with him, and offered to help if he would take her away with him when he escaped. He agreed, and she gave him a thread to unwind behind him to mark his passage. He killed the Minotaur, followed the thread out of the labyrinth, and sailed from Crete with Ariadne: Immediately he set sail for Dia, carrying with him the daughter of Minos; but on the shore of that island he cruelly abandoned his companion. Ariadne, left all alone, was sadly lamenting her fate, when Bacchus put his arms around her, and brought her his aid. He took the crown from her forehead, and set it as a constellation in the sky, to bring her eternal glory. Up through the thin air it soared and, as it flew, its jewels were changed into shining fires. They settled in position, still keeping the appearance of a crown, midway between the kneeling Hercules and Ophiucus, who grasps the snake. (Metamorphoses VIII 174182).
Cygnus The Swan

As is the case with so many of the constellations, there are a number of possible explanations for the presence of the swan in the heavens. Some myths, for instance, state the swan was once the pet of the Queen Cassiopeia. Other versions state that the swan was Cionus, son of Neptune, who was wrestled to

the ground and smothered by Achilles. To save his son, Neptune immortalized Cionus as a swan. Another story says the swan is Orpheus, who was murdered by the Thracian women while under the influence of Bacchus. Upon his death, the celebrated musician was placed in the heavens to spend eternity by his harp, Lyra. Yet another variant says that the swan represents the form taken by Jupiter when he deceived Leda and fathered Pollux. According to Ovid, the swan was once Cygnus, son of Sthenele and a close friend of Phaethon. Phaethon died in the river Eridanus after attempting to drive the chariot of the sun, and Cygnus was overcome with grief that Jupiter could have struck down his friend: As he mourned, his voice became thin and shrill, and white feathers hid his hair. His neck grew long, stretching out from his breast, his fingers reddened and a membrane joined them together. Wings clothed his sides, and a blunt beak fastened on his mouth. Cygnus became a new kind of bird: but he put no trust in the skies, or in Jupiter, for he remembered how that god had unjustly hurled his flaming bolt. Instead, Cygnus made for marshes and broad lakes, and in his hatred of flames chose to inhabit the rivers, which are the very antithesis of fire (Metamorphoses II 374-382). Cygnus is easily found in the summer sky. Also called the Northern Cross because of its characteristic shape, its brightest star is Deneb, which is part of the Summer Triangle with Vega and Altair. Cygnus is located next to Cepheus and Lyra.
Draco The Dragon

It is unclear precisely which mythological dragon Draco represents. There are, however, three main contenders. One version--the least likely--of the Draco story is that the dragon fought Minerva during the wars between the giants and the gods. Minerva threw Draco's twisted body into the heavens before it had time to unwind itself. Another possibility is that Draco represents the dragon who guarded the golden apples in the garden of the Hesperides. One of the labors of Hercules was to steal these apples (some sources state it was his eleventh labor, others it was his twelfth). This was, according to Bulfinch, the most difficult labor of all..., for Hercules did not know where to find them. These were the apples which Juno had received at her wedding from the goddess of the Earth, and which she had entrusted to the keeping of the daughters of Hesperus, assisted by a watchful dragon. After various adventures, Hercules arrived at Mount Atlas in Africa. Atlas was one of the Titans who had warred against the gods, and after they were subdued, Atlas was condemned to bear on his shoulders the weight of the heavens. He was the father of the

Hesperides, and Hercules thought might, if any one could, find the apples and bring them to him (Bulfinch's Mythology, 136). Hercules suggested this plan to Atlas, who pointed out two problems: first, he could not simply drop his burden; second, there was the awful guardian dragon. Hercules responded by throwing his spear into the garden of the Hesperides and killing the hundred-headed beast, and then taking the burden on his own shoulders. Atlas retrieved the apples and, reluctantly taking the burden onto his shoulders once again, gave them to Hercules. Juno placed the dragon in the heavens as a reward for his faithful service. By far the most commonly accepted version of Draco's arrival in the heavens, however, is that Draco was the dragon killed by Cadmus. Cadmus was the brother of Europa, who was carried off to Crete by Jupiter in the form of a bull (Taurus). Cadmus was ordered by his father to go in search of his sister, and told he could not return unless he brought Europa back with him. "Cadmus wandered over the whole world: for who can lay hands on what Jove has stolen away? Driven to avoid his native country and his father's wrath, he made a pilgrimage to Apollo's oracle, and begged him to say what land he should dwell in" (Metamorphoses III 9-11). Cadmus followed Apollo's advice and found a suitable site for his new city. He sent his attendants to find fresh water to offer as a libation to Jupiter, and they wandered into a cave with springs. As they were getting water, however, they were all killed by "the serpent of Mars, a creature with a wonderful golden crest; fire flashed from its eyes, its body was all puffed up from poison, and from its mouth, set with a triple row of teeth, flickered a three-forked tongue"(Metamorphoses III 31-34). After his companions did not return, Cadmus himself went into the cave and discovered the dragon. He killed it with his spear, and then (upon the order of Minerva) sowed the dragon's teeth in the ground. From the teeth sprung warriors, who battled each other until only five were left. These five, along with Cadmus himself, were the first people of the city of Thebes. It is interesting, however, to note that Ovid himself does not equate the dragon of Mars with Draco. In fact, in book III of Metamorphoses, he describes the dragon killed by Cadmus in terms of the constellation: "It was as huge as the Serpent that twines between the two Bears in the sky, if its full length were seen uncoiled" (45-47). The Serpent described by Ovid is certainly the same one as we see today, twisting past Cepheus and between Ursa Major and Ursa Minor in the north, with its head beneath the foot of Hercules. Its location therefore seems to fit best with the myth that Draco was the dragon in the garden of the Hesperides.
Eridanus The River

Eridanus is a river in northern Italy, now known as the River Po. Called by Virgil the "king of rivers," Eridanus was made famous in connection with the death of Phaethon. Phaethon was the son of Phoebus Apollo and the nymph Clymene. For his birthday one year, Phaethon asked his father for some proof that he was indeed the son of the sun-god. Apollo said he would give the boy any gift he desired as a token of his fatherly love, and Phaethon promptly asked for the chance to drive the chariot of the sun. His father balked, knowing that no mortal youth could possibly have the strength necessary to control the horses. However, Phaethon insisted, and Apollo had granted his word. Phaethon drove off on the route of the sun, but sure enough, he could not control the powerful horses. He drove too close to the heavens, and then plunged too close to the earth, scorching both realms. Gaia endured the sun's heat until she could bear it no more, and then she called upon Jupiter for help: The omnipotent father called upon the gods and even upon the sun himself, who had bestowed his car upon Phaethon, to be his witnesses that, if he did not bring help, the whole world would come to a grievous end. Then he mounted up to the highest point of heaven, that height from which he is wont to spread clouds over the broad lands of earth, whence he sends forth his thunderings and hurls his flashing bolts: he had no clouds then to draw over the world, no rain to shower down from the skies. He sent forth a thunderclap and, poising his bolt close by his right ear, launched it against the charioteer....Phaethon, with flames searing his glowing locks, was flung headlong, and went hurtling down through the air, leaving a long trail behind: just as a star, though it does not really fall, could yet be thought to fall from a clear sky. Far from his native land, in a distant part of the world, the river Eridanus received him, and bathed his charred features" (Metamorphoses II 304-327). As a constellation, Eridanus is the longest in the sky, meandering from Orion to Cetus.
Gemini The Twins

Gemini is a zodiacal constellation representing the twin brothers Castor and Pollux. Both were mothered by Leda, and were therefore brothers of Helen, but they had different fathers: In one night, Leda was made pregnant both by Jupiter in the form of a swan and by her husband, the king Tyndarus of Sparta. Pollux, as the son of a god, was immortal and was renowned for his strength, while his mortal brother Castor was famous for his skill with horses. Both brothers voyaged in search of the Golden Fleece as Argonauts, and then fought in the Trojan War to bring their sister home to her husband Menelaus. They are traditionally depicted as armed with spears and riding a matched pair of snowwhite horses.

The most common explanation for their presence in the heavens is that Pollux was overcome with sorrow when his mortal brother died, and begged Jupiter to allow him to share his immortality. Jupiter, acknowledging the heroism of both brothers, consented and reunited the pair in the heavens. Castor and Pollux were unique among those placed in the sky in that they are not represented merely as a constellation but as actual stars which mark the twin's heads in the constellation. Castor is bright white binary star, while Pollux is orange. They may be found between Cancer and Taurus.
Hercules

Hercules was perhaps the greatest hero in all mythology. He was the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and was hounded all his life by Juno. (This is deliciously ironic, because in the original Greek myths, Juno is named Hera and Hercules is Heracles, which means "glory of Hera.") Juno was unhappy with Jupiter's infidelity, and saw Hercules as a living, breathing symbol of her shame. She delayed his birth, and when Hercules was a mere baby (but a big one!) sent two snakes into the crib he shared with his mortal half-twin Iphicles. Hercules killed them both with his bare hands, marking the beginning of his career as a monster-killer. After a precocious childhood and adolesence, Hercules married Megara (daughter of Creon, king of Thebes). Juno succeeded in driving him mad, though, and he killed his wife and his children. As atonement, he serves the king Eurystheus, performing the twelve labors for which he is most famed: Hercules also accompanied Jason on his quest for the Golden Fleece and assisted in the war between the gods and the giants. He remarried, and eventually died after accidentally poisoned by his wife Deineira. He was subsequently immortalized, even though he was by birth only half immortal. The constellation Hercules, found between Lyra and Bootes, shows the hero wearing the skin of the Nemean Lion while holding his characteristic club and Cerberus the three-headed dog. He also rests his foot atop the head of Draco the dragon. The constellation is huge--the fifth-largest in the sky--but rather dim, which is an interesting parallel with Hercules himself. The hero was famed for his brawn, but his wits were rather lacking.
Hydra The Water-Snake

This constellation represents the Lernaean Hydra, slain by Hercules as his second labor. The Hydra was a multi-headed monster--according to Diodorus (first century B.C.), it had a hundred heads; Simonides (sixth century B.C.) said it had fifty. The most common opinion, however, seems to be that it had nine. What made the Hydra so difficult was the fact that, whenever one of its heads was chopped off, two would grow in its place. Hercules managed to get around this rather major obstacle by having his nephew, Iolaus, cauterize each stump

with a hot iron as soon as Hercules could chop off a head. The hero then buried the monster's immortal head beneath a rock. The task was made somewhat more difficult by Juno, who sent a crab to nip at the feet of Hercules while he battled the Hydra.
Hydra is a long and wandering constellation, stretching almost from Canis Minor to Libra. It lies south of Cancer, Leo, and Virgo, and is best seen in the northern hemisphere during the months of February through May.Leo The Lion

The zodiacal constellation Leo is generally accepted to represent the Nemean Lion, killed by Hercules during his first labor. According to myth, the Nemean lion had an impenetrable skin. Hercules got around this potentially serious obstacle by wrestling the lion and strangling it to death. He then removed one of its claws, and used it to skin the animal. From then on, Hercules wore the skin of the Nemean Lion as protection. Leo is easy to locate; following the pointer stars of the Big Dipper south approximates the location of the bright blue-white star Regulus in Leo's chest.
Libra The Scales

Libra is a zodiacal constellation. It represents the balance or scales, and is one of the oldest constellations. Although now associated with Virgo, a goddess of justice who had scales as the emblem of her office, it was once associated with the fall equinox. On that day, the days and nights are of equal length (i.e. the moon and the sun are in balance). Libra is represented in the heavens next to the hand of Virgo. Lyra
The Lyre

Lyra represents the lyre played by Orpheus, musician of the Argonauts and son of Apollo and the muse Calliope. Apollo gave his son the lyre as a gift, and Orpheus played it so well that even the wild beasts, the rocks, and the trees were charmed by his music. He fell deeply in love with the nymph Eurydice, and the two were married. Their wedded bliss did not last for very long, however. Eurydice was wandering in the fields with some other nymphs when she was seen by the shepherd Aristaeus. Aristaeus was struck by her beauty and pursued her; as she fled, she was bitten by a snake in the grass and died of the serpent's poison. Orpheus was devastated. He decided to seek out his wife in the underworld, and gained an audience with Pluto and Persephone. The king and queen of the underworld, like all others, were charmed by his music and granted him permission to take Eurydice back to the land of the living with him: They called Eurydice. She was among the ghosts who had but newly come, and walked slowly because of her injury. Thracian Orpheus received her, but on condition that he must not look back until he had emerged from the valleys of Avernus or else the gift he had been given would be taken from him.

Up the sloping path, through the mute silence they made their way, up the steep dark track, wrapped in impenetrable gloom, till they had almost reached the surface of the earth. Here, anxious in case his wife's strength be failing and eager to see her, the lover looked behind him, and straightaway Eurydice slipped back into the depths. Orpheus stretched out his arms, straining to clasp her and be clasped; but the hapless man touched nothing but yielding air. Eurydice, dying now a second time, uttered no complaint against her husband. What was there to complain of, that she had been loved? With a last farewell which scarcely reached his ears, she fell back again into the same place from which she had come (Metamorphoses X 47-63). According to Ovid, Orpheus was so heartbroken from having lost his love not once, but twice, that he rejected the company of women in favor of that of small boys. The women of Thrace were infuriated and, while maddened during Bacchic rites, hurled rocks at the bard. The rocks, tamed by the sound of Orpheus's lyre, at first fell harmlessly at his feet, but the shrieks of the infuriated women soon drowned out the music. The women dismembered Orpheus, throwing his lyre and his head into the river Hebrus. The Muses gathered up his limbs and buried them, and Orpheus went to the underworld to spend eternity with Eurydice. Jupiter himself cast the bard's lyre into the sky. Lyra may be easily picked out in the sky because it contains Vega, at zero magnitude the second brightest star visible from the northern hemisphere. Vega is also part of the summer triangle, formed with Deneb and Altair.
Orion The Hunter There are two different versions of the Orion myth, depending on the identity of his parents. The first of these identifies the sea-god Neptune as Orion's father and the the great huntress Queen Euryale of the Amazons as his mother. Orion inherited her talent, and became the greatest hunter in the world. Unfortunately for him, with his immense strength came an immense ego, and he boasted that he could best any animal on earth. In response to his vanity, a single smallscorpion stung him and killed him. Another version of the Orion myth states that he had no mother but was a gift to a pious peasant from Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury. "Orion supposedly was able to walk on water and had greater strength and stature than any other mortal. A skilled blacksmith, he fabricated a subterranean palace for Vulcan. He also walled in the coasts of Sicily against the encroaching sea and built a temple to the gods there" (Magee, 48). Orion fell in love with Merope, daughter of Oenopion and princess of Chios. Her father the king, however, would not consent to give Orion his daughter's hand in marriage--even after the hunter rid their island of wild beasts. In anger, Orion attempted to gain possession of the maiden by violence. Her father, incensed at this conduct, having made Orion drunk, deprived him of his sight and cast him out on the seashore. The blinded hero followed the sound of a Cyclops' hammer till he reached Lemnos, and came to the forge of Vulcan, who, taking pity on him, gave him Kedalion, one of his men, to be his guide to the abode of the sun. Placing Kedalion on his

shoulders, Orion proceeded to the east, and there meeting the sun-god, was restored to sight by his beam. After this he dwelt as a hunter with Diana, with whom he was a favourite, and it is even said she was about to marry him. Her brother [Apollo] was highly displeased and chid her [she was, after all, a virgin huntress], but to no purpose. One day, observing Orion wading through the ocean with his head just above the water, Apollo pointed it out to his sister and maintained that she could not hit that black thing on the sea. The archergoddess discharged a shaft with fatal aim. The waves rolled the body of Orion to the land, and bewailing her fatal error with many tears, Diana placed him among the stars (Bulfinch's Mythology, 191-192). It is also stated in some versions that Apollo, worried for Diana's chastity, sent a scorpion to kill Orion. Orion is one of the most well-known constellations, visible in the southern sky during northern hemisphere winters. He is generally shown as a hunter attacking a bull with an upraised club, and is easily recognizable by his bright belt of three stars. In addition, his shoulder is marked by the red supergiant Betelgeuse (literally "armpit of the central one" in Arabic), and his left leg is marked by the blue-white supergiant Rigel. According to the versions of the myth which have him killed by Scorpius, the two were placed on the opposite sides of the sky from each other so that they are never visible at the same time. Pisces The Fish The horrible earthborn giant Typhoeus suddenly appeared one day, startling all the gods into taking on different forms to flee. Jupiter, for instance, transformed himself into a ram; Mercury became an ibis; Apollo took on the shape of a crow; Diana hid herself as a cat; and Bacchus disguised himself as a goat. Venus and her son Cupid were bathing on the banks of the Euphrates River that day, and took on the shapes of a pair of fish to escape danger. Minerva later immortalized the event by placing the figures of two fish amongst the stars. The zodiacal constellation Pisces represents two fish, tied together with a cord. The constellation is neither particularly bright nor easy to locate, but it lies near Pegasus and Aquarius. Sagittarius The Archer

The zodiacal constellation Sagittarius represents the centaur Chiron. Most of the centaurs were regarded in myth as bestial--they were, after all, half horse. However, the ancient Greeks had a great deal of respect for the horse, and so were reluctant to make the centaurs entirely bad. In fact, Chiron was renowned for his gentleness. He was an excellent archer, musician, and physician, and tutored the likes of Achilles, Jason, and Hercules. Chiron, however, was accidentally shot and wounded by Hercules. The arrow, which had been dipped in the poison of the Lernaean Hydra, inflicted great suffering on Chiron--so great, in fact, that even the talented physician could not cure himself. In agony, but as an immortal unable to find release in death,

Chiron instead offered himself as a substitute for Prometheus. The gods had punished Prometheus for giving fire to man by chaining him to a rock. Each day an eagle would devour his liver, and each night it would grow back. Jupiter, however, had at the request of Hercules agreed to release Prometheus if a suitable substitute could be found. Chiron gave up his immortality and went to Tartarus in place of Prometheus; in recognition of his goodness, Jupiter placed him in the stars (Pasachoff, 139). From the northern hemisphere, Sagittarius may be seen only in the summer, lying low in the south. The Milky Way runs through Sagittarius.
Scorpius The Scorpion

Scorpius is a zodiacal constellation. The scorpion is generally believed to be responsible for the death of the great hunter Orion. According to some myths, the scorpion stung Orion in response to his boast that he could defeat any beast; according to others, it was sent by Apollo, who was concerned for his sister Diana's continued chastity. In either case, Scorpius was placed in the opposite side of the sky from Orion so as to avoid any further conflict. It is to the southeast of Libra, and is marked by the bright red star Antares. (Antares is Greek for "Rival of Ares," the Greek war-god. The star is so named because of of its brightness and color, which are approximately the same as of the planet Mars. Mars, of course, is the Roman name for Ares.)
Taurus The Bull

Taurus is a zodiacal constellation. According to myth, Taurus represents the bull-form taken on by Jupiter when he became enamored of Europa, princess of Phoenicia: Majesty and love go ill together, nor can they long share one abode. Abandoning the dignity of his sceptre, the father and ruler of the gods, whose hand wields the flaming three-forked bolt, whose nod shakes the universe, adopted the guise of a bull; and mingling with the other bullocks, joined in their lowing and ambled in the tender grass, a fair sight to see. His hide was white as untrodden snow, snow not yet melted by the rainy South wind. The muscles stood out on his neck, and deep folds of skin hung along his flanks. His horns were small, it is true, but so beautifully made that you would swear they were the work of an artist, more polished and shining than any jewel. There was no menace in the set of his head or in his eyes; he looked completely placid.(Metamorphoses II 847-858). The princess Europa was impressed by the beauty and gentleness of the bull, and the two played together on the beach. Eventually, Europa climbed onto the

bull's back, and he swam out to sea with her. He took her to Crete and revealed his true self. The constellation Taurus consists of only the head and shoulders of the snowy white bull. The representation in the stars seems to show a raging bull, however, always about to plunge into Orion, which doesn't seem to reflect the gentle, seductive bull in Ovid's telling of the story.
Virgo The Virgin

Virgo is a zodiacal constellation. According to the ancient poets, the virgin is also sometimes known as Astraea. She lived on the earth during the Golden Age of man, which is described by Hesiod: First a golden race of mortal men were made by the immortals who have Olympian homes. They lived in Kronos' [Saturn's] time, when he ruled the sky, they lived like gods, with carefree heart, free and apart from trouble and pain; grim old age did not afflict them, but with arms and legs always strong they played in delight, apart from all evils; They died as if subdued by sleep; and all good things were theirs; the fertile earth produced fruit by itself, abundantly and unforced; willingly and effortlessly they ruled their lands with many goods. But since the earth hid this race below, they are daimones by the plans of great Zeus [Jupiter], benevolent earthly guardians of mortal men, who watch over judgments and cruel deeds, clothed in air and roaming over all the earth (Works and Days 109-125). The "daimones" of which Hesiod speaks are invisible spirits which watch over men. Presumably, although it is unclear, Astraea is the daimone whose province is justice. The emblem of her office was therefore the scales (Libra), which are seen next to Virgo in the sky. Virgo is the second largest constellation and is highest in the northern hemisphere during May and June. The brightest star in Virgo is Spica.
Ursa Minor The Lesser Bear

Arcas was the son of Callisto, who was transformed by Juno into a bear. When Arcas was fifteen, he was out hunting in the forest when he came across a bear. The bear behaved quite strangely, looking him in the eyes. He of course could not recognize his mother in her strange shape, and was preparing to shoot her when Jupiter prevented him. Arcas was transformed into a bear like his mother,

and the two were taken up into the sky. Juno was annoyed that the pair should be given such honor, and took her revenge by convincing Poseidon to forbid them from bathing in the sea. It is for this reason that Ursa Major and Ursa Minor are both circumpolar constellations, never dipping beneath the horizon when viewed from northern latitudes. Ursa Minor is better known as the Little Dipper. Polaris, the star marking the end of the dipper's handle, is located at the north celestial pole.
Ursa Major The Great Bear

The wood-nymph Callisto was a maiden in the wild region Arcadia. She was a huntress, "not one who spent her time in spinning soft fibres of wool, or in arranging her hair in different styles. She was one of Diana's warriors, wearing her tunic pinned together with a brooch, her tresses carelessly caught back by a white ribbon, and carrying in her hand a light javelin or her bow" (Metamorphoses II 412-415). Jupiter caught sight of her and immediately desired her. He took on the shape of the goddess Diana and spoke to Callisto, who was delighted to see the form of her mistress. She began to tell him of her hunting exploits, and he responded by raping her. "She resisted him as far as a woman could--had Juno seen her she would have been less cruel--but how could a girl overcome a man, and who could defeat Jupiter? He had his way, and returned to the upper air"(Metamorphoses II 434-437). The cruelty of Juno mentioned by Ovid resulted from the goddess's easilyaroused jealousy. Unfortunate Callisto bore a son to Jupiter, Arcas, infuriating Juno. Out of jealousy, the wife of Jupiter transformed the girl into a bear. She lived for a time in the wild, until Arcas came across her one day while hunting. Unknowingly, he was about to kill his mother in her bear form, but Jupiter took mercy on Callisto, stayed Arcas's hand, and transformed him into a lesser bear. The king of gods then placed both mother and son into the heavens as neighboring constellations. The constellation Ursa Major, representing Callisto, is one of our most familiar. It includes the Big Dipper, perhaps the most-recognized feature of a constellation in the heavens.