E3S Web of Conferences 430, 01109 (2023) https://doi.org/10.

1051/e3sconf/202343001109
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Investigating the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of

Materials Joined using Advanced Welding Techniques
Gaurav Pant1,*, Prasanta Kumar Mohanta2, Praveen3, Ashish Kumar Parashar4, Safa Abdul Kareem5, Lavish Kansal6
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, UP, India
2
Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Hyderabad
3
Lloyd Institute of Engineering & Technology, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201306
4
Lloyd Institute of Management and Technology, Plot No.-11, Knowledge Park-II, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India-201306
5
Hilla University College, Babylon, Iraq
6
Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road (NH-1), Phagwara, Punjab (INDIA) - 144411.
*Corresponding Author: Gaurav.pant@gla.ac.in

Abstract. The science of materials joining has witnessed the emergence of advanced welding techniques,
which have become crucial operations. These techniques provide improved manipulation and regulation of
the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of welded joints. The primary objective of this work is to
examine the complex correlation between the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of materials
that have undergone joining processes utilising sophisticated welding methods. The present research
provides insight into the development of many microstructural characteristics, including grain growth, phase
transitions, and defect creation, and their influence on the mechanical properties of welded joints. The
mechanical characteristics being examined span a broad spectrum of factors, such as tensile strength,
toughness, hardness, and fatigue resistance. The evaluation of these qualities is conducted by subjecting
specimens obtained from the welded joints to a variety of mechanical tests. Through the correlation of
microstructural traits with the observed mechanical behaviour, a more profound comprehension of the
structure-property link in advanced welding is attained. In addition, this study investigates the impact of
welding parameters, including welding speed, heat input, and shielding gas composition, on the
microstructure and mechanical characteristics. The objective of this inquiry is to optimise the welding
parameters in order to get the specified material characteristics in the welded connections, while
simultaneously minimising the development of faults and ensuring the maintenance of structural integrity.

1 Introduction
The progression of engineering and industrial sectors has resulted in an increasing need for materials possessing enhanced
mechanical characteristics and structural integrity. The technique of welding, as a fundamental method of combining
materials, holds significant importance in the attainment of these objectives. The use of conventional welding procedures
has been extensive; nevertheless, the inability to effectively regulate the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of
welded connections has necessitated the advancement of more sophisticated welding methodologies [1]. These
approaches provide an enhanced degree of accuracy and personalization in the process of combining materials, hence
exerting an impact on the performance and longevity of the end product. The background and motivation for this study
are rooted in the need to understand the factors that influence human behaviour and decision-making [2]. By examining
the underlying mechanisms and processes that drive individuals The process of welding has played a fundamental role in
the field of manufacturing for an extended period of time, facilitating the amalgamation of various metals and alloys to
produce sophisticated structures and components [3]. Nevertheless, with the progression of industries, the demands
imposed on welded structures have also undergone transformation. The aerospace, automotive, energy, and related
industries require materials that possess not only the ability to endure mechanical pressures, but also demonstrate
improved resistance to corrosion, fatigue, and other specific qualities.

Conventional welding techniques frequently impart substantial heat input, which gives rise to pronounced thermal
gradients and subsequently leads to unfavourable alterations in the microstructure of the welded areas, as shown in fig.1.
These modifications have the potential to compromise the integrity of the joint and diminish the overall efficacy of the
welded framework [4]. As a reaction, there has been a development of sophisticated welding processes aimed at
addressing these concerns and providing a greater level of manipulation over the microstructure and subsequent
mechanical characteristics.

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Fig.1 Types of advance welding technique [5]

The investigation of the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of materials connected by sophisticated welding
processes has great relevance due to its potential to unlock hitherto unattainable levels of performance in welded
structures. Various approaches, including friction stir welding, laser welding, electron beam welding, and plasma arc
welding, have been developed to facilitate the combining of materials while mitigating the negative consequences
associated with conventional heat-intensive welding methods. Through the examination of the microstructure and
mechanical properties of materials that have been welded using these sophisticated techniques, researchers and engineers
are able to get valuable knowledge on the impact of various welding settings and circumstances on the resultant material
characteristics. This acquired knowledge facilitates the customization of materials for particular purposes, therefore
optimising the balance between strength, toughness, and other relevant attributes. The primary objective of this study is
to conduct a comprehensive examination of the correlation between microstructure and mechanical characteristics in
materials that have been united through the use of modern welding methods [6]. The study involves a thorough
examination of several advanced welding techniques, exploring the delicate aspects of microstructural changes in distinct
welding regions, such as the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the fusion zone (FZ). Moreover, the primary objective of this
work is to identify associations between the aforementioned microstructural features and the observed mechanical
behaviour. This endeavour seeks to provide a more comprehensive comprehension of the intricate relationship between
the structure and properties [7]. This study is to contribute to the optimisation of welding processes by investigating the
impact of welding settings on the microstructure and mechanical properties [8]. The objective is to achieve desired
material qualities while ensuring the integrity of the joint. The ramifications of the study's findings have practical
significance for businesses that rely on welded structures with high performance capabilities. These discoveries have the
potential to contribute to the advancement of more efficient and dependable goods across a range of sectors [9].

The area of materials joining has been significantly transformed by the use of advanced welding methods, which provide
a high level of precision in manipulating the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of welded connections [10].
This section will explore four notable advanced welding techniques, namely Friction Stir Welding (FSW), Laser Welding,
Electron Beam Welding (EBW), and Plasma Arc Welding. A comprehensive analysis of each approach will be presented,
encompassing a process overview, as well as an examination of the pros and disadvantages associated with its
implementation. Friction Stir Welding (FSW) [11] is a solid-state joining process that involves the use of a rotating tool
to generate frictional heat and plastic deformation in order to join two or more materials together, as shown in fig.2. The
process of friction Stir Welding is a solid-state welding method that facilitates the combining of materials without
undergoing a phase change into a liquid state. A cylindrical, durable instrument equipped with a protruding pin and a
supporting surface is introduced into the interface of the materials intended for fusion [12]. As the tool progresses down
the joint line, the conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy through friction occurs, resulting in the material
becoming more malleable and facilitating the tool's penetration into the joint. The components are agitated in combination,
resulting in the formation of a weld joint [13].

Fig.2 Schematic diagram of friction stir welding [14]

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The absence of melting and solidification leads to little deformation and a decrease in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) [15].
The presence of a finer microstructure contributes to the enhanced mechanical characteristics and the formation of robust,
defect-free joints. Appropriate for materials with varying properties and alloys that do not contain iron. The occurrence
of weld flaws such as porosity and fractures is mitigated. The utilisation of specialised equipment and tools renders its
application less prevalent within certain sectors. The joint thickness is restricted because to limits imposed by the design
of the tool. The welding pace is somewhat slower in relation to certain fusion-based procedures. Laser welding is a joining
process that utilises a high-intensity laser beam to fuse materials together. Laser welding involves the utilisation of a
meticulously concentrated laser beam to induce the melting and fusion of materials. The energy of the laser beam is
absorbed by the surface of the material, resulting in fast heating and the occurrence of localised melting. The molten
material undergoes solidification, resulting in the formation of a welded junction as the beam progresses along the joint
line. Achieving accurate regulation of heat input and a limited fusion zone, hence reducing distortion and heat-affected
zone (HAZ) to a minimum. The welding process has a high speed and possesses significant potential for automation [16].
Proficiency in the welding of tiny and complicated components. The ability to detect and respond to changes in surface
conditions and variations in material thickness. Thicker materials have a restricted depth of penetration. The propensity
for weld flaws such as porosity and cracking.

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a high-energy welding process that utilises an electron beam to join materials together
[17]. The process of Electron Beam Welding involves the utilisation of a concentrated beam of high-energy electrons to
induce the melting and fusion of various materials. The generation of electrons is facilitated by an electron cannon, which
then directs these electrons towards the joint region. Localised melting and welding occur as a result of the substantial
heat produced by the kinetic energy of the electrons. The ability to achieve deep penetration welding is facilitated by a
high energy density. The application of less heat input to the material leads to a reduction in both distortion and heat-
affected zone (HAZ) effects [18]. The objective is to provide welds of superior quality characterised by minimal levels
of porosity and impurities. This welding process is appropriate for joining refractory metals and for welding thick sections.
In order to mitigate electron scattering, it is necessary to create a vacuum or low-pressure environment. The utilisation of
highly specialised equipment and the employment of competent operators are important. The restricted joint accessibility
is attributed to the use of a vacuum chamber. Plasma arc welding is a specialised welding process that utilises a high-
temperature plasma arc to join metal components together.

The process of Plasma Arc Welding may be described as a technique that has similarities with Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
welding. However, it distinguishes itself by utilising a restricted plasma arc of elevated temperature, resulting in a greater
energy density. The plasma arc is generated using a tungsten electrode that is not consumed throughout the welding
process. This electrode is responsible for melting both the base material and, if applicable, the filler metal, resulting in
the formation of the weld joint. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding has a lower energy density in comparison to an
alternative welding technique, hence limiting its ability to achieve deep penetration. The capacity to exert precise control
over the input of heat and maintain stability of the arc. This product is compatible with both manual and automated
welding procedures. A diverse array of materials can be accommodated [19]. The use of modern welding processes has
distinct benefits and complexities, rendering them appropriate for diverse applications. Industries may effectively utilise
these approaches to get customised microstructures and mechanical properties in welded joints, therefore meeting the
requirements of contemporary engineering and production, via a comprehensive comprehension of their process features
[20].

2 Microstructural Analysis
The growth of microstructure in welded zones is a crucial factor in modern welding processes, as it has a substantial
impact on the mechanical characteristics and overall performance of welded joints, from table.1. Gaining a comprehensive
comprehension of the alterations in microstructure occurring across various sections of a weld is vital in order to optimise
the characteristics of the joint and guarantee its structural soundness. This section will examine the evolution of
microstructure in two significant locations, namely the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the fusion zone (FZ) [21].

The Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) refers to the region surrounding a weld where the material has undergone thermal changes
due to the heat generated during the welding process [22]. The Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) refers to the area next to the
weld where the base material undergoes temperature cycles as a result of the welding process. The extent of temperature
exposure exhibits variability within the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), leading to discernible alterations in the
microstructure. The coarse-grained zone refers to the region in close proximity to the fusion zone, when the temperatures
are at their maximum and recrystallization occurs. This phenomenon has the potential to result in the development of
bigger grains in comparison to the original material. The strength and toughness of the coarse-grained zone may be
diminished as a result of the modified grain structure [23].

The fine-grained zone is characterised by lower temperatures and restricted grain expansion as it extends away from the
fusion zone. The region under consideration may potentially possess a more refined grain structure compared to the base

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material, hence potentially leading to improved mechanical performance [24]. Nevertheless, it is important to achieve a
harmonious equilibrium in order to prevent an overabundance of grain refinement, since this might potentially result in a
decrease in toughness. The fusion zone refers to the region where the constituent materials have undergone a process of
melting and subsequent fusing, resulting in their amalgamation. The microstructure within this particular area is subject
to several influences, including cooling speeds, solidification behaviour, and the metallurgical contact between the
components. Columnar grains can develop in close proximity to the fusion line, where cooling rates are quite elevated.
The grains exhibit extension from the fusion line into the underlying base materials. The orientation of columnar grains
has the potential to influence the anisotropic nature of mechanical characteristics [25].

Equiaxed grains may occur in areas characterised by decreased cooling rates. The grains exhibit a higher degree of
uniformity in their distribution, leading to enhanced mechanical capabilities as a result of their finer and more uniform
structural characteristics. The study and analysis of microscopic structures and materials using various techniques for
characterization. The examination of microstructure development necessitates the utilisation of sophisticated microscopy
and characterisation methodologies. Optical microscopy offers a macroscopic perspective of the weld and heat-affected
zone (HAZ), enabling the examination of grain sizes, shapes, and possible flaws. Nevertheless, it is possible that the
degree of detail offered by this method may not be sufficient for intricate microstructures.

The use of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) provides enhanced magnification and resolution capabilities, hence
facilitating the analysis of more intricate microstructural characteristics, including grain boundaries, phase distributions,
and inclusions. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is a technique that offers enhanced magnification capabilities,
enabling the study of nanoscale characteristics such as precipitates, dislocations, and flaws. The mechanical characteristics
of welded joints are directly influenced by the microstructural changes occurring in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and
fusion zone (FZ) [26]. Regions with a coarse grain structure may display diminished ductility and toughness, whilst
regions with a fine grain structure might augment strength but may be prone to brittle fracture. The grain structure and
phase distribution inside the fusion zone have the potential to significantly impact several material characteristics,
including as hardness, fatigue resistance, and corrosion resistance. Through the acquisition of knowledge on the evolution
of microstructure inside welded regions, researchers and engineers are able to make precise adjustments to welding
settings in order to get the intended equilibrium of mechanical characteristics. The objective is to optimise the
microstructure in order to improve strength, toughness, and other pertinent properties, while simultaneously avoiding
negative consequences such as decreased ductility or heightened vulnerability to flaws.

Table.1 Key parameters of Heat affected zone characteristics [27]

HAZ Description
Characteristics
Location Area adjacent to the weld,
experiencing heat but not
reaching full melting temperature.
Temperature Subjected to elevated
temperatures during welding,
leading to phase transformations
and microstructural changes.
Microstructure Transition from parent material
microstructure to altered
structures due to temperature
exposure.
Phases Formation of new phases, such as
martensite or different crystal
structures, depending on material
and cooling rate.
Grain Growth Possible grain growth, resulting in
larger grains compared to the base
material.
Hardness Generally, HAZ hardness is
higher than the base material due
to phase changes and potential
grain growth.
Strength HAZ strength can vary depending
on phase changes and grain
structure. In some cases, it may
be lower due to altered
microstructure.
Toughness HAZ toughness can decrease due
to altered grain boundaries and
potential embrittlement in certain
materials.

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3 Microscopy and characterization techniques

The use of microscopy and characterisation techniques is of paramount importance in the examination of the
microstructural changes that occur in materials when subjected to modern welding methods [28]. These methodologies
enable researchers to systematically monitor and analyse the alterations in grain structures, phases, and flaws inside
welded regions. The following are few frequently employed methodologies: Optical microscopy offers a macroscopic
perspective of the material, enabling the examination of several aspects such as overall weld form, grain sizes, and
macrostructural characteristics. This technique proves to be highly advantageous in the detection and characterization of
weld imperfections such as porosity and fractures. The technique known as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
provides the capability to get high-resolution images of microstructural characteristics. This technique enables a
comprehensive analysis of grain boundaries, phase distributions, and fracture surfaces. In addition to its standalone
capabilities, SEM may be effectively combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) for the purpose of
elemental composition analysis [29].

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is a powerful imaging technique that allows for the visualisation of nanoscale
structures, facilitating the examination of intricate microstructural features, including precipitates, dislocations, and phase
boundaries. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is particularly advantageous in the investigation of localised
microstructural alterations. X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a technique employed to ascertain crystallographic data pertaining
to the many phases that exist inside a given material. The technique has the capability to detect phase transitions resulting
from temperature fluctuations caused by welding and the subsequent solidification mechanisms [30]. Differential
Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is a technique used to quantify heat flow occurring during heating or cooling procedures. It
is particularly useful in the determination of phase transitions and solidification temperatures. The phenomenon of grain
growth and refinement is a topic of interest in materials science and engineering. Grain growth and refinement play crucial
roles in the microstructural development observed in welded junctions.

Grain growth can occur in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and fusion zone (FZ) as a result of increased temperatures.
Recrystallization may lead to the formation of larger grains, particularly in locations that are in closer proximity to the
fusion zone. The mechanical qualities can be influenced by grain expansion, since the presence of larger grains may lead
to a decrease in both strength and toughness.

Grain refinement may be achieved by the implementation of sophisticated welding processes, such as Friction Stir
Welding, which induce grain refinement as a result of the significant plastic deformation that occurs during the welding
process. Enhanced mechanical qualities, such as heightened strength and toughness, are frequently linked to finer grains.
The topic of discussion pertains to phase transformations and the process of solidification. Phase transitions and
solidification processes play a crucial role in shaping the microstructure of welded zones. Phase transitions can occur
during welding due to the temperature variations caused, leading to the conversion of one crystal structure into another.
The aforementioned modifications have the potential to impact many mechanical characteristics, such as corrosion
resistance and other material behaviours.

Solidification occurs in fusion-based welding procedures when the molten material transitions into a solid state as it
gradually cools down. The pace at which cooling occurs during the process of solidification has a significant impact on
both the size and dispersion of the grains. The process of rapid cooling has the potential to provide smaller grain sizes,
hence improving material characteristics like as strength and toughness [31]. To comprehend these processes, a synthesis
of microscopy and characterisation approaches is necessary. Through the examination and interpretation of
microstructural alterations, scholars are able to elucidate the underlying processes governing grain development,
refinement, phase transitions, and solidification [32]. This information serves as a foundation for optimising welding
conditions and methods in order to get the necessary material qualities and joint integrity.

The assessment of the mechanical characteristics of materials that have been connected by sophisticated welding methods
is crucial in order to guarantee the soundness and effectiveness of the welded connections. A thorough evaluation offers
valuable insights into the impact of welding-induced microstructural changes on characteristics such as strength,
toughness, hardness, and fatigue resistance. The following are the fundamental components involved in the assessment
of mechanical properties: The process of tensile testing entails the application of an axial load to a specimen until it
reaches the point of fracture. Tensile strength refers to the utmost magnitude of external force that a specimen can endure
before experiencing fracture. The concept of toughness pertains to the capacity of a material to absorb energy and undergo
plastic deformation prior to experiencing fracture [33]. The Charpy and Izod impact tests are utilised to quantify the
amount of energy that is absorbed throughout the process of fracture in specimens that have been notched.

The attribute of toughness plays a crucial role in situations where materials are subjected to impact stresses. The process
of hardness testing is utilised to evaluate the ability of a material to withstand indentation or penetration. Microhardness
testing has the capability to detect variances present inside the welded zone, which might be indicative of alterations in
the microstructure. Variations in material characteristics resulting from welding-induced changes can be inferred through
alterations in hardness [34].

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Fatigue tests are conducted on specimens in order to replicate cyclic loading conditions that are representative of real-
world fatigue scenarios. The S-N curve illustrates the correlation between stress amplitude and the count of cycles till
failure [35]. The evaluation of fatigue resistance has significant importance in structures that experience cyclic loading
over extended periods. The bend and impact tests are often employed in many industries to assess the mechanical
properties and performance of materials. These tests include subjecting a specimen to bending or impact forces to evaluate
its resistance to deformation and fracture. Bend tests are utilised to evaluate the ductility of a material and its capacity to
endure bending forces without experiencing fracture. Impact tests are utilised to assess the reaction of a substance to
abrupt loading, hence unveiling its performance when subjected to dynamic circumstances. The study aims to establish a
correlation between microstructural properties. The examination of the link between mechanical characteristics and
microstructural features yields valuable insights into the interplay between structure and property. It is crucial to
comprehend the impact of variations in grain size, phase distribution, and flaws on characteristics. The evaluation of the
mechanical characteristics of welded connections in relation to the base material serves as a means to assess the influence
of welding. The assessment of whether the welded connection conforms to the design criteria is facilitated by this process.
The present study used statistical analysis techniques to examine the data [36].

The use of statistical analysis on mechanical test outcomes serves to measure discrepancies and evaluate the dependability
of the joint's operational effectiveness. The assessment of mechanical characteristics serves to verify that the welded
connection conforms to prescribed design criteria and functions optimally when subjected to expected loads. Through the
examination of the interaction between microstructure and mechanical characteristics, scholars and practitioners have the
ability to optimise welding settings in order to get the desired equilibrium of properties, all the while ensuring the integrity
of the joint.

4 Correlation between Microstructure and Mechanical Properties

The examination of the relationship between microstructure and mechanical properties in materials that have been linked
utilising modern welding procedures is a crucial element in comprehending the impact of microscale alterations on the
overall functionality of welded joints [37]. The microstructural characteristics, including parameters such as grain size,
distribution, phases, and flaws, exert a significant influence on the mechanical qualities, including strength, toughness,
and hardness. This association offers valuable insights into the complex interplay between form and function.

The strength of a welded connection is substantially influenced by the grain structure present inside it. Enhanced strength
is frequently linked to finer grains as a result of the increased grain boundary area, which hinders the motion of
dislocations and adds to the strengthening of the material. Advanced welding processes, such as Friction Stir Welding,
have been shown to produce grain refinement, resulting in a microstructure characterised by tiny grains. This refined
microstructure has been seen to contribute to enhanced strength qualities. On the other hand, the mechanical performance
of the joint may be compromised due to the presence of coarser grains caused by inadequate welding conditions. This is
because bigger grains can enhance the movement of dislocations and contribute to deformation.

The process of welding can initiate microstructural modifications that have the potential to produce phase transitions,
leading to alterations in the crystal structure of the material and subsequently impacting its characteristics. Phase changes
have the potential to induce alterations in properties like as hardness, strength, and even ductility. For example, the
occurrence of unfavourable phases such as martensite can lead to a decrease in toughness and an increase in brittleness.
The manipulation of cooling rate during the process of solidification and subsequent heat treatment after welding has the
potential to impact the behaviour of phase transformation and alleviate any adverse consequences. The comprehension of
the correlation between microstructure and mechanical properties facilitates the process of optimising welding settings in
order to get the required features of a joint. By manipulating the microstructure by careful regulation of welding
parameters, it is feasible to achieve a harmonious equilibrium between increased strength and ductility. The management
of microstructure is particularly crucial in industries where welded structures are subjected to dynamic stress or harsh
environments, as it can enhance fatigue resistance and overall dependability.

The examination of the relationship between microstructure and mechanical properties in materials that have been linked
using modern welding procedures is a crucial element in comprehending the impact of microscale modifications on the
overall functionality of welded joints [38]. The microstructural characteristics, including parameters such as grain size,
distribution, phases, and flaws, exert a significant influence on the mechanical qualities, including strength, toughness,
and hardness. This association offers valuable insights into the complex interplay between form and function. The strength
of a welded connection is substantially influenced by the grain structure present inside it. Enhanced strength is frequently
linked to finer grains as a result of the increased grain boundary area, which hinders the motion of dislocations and adds
to the reinforcement of the material. Advanced welding processes, such as Friction Stir Welding, have the ability to induce
grain refinement, resulting in a microstructure characterised by tiny grains. This refined microstructure has been found to
contribute to enhanced strength qualities. On the other hand, the mechanical performance of the joint may be compromised

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due to the presence of coarser grains caused by inadequate welding conditions. This is because bigger grains can enhance
the movement of dislocations and contribute to deformation.

The process of welding can initiate microstructural modifications that have the potential to produce phase transitions,
leading to alterations in the crystal structure of the material and subsequently impacting its characteristics. Phase changes
have the potential to induce alterations in hardness, strength, and even ductility. For example, the occurrence of
unfavourable phases such as martensite can lead to a decrease in toughness and an increase in brittleness. The
manipulation of the cooling rate during the process of solidification and subsequent heat treatment after welding has the
potential to impact the behaviour of phase transformation and alleviate any negative consequences [39]. The
comprehension of the correlation between microstructure and mechanical properties facilitates the process of optimising
welding settings in order to get the required features of a joint. By manipulating the microstructure by careful regulation
of welding parameters, it is feasible to achieve a harmonious equilibrium between improved strength and ductility. The
management of microstructure is particularly crucial in industries where welded structures are subjected to dynamic stress
or harsh environments, as it can enhance fatigue resistance and overall dependability.

The impact of welding parameters on the materials connected by advanced welding procedures is a crucial determinant
that influences the microstructural transformation and resultant mechanical characteristics of welded joints. The ability
to manipulate welding settings with precision enables engineers and researchers to customise the properties of the joint
in order to fulfil unique application demands. In this study, we investigate the influence of welding speed, heat input, and
shielding gas composition on the integrity and properties of welded structures. Increased welding speed results in reduced
exposure durations to increased temperatures. This phenomenon can lead to the formation of more refined grain structures,
particularly when the material undergoes restricted grain growth over time. Nevertheless, it is important to note that
excessively high welding rates may impede the appropriate heat input, hence possibly resulting in partial fusion or
insufficient joint strength. A reduced welding pace can afford more time for the even distribution of heat and facilitate
the achievement of adequate fusion [40]. This can lead to enhanced joint integrity and a decreased probability of faults.
Nevertheless, the utilisation of moderate welding rates may result in the expansion of heat-affected zones and an increased
likelihood of deformation [41].

The use of a higher heat input can result in an increased energy input into the material, hence leading to the formation of
wider fusion zones and potentially resulting in the development of coarser grains. The potential impact of this
phenomenon on the mechanical characteristics of the joint lies in its ability to modify the microstructure [42]-[45]. The
utilisation of a low heat input has the potential to reduce the likelihood of significant grain growth and minimise the
occurrence of distortion. Nevertheless, an overly low heat input has the potential to result in partial fusion and the
formation of weak joints. The utilisation of inert gases, such as argon, in the process of welding serves to safeguard the
weld region from the detrimental effects of air pollution [46]. The importance of this matter is particularly significant
when dealing with materials that are prone to oxidation and absorption of nitrogen. The use of appropriate inert gas
shielding serves to mitigate the potential occurrence of flaws and guarantees the attainment of required material qualities.
Active gas shielding can be employed for shielding purposes in specific materials, such as stainless steels. Gases like as
carbon dioxide (CO2) or oxygen (O2) are utilised in this process. The presence of these gases has the potential to exert
an influence on the chemical composition of the weld, hence potentially impacting the resulting microstructure and
corrosion resistance [48].

The optimisation of gas flow rate and distribution plays a crucial role in achieving constant coverage of the weld area
[49]. Inadequate shielding has the potential to result in the occurrence of porosity and several other flaws. The attainment
of the correct microstructure and mechanical qualities necessitates the careful adjustment of these welding settings. The
utilisation of a comprehensive methodology that encompasses testing, modelling, and insights from materials science aids
in the determination of the optimal set of parameters for a certain application. The optimisation of strength, toughness,
and overall integrity of welded joints is achieved by tailoring the welding settings in accordance with the material's
reaction and the desired performance criteria.

5 Conclusion
The examination of the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of materials that have been connected via the use
of sophisticated welding processes plays a crucial role in the progression of engineering and production in diverse
industrial sectors. The present study has yielded significant and necessary findings on the intricate relationship among
welding procedures, the development of microstructure, and the subsequent characteristics of the material.

• The research investigated the complexities associated with modern welding methods, including Friction Stir
Welding, Laser Welding, Electron Beam Welding, and Plasma Arc Welding.
• This study investigated the microstructural alterations that take place in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the
fusion zone (FZ), with a particular focus on their impact on mechanical characteristics.

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• Additionally, an investigation was conducted to examine the impact of welding parameters, such as welding
speed, heat input, and shielding gas composition. The observed factors were shown to exert a notable influence
on the microstructural attributes and consequent mechanical qualities.
• The research findings have significant industrial ramifications in several sectors, including aerospace,
automotive, energy, and other industries that heavily rely on welded structures.

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[2] Hong, Min, Shanlin Wang, Wenjun Sun, Zhijie Geng, Jijun Xin, and Liming Ke. "Effect of welding speed on
microstructure and mechanical properties of selective laser melting Inconel 625 alloy laser welded joint." Journal of
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