OCS351 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING FUNDAMENTALS

UNIT I
INTELLIGENT AGENT AND UNINFORMED SEARCH
Introduction - Foundations of AI - History of AI - The state of the art - Risks and Benefits of AI
-Intelligent Agents - Nature of Environment - Structure of Agent - Problem Solving Agents –
Formulating Problems - Uninformed Search - Breadth First Search – Dijkstra or algorithm or
uniform-cost search -Depth First Search - Depth Limited Search.

Introduction:
"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can behave
like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."

Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by itself,
demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

Foundations of AI" refers to the fundamental principles and building blocks that form the basis of
Artificial Intelligence (AI). These foundational concepts are crucial for understanding how AI systems
work and how they can be developed and applied in various domains. Here's a breakdown of some
key foundations of AI:

1. Machine Learning: Machine learning is a subset of AI focused on developing algorithms that allow
computers to learn from and make predictions or decisions based on data. It includes techniques like
supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning.
2. Neural Networks: Neural networks are computational models inspired by the structure and function
of the human brain. They consist of interconnected nodes (neurons) organized in layers, and they
excel at tasks like pattern recognition and classification.
3. Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP enables computers to understand, interpret, and generate
human language. It involves tasks such as text parsing, sentiment analysis, machine translation, and
chatbots.
4. Computer Vision: Computer vision enables computers to analyze and interpret visual information
from the real world. It involves tasks like object detection, image classification, and image
segmentation.
5. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning: This foundation involves representing knowledge in a
format that computers can understand and manipulate, enabling them to reason and make decisions.
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6. Search Algorithms: Search algorithms are fundamental to AI for finding optimal solutions to
problems in domains like planning, optimization, and game playing. Examples include depth-first
search, breadth-first search, and heuristic search algorithms like A*.
7. Robotics: Robotics integrates AI with mechanical systems to create intelligent machines capable of
interacting with the physical world. It involves perception, manipulation, motion planning, and
control.

History of AI:

1. Origins (1950s):

● The term "artificial intelligence" was coined in the 1950s by computer scientist John McCarthy.
● Early pioneers, including Alan Turing, developed theoretical concepts such as the Turing Test to
assess a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior.

2. The Dartmouth Conference (1956):

● Considered the birthplace of AI, the Dartmouth Conference brought together McCarthy, Marvin
Minsky, Herbert Simon, and others to discuss the potential of creating intelligent machines.

3. Early Years (1950s-1960s):

● Researchers focused on symbolic AI, using rules and logic to mimic human reasoning.
● Significant achievements included the development of the Logic Theorist by Newell and Simon, the
General Problem Solver, and the first AI programs for playing chess and checkers.

4. The AI Winter (1970s-1980s):

● Progress slowed due to unrealistic expectations, funding cuts, and limitations in computing power.
● This period, known as the AI Winter, saw decreased interest and investment in AI research.

5. Expert Systems (1980s):

● Expert systems emerged as a practical application of AI, using rules and knowledge bases to solve
specific problems.
● Systems like MYCIN for medical diagnosis and DENDRAL for chemical analysis showcased the
potential of AI in specialized domains.

6. Renaissance (1990s):

● Advances in computing power, algorithms, and data availability revitalized interest in AI.
● Machine learning techniques such as neural networks and genetic algorithms gained prominence,
leading to breakthroughs in pattern recognition and data analysis.

7. Rise of the Internet and Big Data (2000s):

● The proliferation of the internet and the explosion of digital data provided fertile ground for AI
applications.
● Companies like Google, Amazon, and Facebook leveraged AI for search engines, recommendation
systems, and targeted advertising.
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8. Deep Learning and AI Boom (2010s):

● Deep learning, a subset of machine learning, revolutionized AI by enabling the training of complex
neural networks on large datasets.
● Breakthroughs in computer vision, natural language processing, and speech recognition propelled AI
into everyday life with applications like image recognition, virtual assistants, and language
translation.

9. Current Trends (2020s):

● AI continues to evolve rapidly, with advancements in areas such as reinforcement learning,

autonomous vehicles, and robotics.

The state of the art:

In the context of artificial intelligence (AI), the state of the art represents the latest breakthroughs,
techniques, and technologies that researchers and engineers are using to push the boundaries of what
AI systems can do.

Imagine AI as a rapidly moving train, and the state of the art is the very front carriage—the place
where all the newest, most exciting developments are happening. It's where scientists and engineers
are constantly working to make AI smarter, faster, and more capable.

For example, if we're talking about computer vision, the state of the art might involve algorithms that
can accurately recognize and classify objects in images with incredible precision. In natural language
processing, it might mean AI models that can understand and generate human-like text more
convincingly than ever before.

Staying at the state of the art in AI means keeping up with the latest research, testing new ideas, and
striving to create AI systems that are not just powerful, but also reliable, ethical, and beneficial for
society.

The state of the art in artificial intelligence:

1. Cutting-Edge Research: At the forefront of AI, researchers are constantly pushing the boundaries of
what's possible. They explore new algorithms, architectures, and methodologies to improve the
performance, efficiency, and capabilities of AI systems. This includes areas like deep learning,
reinforcement learning, and evolutionary algorithms.
2. Advanced Techniques: The state of the art often involves sophisticated techniques and
methodologies. For example, in deep learning, researchers are developing complex neural network
architectures with millions or even billions of parameters to tackle challenging tasks such as image
recognition, natural language understanding, and speech synthesis. Techniques like attention
mechanisms, transformer models, and generative adversarial networks (GANs) are also part of the
cutting-edge arsenal.
3. Big Data and Computing Power: The availability of vast amounts of data and powerful computing
resources has been instrumental in advancing the state of the art in AI. Researchers leverage massive
datasets to train and fine-tune AI models, allowing them to achieve unprecedented levels of
performance. High-performance computing systems, including GPUs (Graphics Processing Units) and
TPUs (Tensor Processing Units), enable researchers to train large-scale models efficiently.
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4. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: AI research often involves collaboration across various disciplines,

including computer science, mathematics, neuroscience, psychology, and linguistics. By drawing
insights from diverse fields, researchers can develop more holistic approaches to solving complex
problems and creating AI systems that better mimic human intelligence.
5. Applications Across Domains: The state of the art in AI extends to a wide range of application
domains, including healthcare, finance, transportation, education, entertainment, and more. In
healthcare, for instance, AI is used for medical imaging analysis, drug discovery, personalized
treatment recommendations, and predictive analytics. In finance, AI powers algorithmic trading, fraud
detection, risk assessment, and customer service automation.
6. Ethical Considerations: As AI technologies become increasingly sophisticated, ethical
considerations become more important. Researchers and practitioners must address issues such as
bias, fairness, transparency, accountability, privacy, and safety to ensure that AI systems are
developed and deployed responsibly.
7. Continuous Innovation: The state of the art in AI is dynamic and ever-evolving. What may be
considered state of the art today could become obsolete tomorrow as new breakthroughs emerge and
technology advances. Therefore, staying at the forefront of AI requires continuous innovation,
exploration, and adaptation to the latest developments in the field.

Overall, the state of the art in artificial intelligence represents the culmination of years of research,
innovation, and collaboration, driving forward the capabilities of AI systems and shaping the future of
technology and society.

Risks and Benefits of AI –

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and high
accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of that
AI systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action multiple
times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a bomb,
exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as AI
technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products as per
customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving car
which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security purpose,
Natural language processing to communicate with the human in human-language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Every technology has some disadvantages, and thesame goes for Artificial intelligence. Being so
advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind while
creating an AI system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:
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o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires lots of
maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they
cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained, or
programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does not
have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and may
sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are getting
more dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but still
AI machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and
imaginative.

Intelligent Agents:
Agents in Artificial Intelligence
An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its environment. The agents sense
the environment through sensors and act on their environment through actuators. An AI agent can
have mental properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.

What is an Agent?

An agent can be anything that perceiveits environment through sensors and act upon that environment
through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:
o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for sensors and
hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for sensors and
various motors for actuators.
o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input and act
on those inputs and display output on the screen.

Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cell phone, camera, and even we are
also agents.
Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and actuators.
Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the information to
other electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.
Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion. The actuators
are only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be an electric motor, gears,
rails, etc.
Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels,
arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.
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Intelligent Agents:

An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment using sensors and
actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the environment to achieve their
goals. A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.
Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:
o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.
o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

Rational Agent:

A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a way to
maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.
A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational agents to use for game
theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.
For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement learning algorithm,
for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward and for each wrong action, an agent gets a
negative reward.
Note: Rational agents in AI are very similar to intelligent agents.
Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be judged on the
basis of following points:
o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.
o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.
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Note: Rationality differs from Omniscience because an Omniscient agent knows the actual
outcome of its action and act accordingly, which is not possible in reality.

Structure of an AI Agent

The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The structure of an
intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It can be viewed as:
1. Agent = Architecture + Agent program
Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:
Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.
Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.
1. f:P*A
Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An agent program executes
on the physical architecture to produce function f.

PEAS Representation

PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or rational
agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It is made up of four words:
o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors

Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.

PEAS for self-driving cars:

Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort
Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian
Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

Agent Performance measure Environment Actuators Sensors

1. Medical o Healthy patient o Patient o Tests Keyboard

Diagnose (Entry of sym
o Minimized cost o Hospital o Treatments
o Staff

2. Vacuum o Cleanness o Room o Wheels o Came

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Cleaner o Brushes
o Efficiency o Table o Vacuum o Dirt d
o Battery life o Wood floor Extractor senso
o Security o Carpet o Cliff s
o Various o Bump
obstacles o Infrar
Senso

3. Part -picking o Percentage of o Conveyor belt o Jointed Arms o Came

Robot parts in correct with parts, o Hand o Joint
bins. o Bins senso

Example of Agents with their PEAS representation

Agent Environment in AI
An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part of an agent
itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present.
The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with something to sense and act
upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-feministic.

Features of Environment

As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of view of an
agent:
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable
2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each point of
time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially observable.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal state to
keep track history of the world.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called
as unobservable.

2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:
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o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state of the
environment, then such environment is called a deterministic environment.
o A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely by an
agent.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about
uncertainty.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:

o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current percept
is required for the action.
o However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to determine
the next best actions.

4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an
environment is called single agent environment.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an environment is
called a multi-agent environment.
o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single agent
environment.

5. Static vs Dynamic:

o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such environment is
called a dynamic environment else it is called a static environment.
o Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue looking at the
world while deciding for an action.
o However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each action.
o Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword puzzles are an
example of a static environment.

6. Discrete vs Continuous:

o If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be performed
within it, then such an environment is called a discrete environment else it is called
continuous environment.
o A chess gamecomes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of moves that can
be performed.
o A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.

7. Known vs Unknown

o Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an agent's state of
knowledge to perform an action.
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o In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent. While in unknown
environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an action.
o It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an Unknown
environment to be fully observable.

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's environment, then
such an environment is called an Accessible environment else it is called inaccessible.
o An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of an accessible
environment.
o Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.
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4. Goal Test: No Queen Attacked

5. Path cost: Each step cost 1,so the path cost is the number of steps in the path.

Uninformed Search Algorithms

Uninformed search is a class of general-purpose search algorithms which operates in brute force-way. Uninformed
search algorithms do not have additional information about state or search space other than how to traverse the tree,
so it is also called blind search.

Following are the various types of uninformed search algorithms:

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1. Breadth-first Search
2. Depth-first Search
3. Depth-limited Search
4. Uniform cost search

Breadth-first Search:

o Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or graph. This algorithm searches
breadth wise in a tree or graph, so it is called breadth-first search.
o BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all successor node at the current level
before moving to nodes of next level.
o The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search algorithm.
o Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.

Advantages:

o BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.

o If there is more than one solution for a given problem, then BFS will provide the minimal solution which requires
the least number of steps.

Disadvantages:

o It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into memory to expand the next level.
o BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.

Example:
In the below tree structure, we have shown the traversing of the tree using BFS algorithm from the root node S to goal node
K. BFS search algorithm traverse in layers, so it will follow the path which is shown by the dotted arrow, and the traversed
path will be:

1. S---> A--->B---->C--->D---->G--->H--->E---->F---->I---->K

Time Complexity: Time Complexity of BFS algorithm can be obtained by the number of nodes traversed in BFS until the
shallowest Node. Where the d= depth of shallowest solution and b is a node at every state.

T (b) = 1+b2+b3+.......+ bd= O (bd)

Space Complexity: Space complexity of BFS algorithm is given by the Memory size of frontier which is O(bd).

Completeness: BFS is complete, which means if the shallowest goal node is at some finite depth, then BFS will find a
solution.

Optimality: BFS is optimal if path cost is a non-decreasing function of the depth of the node.

2. Depth-first Search
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o Depth-first search isa recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data structure.
o It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows each path to its greatest depth
node before moving to the next path.
o DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
o The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.

Note: Backtracking is an algorithm technique for finding all possible solutions using recursion.
Advantage:

o DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on the path from root node to the
current node.
o It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in the right path).

Disadvantage:

o There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no guarantee of finding the solution.
o DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the infinite loop.

Example:
In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it will follow the order as:

Root node--->Left node ----> right node.

It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E, after traversing E, it will backtrack the tree as
E has no other successor and still goal node is not found. After backtracking it will traverse node C and then G, and here it
will terminate as it found goal node.

Completeness: DFS search algorithm is complete within finite state space as it will expand every node within a limited
search tree.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to the node traversed by the algorithm. It is given by:

T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +.........+ nm=O(nm)

Where, m= maximum depth of any node and this can be much larger than d (Shallowest solution depth)

Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to store only single path from the root node, hence space complexity of DFS is
equivalent to the size of the fringe set, which is O(bm).

Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may generate a large number of steps or high cost to reach to the goal
node.
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3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:

A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a predetermined limit. Depth-limited search can solve
the drawback of the infinite path in the Depth-first search. In this algorithm, the node at the depth limit will treat as it has no
successor nodes further.

Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:

o Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
o Cut-off failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given depth limit.

Advantages:

Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.

Disadvantages:

o Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.

o It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.

Example:

Completeness: DLS search algorithm is complete if the solution is above the depth-limit.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of DLS algorithm is O(bℓ).

Space Complexity: Space complexity of DLS algorithm is O(b×ℓ).

Optimal: Depth-limited search can be viewed as a special case of DFS, and it is also not optimal even if ℓ>d.

4. Uniform-cost Search Algorithm:

Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree or graph. This algorithm comes into play
when a different cost is available for each edge. The primary goal of the uniform-cost search is to find a path to the goal
node which has the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform-cost search expands nodes according to their path costs from the root
node. It can be used to solve any graph/tree where the optimal cost is in demand. A uniform-cost search algorithm is
implemented by the priority queue. It gives maximum priority to the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform cost search is
equivalent to BFS algorithm if the path cost of all edges is the same.

Advantages:

o Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least cost is chosen.
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Disadvantages:

o It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only concerned about path cost. Due to which
this algorithm may be stuck in an infinite loop.

Example:

Completeness:

Uniform-cost search is complete, such as if there is a solution, UCS will find it.

Time Complexity:

Let C* is Cost of the optimal solution, and ε is each step to get closer to the goal node. Then the number of steps is =
C*/ε+1. Here we have taken +1, as we start from state 0 and end to C*/ε.

Hence, the worst-case time complexity of Uniform-cost search isO(b1 + [C*/ε])/.

Space Complexity:

The same logic is for space complexity so, the worst-case space complexity of Uniform-cost search is O (b1 + [C*/ε]).

Optimal:

Uniform-cost search is always optimal as it only selects a path with the lowest path cost.

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