Strain

Normal strain (ε) - is the change in length caused by the applied load per unit length also known as unit
deformation. Strain is actually measured by experiments, and once the strain is obtained, its relation to
the stress acting within the body can be shown by a stress – strain diagram.

Given that the cross-sectional area of the bar shown is constant, the strain can be expressed as:

where:

ε = strain in mm/mm

δ = deformation of the bar in millimeter

L = original length of the bar (before the load was applied) in mm

STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM

The figure shown below is the characteristics of the stress–strain curve as for steel, a commonly used
material for fabricating both structural members and mechanical elements.
HOOKE’S LAW

Most engineering structures are designed to undergo relatively small deformations, involving only the
straight-line portion of the corresponding stress-strain diagram. For that initial portion of the diagram
the stress (σ)is directly proportional to the strain (ε).

This relation is known as Hooke’s law, after Robert Hooke, an English scientist and one of the early
founders of applied mechanics. The coefficient E is called the modulus of elasticity of the material
involved, or also called Young’s modulus, after the English scientist Thomas Young. Since the strain is a
dimensionless quantity, the modulus E is expressed in the same units as the stress. The largest value of
the stress for which Hooke’s law can be used for a given material is known as the proportional limit of
that material.

ELASTIC LIMIT

Beyond this point, if the load is removed the specimen will no longer return back to its original shape.
However, normally for steel, the elastic limit is seldom determined, since it is very close to the
proportional limit and therefore rather difficult to detect.

YIELDING

A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the material and cause it to
deform permanently without an increase in stress. This behavior is called yielding. The stress that causes
yielding is called the yield stress or yield point, and the deformation that occurs is called plastic
deformation.

NECKING

Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area will decrease. This decrease
is fairly uniform over the specimen’s entire gauge length, however, just after, at the ultimate stress, the
cross-sectional area will begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen.

RAPTURE STRESS

Rapture stress is the stress of material at rapture. This is also known as fracture or breaking stress.
MODULUS OF RESILIENCE

Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually increased
from Origin to proportional limit. This can be calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve from
the origin up to elastic limit. The resilience of material is the ability to absorb energy without creating a
permanent distortion.

MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the
force is gradually increased from Origin to rapture point. This can be calculated as the area under the
stress-strain curve from origin to rupture point. The modulus of toughness is the ability to absorb energy
without causing it to break

DEFORMATION OF MEMBER UNDER AXIAL LOADING

1. Constant cross-sectional area

If the bar is subjected to several different axial forces along its length, or the cross-sectional area or
modulus of elasticity changes abruptly from one region of the bar to the next, then the relative
displacement can be expressed as:

where:

δ = axial deformation (mm)

P = load/force applied (Newton)
L = original length of the bar (before the load was applied) in mm
E = modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus (MPa)
A = cross-sectional area (mm^2)
2. Varying cross-sectional Area

where:

δ = axial deformation (mm)

P = load/force applied (Newton)
L = original length of the bar (before the load was applied) in mm
E = modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus (MPa)
A = cross-sectional area (mm^2) at distance x

3. Rod with constant cross-sectional area suspended vertically from one end.

where:
δ = total axial deformation (mm)
P = load/force applied (Newton)
L = original length of the bar (before the load was applied) in mm
E = modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus (MPa)
A = cross-sectional area (mm2)
δ 1= axial deformation due to load P
δ 2= axial deformation due its own weight
STIFFNESS (k)
Stiffness is the ratio of steady force acting on elastic body to the resulting displacement.

EXAMPLE 1:

Determine the deformation of the steel rod under the given loads (E=200,000MPa). Ans: 1.23 mm

EXAMPLE 2:

A uniform bar of length L, cross-sectional area A, and density ρ is suspended vertically from one end.
Show that its total elongation is δ = ρgL2/2E.

EXAMPLE 3:

During a stress-strain test, the unit deformation at stress of 65 MPa was observed to be 0.00016
mm/mm and at a stress of 153 MPa was 0.0006 mm/mm respectively.

1. Determine the modulus of elasticity. Ans. 200,000 MPA

2. Which of the following gives the strain corresponding to a stress of 120
MPa.? ANS: 0.000435 mm/mm
3. Which of the following gives the corresponding length of a member if it
elongates 300 mm? ANS: 500 m

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS

There are many problems, in which the internal forces cannot be determined from statics alone. Most of
these problems, the reactions themselves cannot be determined by using equilibrium equations. In this
case, the equilibrium equations must be complemented by relations involving deformations obtained by
considering the geometry of the problem. Because statics is not sufficient to determine either the
reactions or the internal forces, problems of this type are said to be statically indeterminate.

EXAMPLE 1:

The steel rod shown in the figure has a diameter of 15 mm. It is fixed to the wall at A, and before it is
loaded, there is a gap of 0.2 mm between the wall at B and the rod. Determine the reactions at A and B if
the rod is subjected to an axial force of P = 45 KN as shown. Take E= 200 GPa. Ans: RA = 23,926.99 N and
RB = 21,073.01 N

THERMAL STRESS

Temperature changes cause a body to change its dimensions. An increase of temperature will make the
body to expand, whereas if the temperature decreases, it will contract. If the material is homogeneous
and isotropic, it has been found from experiment that the displacement of a member having a length L,
can be calculated using the formula:

where:

α = the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C

L = the initial length of member in meter
ΔT = change in temperature
δT = the algebraic change in the length of the member
In case that the temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal stress can be created. This stress
is termed as thermal stress. An example for this case is when a homogeneous member mounted
between rigid supports as shown,

where:

Δσ = change in axial stress in MPa

E = modulus of elasticity of the member
ΔT = change in temperature
α = the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C

EXAMPLE 1

The A-36 steel bar is constrained to just fit between two fixed supports when T 1= 15.56°C. If the
temperature is raised to T2= 48.89°C, determine the average normal thermal stress developed in the bar
if its cross-sectional area and length are 160 mm2 and 610 mm. Use α = 11.7 x 10-6 m/m°C. ANS: 78 MPa
(compression)