Course Outline GES 161: Introduction to Mapwork and Practical Geography

Week 1: Basic Concepts

Definition of a map
Types of maps
Uses of maps

Week 2: Location and Map Scale

Location
Latitude and Longitude
Grid references
Map Scale
Types of scales: verbal, graphic, and fractional
Converting scales
Practical exercises on scale conversion

Week 3: Conventional Signs and Symbols

Understanding Map Symbols
Common map symbols and their meanings
Usage of the map key/legend

Week 4: Representation of Relief

Understanding Relief
Definition and importance
Methods of representing relief: contour lines, spot heights, and hachures

Week 5: Recognition of Relief Forms

Types of Relief Forms
Hills, valleys, mountains, plateaus, and plains

Week 6: Analysis and Interpretation of Relief Forms

Slope analysis: steep, gentle, concave, and convex slopes
Understanding terrain profiles
Week 7: Cultural Features on Maps
Identifying Cultural Features
Roads, railways, settlements, and other man-made features

Week 8: Graphical Presentation of Geographical Data

Introduction to Graphical Methods
Importance of graphical representation

Week 9: Qualitative and Quantitative Symbols in Mapping

Point Symbols: Graduated Circles, Dot Maps
Line Symbols: Flow Maps, Isobars, Isotherms, Isoheights etc.
Ariel or Polygon Symbols: Choropleth Maps

Week 13: Advanced Mapwork Techniques

Combining Different Mapping Techniques
Integrating various map types for comprehensive analysis
Overview of Map

A map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a

flat surface. Maps present information about the world in a simple, visual way. They teach
about the world by showing sizes and shapes of countries, locations of features, and distances
between places. Maps can show distributions of things over Earth, such as settlement
patterns. They can show exact locations of houses and streets in a city neighborhood.

Mapmakers, called cartographers, create maps for many different purposes. Vacationers use
road maps to plot routes for their trips. Meteorologists—scientists who study weather—use
weather maps to prepare forecasts. City planners decide where to put hospitals and parks with
the help of maps that show land features and how the land is currently being used.

Characteristics of a Map

A typical map has the following characteristics:

 It is represented to scale. Every map is a reduced version of some aspect(s) of reality

(i.e. things that actually exist on Earth). Hence, every good map must have a scale
which shows by how much reality has been reduced
 It is symbolised. Graphic symbols are used to draw a map; each symbol represents a
particular category of geographical feature
 It is projected. Map projection is the mathematical transformation of the spherical
Earth unto a flat medium. Every map is, therefore, based on one form of projection or
the other.
 It is a two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional features.
 It is a model of reality. A map is a replica or representation of certain things that exist
in real life.
 It is a selective representation. No map can show everything that exists in the area
shown on the map. Hence, only things relevant to the purpose of a map are selected
and represented on the map.
 It is a generalized representation. It is not practically possible to show every bit of
detail about any feature represented on a map. Hence only those details about each
feature which are considered to be important are given on the map. Moreover, one
symbol is normally used to generally represent all features which are considered to be
 in the same class or group, irrespective of the individual differences that may exist
among the features grouped together.
 It is a communication system. The map is used to graphically store, display and
disseminate information.
 It shows only a static situation - one slice in time. A map only gives us information
about the situation of things as at the time it was produced. In a sense, therefore, it
could be said that map is usually out of date.

Components of Maps
Maps may contain a variety of elements or components. However, all maps have some
common components, which are explained below.

Title - A map must have a title. The title of a map should tell the reader “what,” “where,” and
possibly “when” about the map. What is the map all about? Where on Earth does the map
relate to? What time period does the map cover?—e.g. 2006 population of Nigeria.

Orientation - By convention, cartographers (map makers) place North at the top of maps. If
there is a deviation from that practice, the map should have a compass rose or some other
symbol to help orient the user.

Scale - The map scale should be shown so that the reader can make judgments about
distances. Graphic scales are an absolute must when dealing with maps as computer images
or printing images from digital sources. Ratio and written scales are virtually meaningless in
this medium. (The concept of scale is further discussed in Unit 3 of Module 2).

Legend - There must be a legend or key that explains the symbols used by the cartographer.
The map legend shows the symbols on a map and gives their meaning. To visualise reality
the map reader needs to be able to convert various shapes, colors, and textures into the
phenomena they represent.

Grid - The map needs to have a coordinate system, in the form of parallels of latitude and
meridians of longitude, so that the area can be placed in its proper geographical location on
the globe. (See Unit 5, Module 3 for discussions on coordinate systems).

Author/Publisher - The author/publisher of a map should be indicated. Knowing who

created the map may offer hints as to the map’s bias or biases. Does this person or
organisation have a vested interest in how the map is perceived by the map reader? For
example, “town plats,” maps created by western promoters, were aimed at attracting
prospective settlers. Often they were purely propaganda.

Place of Publication - The country or city where the map was published should be indicated.

Date - The date when the map was produced/published should be indicated. Knowing when
the map was constructed helps to place the map in its chronological context. Does the map
reflect true facts? For instance, post-1990 maps of Europe should show one Germany, not
two.

Source - Indicate the source of the map.

Compass rose - A compass rose (Figure Below) tells the directions (which way) on a map
using the cardinal points of North, South, East, West, and so on.

* North is at the top of a map. * South is at the bottom of a map. * West is on the left side of
a map. * East is on the right side of a map

A Compass Rose

History of Mapmaking
Through the ages, maps have taken many different forms. The earliest maps were probably
sketches made on the ground that showed the surrounding area. People native to the
Marshall Islands used palm fibers to show wave patterns between islands in the Pacific
Ocean. They used seashells to represent islands. Inuit fishermen in the Arctic carved pieces
of driftwood to show coastal features. One of the world’s oldest existing maps was found on
a stone tablet in Spain. It dates back nearly 14,000 years.

The ancient Greeks are usually considered the founders of scientific cartography.
Greek scholars knew the general size and shape of Earth, and they developed the grid system
of latitude and longitude. Eratosthenes, who lived from about 276 to 194 B.C., calculated the
size of Earth using mathematics and observations of the sun. Claudius Ptolemaeus,
or Ptolemy, was an astronomer, mathematician, and geographer in the second century A.D.
He brought mapmaking to a level of precision that would not be seen again until the fifteenth
century. He combined all his knowledge about the world into a book called Geography.

In Europe during the Middle Ages, cartographers drew maps reflecting their religious beliefs.
These maps were generally simple and sometimes fanciful. The city of Jerusalem, holy
to Jews, Christians, and Muslims, was sometimes placed in the center.

Many medieval European maps with Jerusalem at the center are called T&O maps. The mass
of land was represented as a round wheel encircled with a single round ocean, the “O” of the
T&O. The land encircled by the ocean was divided by a “T” into the three continents known
by medieval European cartographers: Asia was the large land mass above the T, Africa and
Europe were the two smaller sections on either side of the T, and Jerusalem was at the center.
The T-shape splitting the continents was composed of the Mediterranean Sea (between
Europe and Africa), the Nile River (between Africa and Asia) and the Don River (between
Europe and Asia). The Nile and the Don meet in a single line to form the top of the T.

During these Dark Ages in Europe, Arab scholars kept scientific cartography alive. They
preserved the works of Ptolemy and translated them to Arabic. Arab cartographers produced
the first reliable globe of the Western world.

During the Islamic Golden Age, Arab cartographers used complicated mathematical and
astronomical formulas to help them determine different map projections. In 1154, the
scientist and cartographer al-Idrisi made a map of the world that was better than the world
maps Europeans were producing. Al-Idrisi’s map included a representation of the entire
continent of Eurasia, including Scandinavia, the Arabian Peninsula, the island of Sri Lanka,
and the Black and Caspian Seas.

In the fifteenth century, cartography in Europe improved. The development of printing

and engraving meant maps that had previously been painted by hand could be copied more
quickly. Around the same time, sailors began traveling farther on the oceans. They added
newly discovered lands and more detailed coastlines to their maps. Explorers brought back
descriptions of the interiors, as well as the coastlines, of continents.
Europeans explored much of the Americas during the sixteenth century, Australia in the
seventeenth century, and Antarctica was finally sighted in the early nineteenth century. At
this point, fairly accurate maps of the entire world were beginning to be assembled.

In the nineteenth century, cartography became more advanced with the development of a
printing process called lithography. Lithography allowed cartographers to make many
accurate copies of maps with less labor and expense.

Photography, color printing, and computers all improved mapmaking even more. In just a
few decades, the relationship between people and maps changed drastically. For example,
instead of using paper street maps, many people navigate using GPS units that communicate
with satellites to determine their exact location on Earth. Digital versions of maps can
represent Earth in three dimensions, defying the limitations of the flat maps of the past.
Almost the entire surface of Earth has been mapped with remarkable accuracy, and this
information is available instantly to anyone with an internet connection.

Classes of Map

There are many different types of maps. In practice we normally think of three (3) classes of
map:

General purpose maps: A general purpose map is designed to offer a wide range of
information about a specific geographic area. Unlike specialized maps that focus on specific
themes, general purpose maps provide a comprehensive snapshot of the region. These maps
come in various formats, including paper, digital, and interactive versions.

Topographic map: a reference tool, showing the outlines of selected natural and man-made
features of the Earth; often acts as a frame for other information. "Topography" refers to the
shape of the Earth’s surface, represented by contours and/or shading, but topographic maps
also show roads and other prominent features

Thematic map: a tool to communicate geographical concepts such as the distribution of

population densities, climate, movement of goods, land use, etc.
Based on Scale:
Maps can be classified based on scale into three main categories:
1. Large Scale Maps: These maps represent a small area with a great amount of detail.
They are typically used for detailed studies of smaller areas, such as city planning,
construction projects, and property surveys. The scale of large scale maps is usually
represented as 1:10,000 or larger, meaning one unit on the map (like an inch or
centimeter) represents 10,000 of the same units on the ground.

2. Medium Scale Maps: Medium scale maps strike a balance between detail and area
coverage. They are often used for regional planning or environmental studies. The scales
for these maps might range from 1:25,000 to 1:250,000.

3. Small Scale Maps: These maps cover large areas with less detail and are useful for
understanding broader spatial relationships. They are ideal for studying large geographic
areas like countries or continents, where detailed information is less important than the
overall spatial layout. The scale for small scale maps is typically 1:1,000,000 or smaller.

Types of Map

Topographic Map

A topographic map (Figure Below) represents small areas of a place, also portraying the
terrain features. In the topographic map the vertical and the horizontal lines of the terrain
features are present which can be measured. The contour lines of the map basically show the
shape and the elevation of the area. For example: The lines in the map which close together
represent a steep terrain and those lines which are placed far apart are the indication of a flat
terrain. Topographic maps show a 3 dimensional world in 2 dimensions by using contour
lines to represent relief or landforms. Many people have trouble reading these maps, because
they have mountains and valleys represented with concentric circles and lines.
A Typical 1:50,000 Nigeria Topographic Map

Geologic Maps

A geologic map is a map of the different types of rocks that are on the surface of the Earth.
By mapping different rock types, geologists can determine the relationships between different
rock formations which can then be used to find mineral resources, oil, and gravel deposits.
Also, you want to know what type of rock you are building on or else you might have a
leaning building or a pile of rubble resulting from a collapsed building.

Globe

A globe is a map. Globes are some of the most accurate maps that exist. This is because the
earth is a three-dimensional object that is close to spherical. A globe is an accurate
representation of the spherical shape of the world.

Mental Maps

The term mental map refers to the maps that are not actually produced and just exist in our
minds. These maps are what allow us to remember the routes that we take to get somewhere.
They exist because people think in terms of spatial relationships and vary from person to
person because they are based on one's own perception of the world.

Biogeographic Maps

Scientists involved in the study of animals, plants, and other living organisms use maps to
illustrate where these groups live or migrate. It is important to many zoologists to know
where the organisms that they study live and where they move to. People who monitor
endangered species need to know if the ranges of migration have become larger or smaller
through time.

Environmental Maps

These types of maps include maps that look at human's activity in urban and metropolitan
areas and the environment in which we all live. Maps that illustrate physiographic features
such as forests, grassland, woodland, tundra, grazing land, ocean floors, and ocean sediments
could be included in this large grouping.

Resource Map

A resource map which is also called an economic map shows and represents the natural
resources and the economic activity of different regions of an area.

Climate Maps
The climate maps give information about the climate of an area or a region. A climate map
can be of a country, showing climates at different cities, of a continent or the world showing
climate of different countries.

Meteorological maps

Meteorological maps that show climate, weather and wind are types of environmental maps.
Meteorologists, oceanographers, geographers, city planners, and many other professionals
depend greatly on these maps to record and forecast their specific field.

Physical Map

A physical map is a map that represents the physical features of an area such as: vegetation,
mountains, rivers, sea and lakes.

Road Maps

Road maps are of cities and towns which show all the routes of the cities and demonstrate the
important roads and locations. Road maps show the location of important hospitals, airport
and buildings of the city. Road maps are very important and helpful maps, especially for the
tourists visiting a city.

Political Maps

Political maps are simple basic maps which tell about the national boundaries, capital, states,
LGAs and other administrative units of a country.

Importance of Maps

Maps are crucial for:

 The media uses maps to pinpoint the locations of important news items e.g. the latest
international crisis

 Many textbooks include them as illustrations.

 Traditionally, maps are used as aids to navigation; we consult maps to help us

navigate from place to place. In other words, maps help us find our way from one
place to another.
 Maps are used as reference documents.

 Maps are also used as wall decorations.

 A map shows where things or places are located.

 Maps can be used to show how far one place is from another.

 Maps can be an important source of primary information for historical investigation.

To the student of history, the idea of a map as a mirror image makes maps appear to
be ideal tools for understanding the reality of places at different points in time.

 Today maps are used by people to find places they have not seen. Let’s say you are
interested in finding the nearest shopping centre from your home. You can easily do
this by consulting a map that shows the spatial distribution of shopping centres in
your neighbourhood.

 The scale on the map can help you determine the distance between two places.

 The direction in which you should walk can also be determined.

 Many tourists (hikers) use topographic maps, especially in areas where there are no
roads with signs.

 Geologists depend on topographical and geological maps to record the types of rocks
and detect possible locations of solid minerals.

 Town Planners and Engineers use topographic maps when they are planning roads,
buildings, or other human–made structures. Imagine designing a city without
considering where hills and valleys are located.

 Using a map you can visualise in your mind what the place looks like that you are
going to, and you can see what landmarks and features you will pass on the way to
your destination. Maps mean you know what to expect, and they help you to know
you are going in the right direction to arrive at your destination safely and quickly.
(Ordinance Survey).
  Maps can be great fun – and they can lead you to all sorts of discoveries. They can
help you get to know an area really well, because they pinpoint interesting places that
are often hidden away, which you might otherwise never find. They can also help you
find different routes to places you already know. Maps can also help you in your
geography, history, environmental science or citizenship classes.

 Maps are used in the planning and execution of military operations. They are also
used in training military personnel.

 Maps are important research tools.

We can conveniently group the roles maps play today into four broad categories:

 Data display: maps provide useful ways of displaying information in a meaningful way.

 Data stores: as a means of storing data, maps can be very efficient, high density stores.

 Spatial indexes: a map can show the boundaries of areas (e.g. land use zones, soil or rock
types) and identify each area with a label. A separate manual with corresponding entries
may provide greater detail about each area.

 Data analysis tool: maps are used in data analysis to make or test hypotheses, such as the
identification of cancer clusters; examine the relationship between two distributions using
simple transparent overlays; identify suitable sites for a proposed project; and so on.
Types of Geographical Features/Data

Maps are produced using geographical or spatial data. The data give us locational and other
useful information about the geographical features represented on the map. With respect to
their geometric dimensions, geographical features are generally categorised as point, line, or
area (polygon). Similarly, geographical data could be point, line or polygon. These geometric
descriptions are the basic data elements of a map. Each of the geographical feature/data type
is discussed below.

Points
They are represented as a single ‘dot’ on the map (Figure 2.0).
 Points are used to indicate discrete locations.
 They have no length or area at the given scale.
 They usually have a single X, Y coordinate.
 Used to represent a feature that is too small to be displayed as a line or area.

Point Symbol

Arcs/Lines
Arcs are ordered sets of points that have the look of a straight line or a curved arc depending
upon the feature it describes (Figure 2.1).
 They are considered to have a length but no width.
 They are accompanied by a set of coordinates.
 They are used to represent a geographical feature that is too narrow to have area, such
as a stream or a road.
Line Symbol

Polygons/Areas
They are closed features whose boundary encloses a homogenous area (Figure 2.2).
 They have an area that is given by the arcs/lines that make the boundary.
 They are used to represent features that have area (e.g. lakes, large cities and islands)

Polygon or Aerial Symbol

Sources of Data for Map Making

There are various sources of data for map making. The sources, however could be grouped
into two broad categories namely primary sources (hence primary data), and secondary
sources (hence secondary data). Primary data are original data collected and used for the first
time by the person using the data. On the other hand, secondary data is already existing data
which was collected and used previously.
The major primary and secondary sources of data for map making include:
 Traveller’s Note (e.g. data collected during a field trip or excursion).
 Existing maps
  Aerial photographs (these are photographs of portions of the Earth’s surface taken
from aeroplanes)
 Satellite images (these are images of portions of the Earth’s surface obtained using
remote sensing satellites that are orbiting the earth in space)
 Land survey (this is the method of physical measurement of distance, direction or
height on the Earth’s surface).
 Questionnaire survey
 Official Statistical records
 Field observation (this involves personal physical observation and recording of
information about a phenomenon being studied)
 Global Positioning System (GPS) (this is an electronic or digital device used to record
information on the latitude and longitude of any location on the surface of the Earth).
 Digital environmental information files (these are digital information about different
aspects of man’s physical environment; such information is usually compiled by
various agencies)

Map Symbols
Maps are usually drawn using graphic or visual symbols. In other words, when we draw a
map we are simply symbolising the various geographical phenomena shown on the map.
When we engage in map reading and analysis we are only trying to decode the symbols in
order to understand their meanings and, hence, the information they bear and convey. There
are different kinds of map symbols. It is important that we know the symbols and how they
are used on maps. Understanding map symbols and their meanings helps us to properly
interpret maps and derive the information being communicated through the maps.

What is Map Symbol?

Every map is drawn using a set of symbols. A map symbol is any graphic or visual sign or
mark used on a map to represent and communicate information about a geographical feature.
The symbols are used to code or set data and present it in form of a diagram or illustration.
Symbols are part of the sign language of the map. The symbols used on a map are usually
defined in the map’s legend or key.
Types of Map Symbol
There are different types of symbols that can be used to produce a map. However, using
dimension as a parameter we can conveniently group the different symbols into three broad
categories namely point symbols, line symbols and area symbols. Notice that this grouping is
also in line with our grouping of geographical features into point features, line features and
area features in Unit 1 above. Nonetheless, we also have conventional symbols, pictorial
symbols, and literal or textual symbols.

Point Symbols
Point symbols are used to map point or zero-dimensional features. On the map point symbols
are shown as individual discrete dots existing at single spots or locations. The dots, however,
are not always circular. In other words, point symbols could be of various shapes and sizes
too (Figure 2.0(a)). More so, a point symbol can be used to represent a qualitative value or a
quantitative value. As shown in Figure 2.0(a), when used as a qualitative symbol, a point
symbol simply shows us where individual features are located. For example, a symbol
showing a building, settlement, petrol station, trigonometric station, spot height or
benchmark. On the other hand, if used as a quantitative symbol it indicates the quantity or
amount of the feature it represents. For instance, as illustrated in Figure 2.0(b), one dot can be
used to represent 5000 people in a dot map showing the distribution of human population in a
region(s)

Point Symbols
Point Symbol (Quantitative)

Line Symbols
Line symbols are used to represent one-dimensional or linear features such as roads, rivers,
railways, pipelines, and power or telecommunication cables. Like point symbols, some line
symbols (e.g. ones showing rivers or roads) are used to show qualitative values (Figure
2.1(a)), while some (e.g. contour lines) are used to show quantitative values (Figure 2.1(b)).
Line symbols (e.g. flow maps) can also be used to show the movement or flow of people,
goods, energy, animals etc. from one location to another. Line symbols that show movement
can indicate both the direction of the movement and the quantity involved in the movement
(Figure 2.1(c)). There are different patterns of line symbols

Line Symbols Showing Different Types of Linear Features

Quantitative Line Symbol (Contour

Line Symbol (flowline) Showing the Direction and Volume of Fertiliser Moved from One
Place to Another

Area Symbols
Area (or areal) symbols are used to map two-dimensional or polygonal features; that is,
features that significantly cover a wide area of land. Examples of areal features include lakes,
lagoons, farmlands, school compounds, state, country, and so on. There are qualitative area
symbols as well as quantitative area symbols. Figure 2.2(a) shows different land use types in
a place; the area symbols used here are qualitative. On the other hand, Figure 2.2(b) is
composed of quantitative area symbols showing the distribution of population density. The
area symbol can also be in form of a colour or pattern.
Qualitative Area Symbols Showing Land Use Types

Quantitative Area Symbols Showing Distribution of Population Density

Conventional Symbols
These are commonly recognised and used map symbols. Some examples are shown below
Literal or Textual Symbols
These are symbols that are derived from the abbreviation of some words; hence they are in
form of texts or letters. They are used to indicate the locations of the features they represent.
Some examples are (see also Figure 2.3):
Sch = School
Mkt = Market
Ch = Church
RH = Rest House
PO = Post Office
Hosp = Hospital

Some Conventional and Literal Map Symbols

Pictorial Symbols
These are symbols that look very similar to what they represent; they are like a picture or
diagrammatic illustration of the feature they stand for (Figure 2.4). Such symbols are very
easy to understand even without the aid of a legend or key. Hence, pictorial symbols are
mostly used in producing maps for children and non-literate adults.
Some Pictorial Symbols

What is Scale?
The scale of a map is the ratio between distances on the map and corresponding distances in
the real world. In other words, map scale tells the relationship between a distance measured
between two points on the map and the actual distance between them on the ground. The
scale of a map shows how much how much the given area has been reduced to paper size,
and hence how much you would have to enlarge your map to get the actual size of the piece
of land shown on the map. For instance, if a map has a scale of 1:50,000, then 1 cm on the
map equals 50,000 cm or 0.5 km on the Earth's surface. The Map Scale tells the user how the
map relates to the real world features it represents. To show a portion of the Earth's surface
on a map, the scale must be sufficiently adjusted to cover the objective. The extent of
reduction is expressed as a ratio. The unit on the left indicates distance on the map and the
number on the right indicates distance on the ground. Maps are made at different scales for
different purposes. The scale controls not only how features are shown, but what features are
shown on a map. For instance, a 1:2,500 map will show individual houses and lamp posts
while a 1:100,000, which is a much smaller scale will not show such features.

Types of Map Scale

A map scale can be expressed in three different ways namely representative fraction (RF),
statement, and linear. Each of them is discussed below.
1. A ratio or representative fraction (RF) indicates how many units on the earth's surface
are equal to one unit on the map. It can be expressed as 1/100,000 or 1:100,000. In this
example, one centimeter on the map equals 100,000 centimeters (1 kilometer) on the
earth. It also means that one inch on the map is equal to 100,000 inches on the land. Other
common RFs include 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) and 1:1,000,000 (1 cm to 10 km). The
numerator of a Representative Fraction is always 1. More so, it should be noted that in RF
the number on the left hand side (i.e. 1) is the distance or length on map while the figure
on the right hand (e.g. 50,000, which is also the denominator) is the corresponding or
equivalent length or distance on ground. So the RF 1:10,000 means 1 centimeter on the
map represents 10,000 centimeters on the ground (or 1in on the map represents 10,000
inches on the ground).
2. A word statement gives a written description of scale, such as "One centimeter equals
one kilometer" or "One centimeter equals ten kilometers." Here, the first map would show
much more detail than the second because one centimeter on the first map covers a much
smaller area than on the second map. It should be noted that the two methods mentioned
above for indicating scale would be ineffective if the map is reproduced by a method such
as photocopying and the size of the map is modified. If this occurs, and one attempts to
measure one centimeter on the modified map, it will not be the same as one centimeter on
the original map. This can, however, be taken care of by using a linear or graphic scale.
3. Linear scale (also known as graphic scale or bar scale – Figure 3.0) would be able to
solve this problem as it is simply a line marked with distance on the ground which the
map user can use along with a ruler to determine scale on the map. As long as the size of
the graphic scale is changed along with the map, it will be accurate. As shown in Figure
3.0, a linear scale is often made up of two component parts namely the primary
subdivisions and the secondary subdivisions. The ‘primaries’ are on the right hand side of
the zero while the ‘secondaries’ are on the left hand side. While the primaries are
subdivided into kilometers (or miles), the secondaries are subdivided into smaller units
such as metres (or furlongs)

Linear Scale
Sizes of Scale
There are three broad categories into which map scales can be grouped. These are small
scale, medium scale, and large scale. As a general rule, the higher the denominator the
smaller the scale and vice versa.
a) Small-Scale maps have scales of about 1:1,000,000 and smaller such as 1:2,000,000;
1:6,000,000; 1:30,000,000 and are used for maps of wide areas. Such maps are used
when much detail is not required.
b) Medium-Scale maps have scales of 1:50,000; 1: 75,000; 1:100,000 to 1: 1,000,000
and are used for maps of medium sized areas.
c) Large-Scale maps have scales larger than 1:50,000 e.g. 1:1000; 1:2,500; 1:5000;
1:10,000 and are used when we want to represent higher levels of detail.

Large scale map shows small features and great detail. On the other hand, a small scale map
shows only large features. Large-scale map gives a larger and more detailed representation of
a feature than a small-scale map. In other words, the smaller the scale the greater is the area
which can be shown on a map of given size, but on the other hand we are able to show less
and less details. A large-scale map covers a small area but shows more details while a small-
scale map covers a large geographical area but gives less detail.

Conversion from One Scale Type to Another

In map reading, one can convert from one scale type to another. For instance, we can convert
from statement scale to Representative Fraction (R.F.) and vice versa or from linear scale to
statement or RF, and so on.
iii) Conversion from Linear scale to statement scale
Example:
Convert the linear scale in Figure 3.1(a) to statement scale
0 2 4 6 Km
Fig. 3.1(a): Linear Scale.

Solution:
Using your ruler, carefully measure the length of a line segment in the primary divisions of
the linear scale, for example from 0 to 1 in Figure 3.1(a). In this example the line segment
measures 1cm. (Note: in some other cases, it could be less than 1cm or, as in the example
below, more than 1cm). This measurement represents the distance on the map. Since the
distance on the map from 0 to 1 in Figure 3.1(a) is 1cm, which represents 2km on the ground
as indicated in the figure, hence the statement scale is 1cm to 2km.

iv) Conversion from Linear scale to R.F.

Example:
Convert the linear scale to R.F.

Solution:
Using your ruler, carefully measure the length of a line segment in the primary divisions of
the linear scale, for example from 0 to 1 in Figure 3.1(b). The line segment in this example
measures 2cm. This measurement represents the distance on the map. Since the distance on
the map from 0 to 1 in Figure 3.1(b) is 2cm, which represent 1km on the ground as indicated
in the figure, therefore the R.F. scale is worked out as follows:
2cm = 1km or 100,000cm
Therefore 1cm = 100,000 = 50,000
2 The R.F. is 1:50,000.

MAP REDUCTION AND ENLARGEMENT MAP REDUCTION

Map Reduction and Enlargement Map reduction: This means reducing the size of the original
map. When a map is reduced, the representative fraction (RF), becomes bigger and only few
details can be shown on the reduced map.

Procedures for map reduction

1. Note and measure the length and breadth of the original map and decide the scale of
the reduction.
 2. Divide the original map into squares.
3. Draw the length and breadth of the reduced map; reduce the number of times
requested
4. Transfer the features of the original map to the reduced map square by square.
5. All direction of features such as road, lake, must be maintained in the new map in the
old scale (scale of the original map) multiplied by the number of times the map was
reduced. Note that it is permissible and often desirable to leave out some information
while reducing map.

Map Enlargement: This means enlargement or increasing the size of the original map.
When a map is enlarged, the representative fraction becomes smaller and more details can be
shown on the enlarged map. We may have to enlarge all or part of it two, three or more times
the size of the map provided.

Procedures for map enlargement

1. Measure the length and breadth of the original map.
2. Divided the original map into squares
3. Draw the length and breadth of the enlarged map, enlarge the number of times
4. Produce squares in the new map proportionate in size to the number of times the map
is enlarge.
5. Transfer the features of the original map to the enlarged map, square by square.
6. The scale of the new map is the old scale (original map scale) divided by the number
of times the map is enlarged.

COORDINATES, DIRECTIONS AND BEARINGS

Maps are usually produced based on certain coordinate systems that enable us to accurately
determine the locations of features. Maps can also give us information on the directions or
angular bearing of features relative to any other features. Therefore, coordinates are important
items on maps. In this unit, we will look at the various coordinate systems and also how to
determine directions and bearings of features on a map.

Coordinate Systems
Locations and directions on maps are accurately determined using a coordinate system. The
two types of coordinate systems commonly used are the geographical coordinate system and
the rectangular or plane coordinate system.

Geographical Coordinates

We can identify locations as precise points on the Earth's surface by using a grid system of
latitude and longitude. The method of giving a north and south direction (latitude) and an east
and west direction (longitude) is used through the world. Latitude and longitude uses a
coordinate system of intersecting lines that measures distances in degrees. This system helps
us in measuring distances and finding directions or bearings between and among places on
the Earth's surface. The starting point is the prime meridian, which represents 0º longitude.
The exact opposite position at 180º is called the International Date Line, which is where the
date actually changes.

Latitude Latitude lines are parallel; they run east and west around the earth's surface and
measure distances north and south from the Equator (Figure 5.0). The parallels of latitude
become increasingly shorter closer to the poles. On the globe the 60th parallel is only one
half of that at the equator.

Lines of Latitude

Longitude Longitude lines (Figure 5.1) run north and south around the earth's surface; they
intersect at the poles, and measure distance east and west from the Prime Meridian. Meridians
of longitude are arbitrary but conventional lines and together with the parallels based upon
the naturally given equator, constitute the globe grid. Since the meridians converge at the
poles, the difference between the degrees of longitude becomes shorter as one moves away
from the equator.

Lines of Longitude

Rectangular Coordinates
The rectangular or plane coordinate system (also known as the grid reference system) is made
up of square grids that are numbered (see Figure 5.2). The grid lines help us to pinpoint an
exact location anywhere on the map by giving a unique number known as a grid reference. In
other words, the grid references help us to find the accurate positions or locations of places
on a map. The vertical lines are called eastings, since they increase in value as you travel east
on the map. The horizontal lines are called northings, since they increase in value as you
travel north on the map.
We have the four-figure grid reference (e.g. 1326), six-figure grid reference (e.g. 137264),
and so on. Grid references are easy to use in identifying the location of any place if you can
remember that you always have to go along the corridor before you go up the stairs. In other
words, to find the grid reference number of a place first use the eastings to go along the
corridor until you come to the bottom left-hand corner of the square you want. Write this
two-figure number down. Then use the northing to go up the stairs until you find the same
corner. Put this twofigure number after your first one and you now have the four-figure grid
reference. The easting is usually read before the northing. For instance, in Figure 5.2 the grid
number for location A is 1126; that of location B is 125270, location C is 135295 while
location D is 142297.
Directions
Directions are determined using the compass rose. As shown in Figure 5.3, the compass is
usually marked with cardinal points. The four major cardinal points are North, South, East
and West. Intermediate points or subdivisions can be derived from these major cardinal
points. For instance, we have North-East, South-East, South-West and North-West. These
subdivisions can further be divided to obtain tertiary divisions such as North-North-East,
East-North-East, East-South-East, and so on. In all, we have sixteen cardinal points or
compass directions (Figure 5.3).
Using the compass it is possible to tell the direction of a place or location from another place.
As illustrated in Figure 5.4 the direction of location A from location B is north-west. In other
words, A is located north-west of B.

Fig. 5.3: Compass Directions

Fig. 5.4: Measurement of Direction
Bearings
Bearings are directions measured in angles. They are very useful in more accurately
determining the relative locations of places. Bearings are usually measured in degrees (0o –
360o) in a clockwise direction from the true north (see Figure 5.5).

Cardinal Points and their Bearings

On a map the angular bearing or direction of a place from another place can be measured
using a protractor. The following steps can be taken to measure the bearing of a place from
another place:
a) Identify the two places on the map.
b) Draw four-cardinal points on the location (point of observation) from which you are
looking for the bearing of the other location.
c) Draw a straight line to join the centres of the two locations.
 d) Measure the angular bearing using the protractor. To do this, place the centre of the
protractor at the point where the north-south and east-west lines of the cardinal points
intersect each other. Reading from 0o in a clockwise direction, the degree which
directly falls on the line joining the two places is the bearing of the location of the
place we wish to determine its bearing from the other location.

Example:
Determine the bearing of location B from location A (Figure 5.6). As shown in Figure 5.6 the
bearing of B from A is 157o.

Measuring Bearing

REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF FEATURES

Relief is the difference in elevation between the high and low points of a land surface, usually
measured as relative relief. The relief features of a land surface are shown on a map by means
of various techniques such as contour lines, hachure, hill shading, spot heights, bench marks
and trigonometric stations. Contours in particular show the shape of the earth’s surface in a
particular region. Contours also give the elevation of places above a datum level, at regular
height intervals. Different relief or topographical features shown a map using contour lines
include lowlands, valleys, highlands, slopes, aspect, watershed, floodplain, and so on.
Methods of Representing Relief on Maps
There are different methods of showing relief on maps. The methods include contour lines,
hachuring, hill shading or layer colouring, spot heights and trigonometric stations.

Contours
The relief features of a place are usually shown on topographical maps using contour lines. A
contour is a line joining points of equal height value

Contour Lines

Form Contours: These are lines used to represent elevation of a piece of land, usually show
by lines. These are not like the real contour, which do not possess stroke lines.

Hachuring
Hachures are short lines drawn to show the shape of the land. As shown in Figure 5.1 the
lines are usually drawn following the direction of the slope or gradient.

Hachure

Hill Shading: In this method, only one colour is used but the intensity of the colour tone
depends on the steepness of the hill slope. It is used to show the pattern of light and shadow
cast by the imagined light over a hill or any relief form.

Contour layering and colouring

This method of relief representation involves dividing an area into height zones with each
zone representing a range of heights. For example, if the height of an area ranges from 0 to
500m, the land can be divided into any convenient height zones such as 0 – 100m, 100 –
200m, 200 – 300m, 300 – 400m, 400 – 500m. Then different shades of colour are used to
represent each height zone or contour layer (Figure 5.2). Conventionally, blue is used to
represent water bodies, green for lowlands, yellow for middle grounds, brown for highlands
and white for snow capped hill or mountain tops.

Contour Layering

Spot Heights
A spot height is a point whose height above mean sea level has been accurately determined
through land surveying techniques. On a map a spot height is indicated with a dot and the
actual height value written beside the dot e.g.
Trigonometrical stations
These are points on the ground indicating where the angles of triangulation have been
measured when mapping an area using land survey methods. On the map the location of a
trigonometrical station is shown by an equilateral triangle with a dot inside it and the height
of that location written beside the triangle e.g. 1125. There are three types of trigonometrical
stations namely:

Bench Marks
A Bench Mark (BM) is a permanent land survey mark inscribed on an object such as wall,
building, roadside, or bridge to indicate the exact height above sea level of that spot. On a
map they are shown by the symbol (or ). The height is usually written beside it e.g.
LANDFORMS ON CONTOUR MAPS
There are different types of landform. One of the tasks of relief analysis is to identify the
various relief features on a map. The commonest means of representing landforms or relief
features on maps is by the use of contour lines. Some of the common landforms that can be
represented on a contour map are shown below.

Flatlands: Flatlands are virtually represented by no contours at all. The flatland is left blank.

Even or uniform slope: Slopes are said to be even when contour lines are equip-distant (i.e.
equal distance from one another) and are not too closely together or too far apart.

Hill or Mountain
This is a piece of land which rises above the surrounding environment (Figure 5.3)

Contours of Two

Valleys and Spurs

A valley is a long, narrow depression in-between two highlands. If a valley has water flowing
through it, it is known as a river valley, while the one without water is called a dry valley. As
indicated in Fig. 48, on contour maps valleys are represented by V-shaped contour lines with
the V being inverted hence the apex pointing upwards.
On the other hand, a spur is a piece of upland stretching out from a hill and having a length
that is greater than its width. Like valleys, spurs are indicated on contour maps with V-shaped
contour lines. However, unlike in the case of valleys, the apex of the V-shaped contours of
spurs point downwards towards the lowland (Figure 5.2). Hence, spurs can be said to be the
opposite of valleys.
Valleys and Spurs

Escarpment
This is a long stretch of highland or ridge with a very steep (scarp) slope on one side and a
very gentle (dip) slope on the other side (Figure 5.5).

Escarpment

Ridge
A ridge is a narrow long chain or range of highlands (Fig. 5.6). The highlands are usually
separated from one another by openings known as col (saddle) or pass (gap).
A Ridge with a col and a Pass

Col or Saddle
As shown in Figure 5.6, a col or saddle is a low land separating two highlands. The major
difference between a col and a saddle is that a saddle is usually wider than a col.
Pass or Gap
Like a col, a pass or gap is also lowland that separates two highlands (see Figure 5.6); it is a
way through a mountain range. However, whereas a col appears at a high altitude, a pass
occurs at lower altitudes. Consequently, a pass is usually deeper with the land on both sides
being very much higher than what obtains in the case of a col or saddle.

Plateau
A plateau is large area of highland with an almost flat or table top (Figure 5.7)

A Plateau
Conical Hill
The contour lines of a conical hill are circular in shape and they taper at the top. The contour
lines increase in values from the outside to the centre where they are closer together.
Contours, representing heights, are numbered on the inside.

Diagram of Contour map of Conical Hill

Round-Top Hill: It also has circular contours but the inner most contour lines with the
highest elevation or height is fairly broad.

Isolated Hill: This is a hill which stands apart or is far removed from other hills or highlands

Knoll: a knoll is a small hill, more or less rounded in shape, but the height is low or found in
lowland normally isolated.

Diagram of knoll
Watershed: This is the headland that separates the head streams of rivers flowing to different
directions but rising from the same mountain source

Undulating Lowland: This land greatly rises and falls with low mounds, and usually shown
by irregular closed contours.

Slope
Slope refers to the angle or inclination of any side of a highland (hill or mountain). There are
different types of slope. For instance, a slope can be gentle or steep. It can also be a
combination of both gentleness and steepness, in which case it can be described as being
either a concave or a convex slope, depending on the arrangement of gentle and steep
portions of the slope.

Steep slope: The contour lines are very close to one another or the lines are closely parked.

Contours and Shape of a Steep Slope

Gentle slope: The contour lines are far apart or widely spaced out.

Contours and Shape of a Gentle Slope

Concave slope: This is a combination of both steep and gentle slope. The contour lines are
widely spaced at lower levels and become closely parked at higher levels. Inter-visibility of
both ends is possible

Contours and Shape of a Concave Slope

Convex slope: This is the opposite of concave slope. It is represented by contours that are
close together at the foot of the hill and become more widely spaced as the peak is
approached.

Contours and Shape of a Convex Slope

Cross-sections
A cross-section is usually drawn to show the shape of the ground represented by a series of
contour lines on a map. In other words, cross-sections give us a general idea of the
topography or nature of slopes in various places.
A cross-section is usually drawn between two places of interest on a map. Consider the
contour map of a hypothetical island shown in Figure 5.9. We can draw a cross-section
showing the topography between points A and B.
An Island

To drawn a cross-section between two locations such as A and B (Figure 5.9), the following
procedure should be followed:
1. Get a piece of paper that is longer than the two locations of interest; the paper should
have a straight edge.
2. Place the straight edge of the paper along the line connecting the two places (e.g. the
dotted line AB in Figure 5.9).
3. Carefully mark on a paper the locations of A and B.
4. While still firmly holding the paper along line AB, mark the spots where the contour
lines crossed line AB. Record the value of the contour at each crossing.
5. Choose a convenient vertical scale for drawing the grids e.g. say 5cm: 125m (which is
1cm equals 25m). In choosing the vertical scale you must take into consideration the
lowest and highest contour values crossed by the line between the two points of
interest. In the example we are using the lowest contour value is 0m while the highest
value is 100m. Based on the contour interval on the map, the vertical grid should be
drawn such that it will be a step higher than the highest contour value. Hence in our
present example since the highest contour value is 100m we are going a step higher to
125m (NB: the contour interval in Figure
5.9 is 25m). Subdivide the line of the vertical scale according to correspond with the
contour values. The vertical scale for drawing a cross-section between points A and B
in Figure 5.9 is shown in Figure 5.6.
6. As shown in Fig 5.6, place the piece of marked paper on the base of the vertical scale
and mark each contour point on the baseline.
 7. Using a pencil and ruler draw a faint but visible vertical dashed line at each contour
point extending it to correspond with its actual value on the vertical scale as shown in
Figure 5.6.
8. Using a thick continuous curvy line join the tops of the vertical dash lines (see also
Figure 5.6).

Marking the Contour Points on a Piece of Paper

A Vertical Scale

Transfer of Contour Point Values from Paper to Vertical Scale

Vertical Exaggeration
In drawing a relief profile or cross-section as discussed above, we make use of a vertical
scale as well as a horizontal scale (which is the scale of the map). However, the vertical scale
is usually exaggerated or enlarged more than the horizontal scale. This is deliberately done to
improve on the rendition of the cross-section. Vertical exaggeration actually refers to the
number of times the vertical scale is enlarged over and above the horizontal scale. To
calculate the vertical exaggeration the following steps should be followed:
1. Write or convert both the vertical scale and the horizontal scale as
a ratio or representative fraction (RF).
2. Divide the horizontal scale by the vertical scale of the crosssection to obtain the vertical
exaggeration.
For instance, if as in the example above the vertical scale is 1cm to 25m (or 1:2500. NB: 1m
= 100cm; hence 25m = 2500), and the horizontal scale is 1:50,000, the vertical exaggeration
will be 50,000 ÷ 2500 = 20. This means the vertical scale was enlarged or exaggerated 20
times more than the horizontal scale. As noted earlier, exaggerating the vertical scale enables
us to have a better view or mental perception of the relief profile.

Intervisibility
In map analysis, intervisibility is a measure that is used to determine if one location on a
contour map can be physically seen from another location given clear weather conditions.
Determining the intervisibility of two places on a map requires drawing a cross-section
between the two places. (The procedures for drawing a cross-section have already been
discussed above). After drawing the cross-section, a straight line is drawn between the two
places; this is known as line of sight. If the line of sight cuts across a high-rise physical
obstruction such as a hill, trees, tall buildings and so on, then the two points are not
intervisible from each other. But if there is no such obstruction it then means that the two
points are intervisible. As shown in Fig. 5.13 points A and B are not intervisible while points
C and D are intervisible.
Intervisible and non-intervisible Places

Calculating Average Gradient

Gradient refers to the amount of slope. It is usually expressed as the ratio between the height
and length of the ground between two places on a contour map. In reality slope between two
places is hardly even or smooth; it is usually undulating and, hence, of different steepness.
For this reason, we normally talk about the average slope or gradient between two places.
The following procedures are followed in calculating average gradient:
1. On the map identify the two points you want to determine the average gradient between
them.
2. Identify and record the height of each of the places.
3. Determine the difference in height between the two places by subtracting the value of the
lower height from that of the higher height; this gives you the vertical interval (V.I.).
4. Measure the horizontal distance between the two places on the map. (This measurement
will be in centimeters). However you will need to convert the paper measurement (that is
measurement on the map) to its ground or horizontal equivalent (H.E.) using the map
scale.
5. Calculate the gradient using the following formula:

Example:
Assuming the horizontal distance between points A and B in Figure 5.14 is 10cm, what is the
average gradient between the two locations?
Solution:
(i) V.I. = B-A = 550m-50m =500m.
(ii) H.E. = 10cm (distance on map). To find the ground equivalent we have to relate the map
distance to the map scale thus:

Also note that the unit of measurement of the H.E. should be the same as that of the V.I. It is
preferable to have both in metres).

The average gradient between points A and B is 1 in 10. What this means is that for every 10
metres one walks horizontally from A towards B, one correspondingly rises 1 metre
vertically. This can be illustrated thus:

It should be noted that in calculating average gradient, the smaller the denominator, the
steeper the slope. For instance, a gradient of 1 in 20 is steeper than a gradient of 1 in 40.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF STATISTICAL DATA

They are diagrams of lines showing relationship between corresponding values of two
quantities or variables or events.
Importance of Statistical Analysis
1. The tools of statistical analysis help in measurement of quantities and relationships
between economic variables. There is need to measure the extent to which they relate.
The tools of statistical analysis help us to be more precise.
2. By using statistical methods, it becomes possible to identify any existing relationship
between two variables, even though other factors, which affect the result, are also
changing.
3. Statistical tools, therefore, help us to understand the world better.
4. Statistical tools are used to summaries or condense a mass of data. They help to
achieve a clearer understanding or a mass of data.
5. Statistical methods are devices which help to make ungraspable numbers more
meaningful.
6. The reality behind the number becomes readily understood. In addition, statistics aid
decision-making. It is a scientific method of decision making, under conditions of
uncertainty.
7. Statistical techniques are used for testing of theories.
8. Statistical tools are used to analyse data collected from the real world. It then becomes
possible to compare the results with the stated hypotheses.

Charts and Graphs

Data which have been collected and tabulated could be put in form of diagrams (charts and
graphs) to aid further comprehension by making impression on the "eye". People are able to
comprehend spatial relationships much more quickly and clearly than numerical relationships
presented in tables.
Advantages of Graphs
1. Graphs help to show relationship between Variables or event.
2. Graphs make clearer and quicker impression about quantitative information illustrated
in tabular form.
3. They interpret values of variables.
4. They suggest connection between variables or events.
 5. Graphs make it possible for changes in variables on quantities to be expressed.

Types of Statistical Methods

1. Simple bar graphs
2. Simple line graph
3. Percentage bar graph
4. Divided bar graph
5. Pie graph
6. Multiple bar chart
7. Histogram
8. Statistical map (Dot map).
9. Pictograms.

Simple Bar Graph: These consist of a number of bars placed side by side. The values in
simple bar graphs are represented by a series of vertical bars which run from the plotted point
to the foot. The bars are kept distant from one another or its neighbours. The following
statistic was used to illustrate simple bar graphs of Rubber production in some states of
Nigeria in 1989.
Edo 70,000
Delta 110,000
Rivers 50,000
Imo 20,000
Cross River 40,000

Simple Bar Graph

Advantages of Simple Bar Graph
1. It is easy to read
 2. It is easy to draw
3. It is fairly accurate
4. The information they represent are easily grasped than the figure they represented.

Divided/Component Bar Graph

These are graphs used to show the magnitude of an item and its constituent parts in divided
bar graphs, which are often referred to as sectional Bar Graphs. The graphs are placed at the
end of the continuation of each constituent.
A component bar chart is used when data involves more than one category. Simple bars are
divided into sections. or component and each component corresponds in size to the
magnitude of the items it represents.
Example: "A" country produces crude oil and gold. The respective values of the minerals
produced for a period of six years are shown in the table below. Illustrate the data in a
component bar chart.
Year Crude Oil Gold Total
1975 10 20 30
1976 15 25 40
1977 10 30 40
1978 10 25 35
1979 20 25 45
1980 30 30 60

Component Bar Graph

Multiple Bar Charts

This is a variation of the component bar chat which is also used to show data, comprising two
or more categories. This helps to aid comparison and comprehension of data. In a multiple
bar chart, the component values are drawn as separate bars adjoining to each other.

Example: The value of three brands of exercise books sold by Uchechukwu Bookshop for
five mouths is presented in a table below:

Month Tap Tops Toy

June 50 48 30
July 40 50 40
August 45 35 50
September 48 50 60
Oct 60 40 30

Multiple Bar Charts

By choosing an appropriate scale, bars representing the values of the three types of exercise
books sold each month are drawn and placed next to each other. The different months are
separated and the bar for each brand of exercise book is put in a different shade or Colour.

Histogram: A histogram is the graph of a frequency distribution. Generally a histogram is

presented as a set of rectangular bars having their bases as the interval between the class
boundaries and their areas of proportion to the frequencies of the classes, The values of the
variables are scaled along the x-axis while the frequencies are scaled along the y- axis. No
gaps are left between the bars axis done in chart.
Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle which is divided into sectors by radial lines. The circle represents the
total mass of data under consideration, while the various sectors show the relative size or
proportions of the different variables or values,
Example: The figures in the table below represent the tonnage of cash crops produced in a
country in 2002.
Crops Metric Tonnes
Cocoa 20000
Palm Oil 32000
Groundnut 18700
Cotton 15300
Kola Nut 6000

Pie Chart Diagram of Production of Cash Crops in a Country

Advantages of pie chart

1. It is handy
2. It is gives vivid impression of the data.
3. 1 is useful method of representing rough estimates especially when many details are
not needed.
4. It makes for easy comparison.
Disadvantages of pie chart
1. Its circle can only be used for a limited number of variables.
2. Comparison of varying sectors of the circle i difficult
3. It is difficult to determine the actual value of sector.

Pictogram
A pictogram, which is also known as a pictograph, is a method of using pictures or drawings
in presenting statistical scale to easy understanding. The pictures are drawn to a definite
number of pictures will determine the total value of the data required and make for easy
comparison. Example
Importance of pictograms and statistical maps
1. Pictograms and statistical maps are useful in presenting data in a clear form
2. They make it easier to information contained in the data understand
3. They show the inter-relationship between variables in a clearer form
4. They economize the use of space.
5. They are very attractive to the eyes
Pictogram showing the Population

Statistical Maps (Dot Map)

Statistical maps are maps used to represent statistical data. These maps are divided in order to
represent certain given values of data.

Construction a Dot map

There are several steps taken in doing this; examine the range of quantitative indicators in the
table of figures.
Question:
Based on the statistics given below, construct a unit dot map to show the areas of cattle reared
in some selected towns.
Zone Cattle Reared
Sokoto 1500
Kano 1400
Kaduna 1300
Maduguri 1200
Makurdi 950
Yola 900
Ilorin 800
Ibadan 400
Lagos 300
Benin 250
Enugu 200
Calabar 150
Owerri 100

Dot map scale is1:50

Solution: Taking a close look at the range of the figures shown in the above table the lowest
is 100 and 1500 is the highest. A scale of I dot to 50 cattle will be suitable. Therefore,
proceed to: Step 1: Calculate the number of dots that will represent the cattle reared in each
town. 1500 + 50 = 30 etc.
Sokoto 30
Kano 20
Kaduna 24
Maduguri 26
Makurdi 24
Yola 19
Ilorin 18
Ibadan 16
Lagos 8
Benin 6
Enugu 5
Calabar 4
Port Harcourt 3
Owerri 2
Isoline: A line connecting points of equal value on a map. Isolines fall into two classes—
isarithms, in which the values actually exist at points, such as temperature or elevation
values—and isopleths, in which the values are ratios that exist over areas, such as population
per square kilometer or crop yield per acre.

Some basic rules regarding isoline (and isopleth) maps are:

 Isolines connect points of equal value
 Isolines do not cross or touch (with the exception of vertical gradients, like cliffs)
 The interval is the numerical difference between adjacent isolines and is usually the
same over the entire map
 Isolines pass between higher and lower values
 Isolines show gradients, defined as the amount of change over distance. Isolines close
together show a high gradient, isolines far apart represent a low gradient.
 In nature, gradients usually indicate a flow from the higher values toward the lower
values (for example, air moving from high pressure to low pressure and heat moving
from areas of high temperature to areas of low temperature). Higher gradients usually
indicate faster flow, e.g. high pressure gradients cause high wind speeds.
 Isoline maps show elements that vary continuously over an area, rather than point
values, categories, or uniform area
Types of Isoline
 Isobar: A line representing points of equal atmospheric pressure.
 Isobath: A line representing points of equal depth under water.
 Isobathytherm: A line representing depths of water with equal temperature.
 Isochasm: A line representing points of equal recurrence of auroras.
 Isocheim: A line representing points of equal mean winter temperature.
 Isochrone: A line representing points of equal time-distance from a point, such as the
transportation time from a particular point.
 Isodapane: A line representing points of equal transport costs for products from
production to markets.
 Isodose: A line representing points of equal intensity of radiation.
 Isodrosotherm: A line representing points of equal dew point.
 Isogeotherm: A line representing points of equal mean temperature.
 Isogloss: A line separating linguistic features.
 Isogonal: A line representing points of equal magnetic declination.
 Isohaline: A line representing points of equal salinity in the ocean.
 Isohel: A line representing points receiving equal amounts of sunshine.
 Isohume: A line representing points of equal humidity.
 Isohyet: A line representing points of equal precipitation.
 Isoneph: A line representing points of equal amounts of cloud cover.
 Isopectic: A line representing points where ice begins to form at the same time each
fall or winter.
 Isophene: A line representing points where biological events occur at the same time,
such as crops flowering.
 Isoplat: A line representing points of equal acidity, as in acid precipitation.
 Isopleth: A line representing points of equal numerical value, such as population.
 Isopor: A line representing points of equal annual change in magnetic declination.
 Isostere: A line representing points of equal atmospheric density.
 Isotac: A line representing points where ice begins to melt at the same time each
spring.
 Isotach: A line representing points of equal wind speed.
 Isothere: A line representing points of equal mean summer temperature.
 Isotherm: A line representing points of equal temperature.
 Isotim: A line representing points of equal transport costs from the source of a raw
material.