MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY (MEE 303)

LECTURE NOTE 2

2. CASTING AND CASTING PROCESSES

2.1.1. Introduction to Casting

2.1.2. General Overview of Casting Technology:

Casting Processes
Sand-Casting Mold

2.1.3. Heating and Pouring:

Heating the metal

Pouring the molten metal
Engineering Analysis of Pouring
Fluidity

2.1.4. Solidification and Cooling:

Solidification of metals
Solidification Time
Shrinkage
Directional Solidification
Riser Design

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2.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CASTING

2.1.1. Introduction to Casting Processes

 Casting is one of the solidification processes.

Sand Casting
Expendable
mold casting
Casting of Other Casting
Metals Processes
Permanent mold
casting
Glassworking
Extrusion and
Solidification
related
Processes
Processes

Injection
Processing of molding
polymers and
PMCs Other molding
processes

Special
processes for
PMCs

Fig. 2.1: Classification of Solidification Processes

 Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold
where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity. The term casting is also applied to the
part that is made by this process.
 Casting
asting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting of shapes.
shapes
 Casting is one of the most versatile of all manufacturing processes.
 Capabilities and advantages of casting are:
 It can be used to create complex
c part geometries,
ies, including both external and
internal shapes.
 Some casting processes are are capable of producing parts to net shape or near net
shape.
 It can be used to produce very large parts.
 It can be performed on any metal that can be heated to the liquid state.
 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.
 Disadvantages of casting
sting process include:
 Limitations on mechanical properties,
 Porosity,
 poor dimensional
ensional accuracy and surface finish,
 safety hazards,
 Environmental problems.

2.1.2. General Overview of Casting Technology:

As a production process, casting is usually carried out in a foundry. A foundry is a

factory equipped for making molds, melting and handling metal in molten form, performing
the casting process, and cleaning the finished casting.

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Casting Processes:
 Logically, casting starts with the mold
 Mold contains a cavity whose geometry determines the shape of the cast part.
 The actual size and shape of the cavity must be slightly oversized to allow for
shrinkage that occurs in the metal during solidification and cooling.
 Casting processes are often classified according to different types of molds.
 Casting operation involves:
 Heating metal to a temperature high enough to completely transform it
into a liquid form.
 Pouring or directed into the cavity of the open or closed mold.
 When in the mold, cooling begins and follows by solidification when the
temperature drops sufficiently.
 Solidification involves a change of phase of the metal which requires
sufficient time to complete.
 During solidification, the metal assumes the solid shape of the mold
cavity and many of the properties and characteristics of the casting are
established.
 After cooling, the casting is removed from the mold and further
processing like trimming, cleaning, inspection, heat treatment and
machining may be performed.
 Casting processes are divided into two major categories;
 Expendable mold means that the mold must be destroyed in order to
remove the casing. These molds are made out of sands, plaster, or
similar materials. Sand casting is the most prominent example.
 Permanent mold is the one that can be used over and over to produce
many castings. It is made of metal or ceramic refractory material that
can withstand the high temperatures of the casting operation. It permits
intricate casting geometries. Die casting is the most prominent example
of this group. It consists of two or more sections that can be opened to
permit removal of the finished part.
Sand-casting Molds:
 Sand casting is the most important casting process.
 Figure below shows the cross sectional view of a typical sand casting mold

Fig. 2.1: Cross sectional view of a typical sand casting mold

 The mold consists of two halves: cope and drag
 Cope is the upper half of the mold and
 Drag is the bottom half
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  Cope and drag are contained in a box, called flask
 Flask is also divided into two halves; one for the cope and the other for the drag.
 The two halves of the mold separate at the parting line.
 The mold cavity is formed by means of pattern.
 Pattern, usually made of wood, metal or plastic has the shape of the part to be
cast.
 The cavity is formed by packing sand around the pattern
 The pattern is usually made oversized to allow for shrinkage of the metal as it
solidifies and cools.
 The sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to maintain its shape.
 The cavity in the mold provides the external surfaces of the cast part.
 Internal surfaces are formed by means of a core.
 Core is a form placed inside the mold cavity to define the interior geometry of
the part.
 Gating system in a casting mold is the channel, or network of channels, by
which molten metal flows into the cavity from outside the mold.
 Gating system consists of downsprue or sprue, through which the metal enters
a runner that leads into the main cavity,
 At the top of the downsprue, a pouring cup is used to minimise splash and
turbulence.
 In any casting in which shrinkage is significant a riser is usually connected to
the main cavity.
 The riser is a reservoir in the mold that serves as a source of liquid metal for the
casting to compensate for shrinkage during solidification.
 The riser must be designed to freeze after the main casting in order to perform
its function.
 Natural porosity of the sand mold permits the air that previously occupied the
cavity and hot gases formed by reactions of the molten metal, to escape through
the walls of the cavity. However, in permanent molds, small vent holes are
drilled into the mold or machined into the parting line to allow the removal of
air and gases.

2.1.3. Heating and Pouring:To perform a casting operation, the metal must be heated to a
temperature somewhat above its melting point and then pour into the mold cavity to solidify.

Heating the metal:

 Various heating furnaces are used to heat metal to a molten temperature
 The heat energy required is the sum of:
 the heat to raise the temperature to the melting point
 the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid , and
 the heat to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring.
 Total heat required to raise the temperature of the metal to the pouring
temperature,
H(J) = ( − )+ + − …… . 2.1
 Where:
 = , /
 = ℎ ,
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  = weight speci ic heat for the solid, / oC
 = melting temperature of the metal, oC
 = starting temperature(ambient), oC
 = heat of fusion, J/g
 = weight speci ic heat of the liquid metal, / oC
 = pouring temperature, oC
 The above equation can only give conceptual value because of the following
factors:
 Specific heat and other thermal properties of a solid metal vary with
temperature
 Metal’s specific heat may be different in the solid and liquid states
 Most casting metals are alloys, and most alloys melt over a temperature
range between a solidus and liquidus rather than at a single melting point
 The property values required in the equation for a particular alloy are not
readily available in most cases
 There are significant heat losses to the environment during heating.
 Calculation on Heating Metal for Casting:
Question: One cubic meter of a certain eutectic alloy is heated in a crucible from
room temperature to 100oC above its melting point for casting. The alloy’s density
is 7.5g/cm3, melting point is 800oC, specific heat is 0.33J/g-C in the solid state and
0.29J/g-C in the liquid state and heat of fusion is 160J/g. Find the heat energy
required to accomplish the heating, assuming no losses.
Solution:
V = 1m3 = 1× 10
To = room temperature = 25oC
(Tp - Tm) = 100oC
= 7.5g/cm3
Tm = 800oC
Cs = 0.33J/g-C
Cl = 0.29J/g-C
Hf = 160J/g

Using equation 2.1

H(J) = ( − )+ + −

H(J) =7.5 × 10 {0.33(800 − 25) + 160 + 0.29(100)} = 3335 × 10

Pouring the molten metal:

 Pouring is a critical step in casting process
 For a successful casting, the metal must flow into all region of the mold before
solidifying.
 Factors affecting the pouring operation include; pouring temperature, pouring
rate, and turbulence.
 Pouring temperature is the temperature of the molten metal as it is
introduced into the mold. The difference between the temperature at

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 pouring and the temperature at which the freezing begins is sometimes
referred to as superheat, which is also the amount of heat that must be
removed from the molten metal between pouring and when solidification
starts.
 Pouring raterefers to the volumetric rate at which the molten metal is
poured into the mold. If the rate is too slow, the metal will chill and freeze
before filling the cavity. If the pouring rate is excessive, it may results to
turbulence.
 Turbulencein fluid flow is charcterised by erratic variations in the
magnitude and direction of the velocity throughout the fluid. The flow is
agitated and irregular rather than smooth and streamlined, as in laminar
flow.
 Turbulence should be avoided during pouring because of the following
reasons:
 It tends to accelerate the formation of metal oxides that can
become entrapped during solidification
 It aggravates mold erosion, the gradual wearing away of the mold
surfaces due to impact of the flowing molten metal. Erosion is
especially serious when it occurs in the main cavity because the
geometry of the cast part is affected.

Tutorial Questions NO 1

1. Highlight five advantages of casting processes.

2. Identify some of the limitations and disadvantages of casting.

3. Differentiate between open and closed mold.

4. List and discuss two basic mold types that distinguish casting processes.

5. What is the difference between a pattern and a core in sand molding?

6. What is meant by the term superheat?

7. Why should turbulent flow of molten metal into the mold be avoided?

8. Draw a well labeled sand casting mold.

9. Describe the components of “gating system” in sand casting mold.

10. With the aid of tree-diagram only, describe the classification of solidification processes.