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Programming in C
 About the Author

E Balagurusamy, is presently the Chairman of EBG Foundation, Coimbatore. In the past he has also
held the positions of member, Union Public Service Commission, New Delhi and Vice-Chancellor, Anna
University, Chennai. He is a teacher, trainer and consultant in the fields of Information Technology
and Management. He holds an ME (Hons) in Electrical Engineering and PhD in Systems Engineering
from the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. His areas of interest include Object-Oriented Software
Engineering, E-Governance: Technology Management, Business Process Re-engineering and Total
Quality Management.
A prolific writer, he has authored a large number of research papers and several books. His best-selling
books, among others include:
∑ Fundamentals of Computers
∑ Computing Fundamentals and C Programming, 2e
∑ Programming in C#, 3/e
∑ Programming in Java, 5/e
∑ Object-Oriented Programming with C++, 7/e
∑ Numerical Methods
∑ Reliability Engineering
A recipient of numerous honors and awards, he has been listed in the Directory of Who's Who of
Intellectuals and in the Directory of Distinguished Leaders in Education.
Programming in C

E Balagurusamy
Chairman
EBG Foundation
Coimbatore

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

CHENNAI

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Programming in C

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 Contents

Preface xiii

UNIT 1: BasIcs of c ProgrammINg

1. overview of c 3
History of C 3
Importance of C 5
Sample Program 1: Printing a Message 5
Sample Program 2: Adding Two Numbers 8
Sample Program 3: Interest Calculation 9
Sample Program 4: Use of Subroutines 11
Sample Program 5: Use of Math Functions 12
Basic Structure of C Programs 14
Programming Style 15
Executing a ‘C’ Program 15
UNIX System 16
MS-DOS System 18
Key Concepts 19
Always Remember 19
Review Questions 20
Debugging Exercises 21
Programming Exercises 22

2. constants, Variables and Data Types 24

Introduction 24
Character Set 24
C Tokens 26
Keywords and Identifiers 27
vi Contents

Constants 27
Variables 31
Data Types 32
Declaration of Variables 35
Declaration of Storage Class 38
Assigning Values to Variables 39
Defining Symbolic Constants 44
Declaring a Variable as Constant 46
Declaring a Variable as Volatile 46
Key Concepts 46
Always Remember 47
Brief Cases 47
Review Questions 50
Debugging Exercises 51
Programming Exercises 52

3. operators and Expressions 53

Introduction 53
Arithmetic Operators 54
Relational Operators 56
Logical Operators 57
Assignment Operators 58
Increment and Decrement Operators 60
Conditional Operator 61
Bitwise Operators 61
Special Operators 61
Arithmetic Expressions 63
Evaluation of Expressions 64
Precedence of Arithmetic Operators 65
Some Computational Problems 67
Type Conversions In Expressions 68
Operator Precedence and Associativity 71
Key Concepts 74
Always Remember 74
Brief Cases 75
Review Questions 77
Debugging Exercises 80
Programming Exercises 80
 Contents vii

4. Managing Input and Output Operations 83

Introduction 83
Reading a Character 84
Writing a Character 87
Formatted Input 88
Formatted Output 96
Key Concepts 103
Always Remember 104
Brief Cases 104
Review Questions 108
Debugging Exercises 110
Programming Exercises 110

5. Decision making and Branching 113

Introduction 113
Decision Making with If Statement 114
Simple If Statement 114
The If.....Else Statement 117
Nesting of If....Else Statements 120
The Else If Ladder 123
The Switch Statement 127
The ? : Operator 131
The Goto Statement 135
Key Concepts 138
Always Remember 138
Brief Cases 139
Review Questions 143
Debugging Exercises 147
Programming Exercises 148

6. Decision making and Looping 151

Introduction 151
The While Statement 153
The Do Statement 155
The For Statement 158
Jumps in Loops 168
Concise Test Expressions 175
Key Concepts 175
Always Remember 175
viii Contents

Brief Cases 176

Review Questions 183
Debugging Exercises 186
Programming Exercises 187

7. The Preprocessor 191

Introduction 191
Macro Substitution 192
File Inclusion 196
Compiler Control Directives 196
ANSI Additions 200
Key Concepts 202
Always Remember 202
Review Questions 203
Debugging Exercises 204
Programming Exercises 204

UNIT 2: arrays aND sTrINgs

8. Array 207
Introduction 207
One-Dimensional Arrays 209
Declaration of One-Dimensional Arrays 210
Initialization of One-Dimensional Arrays 212
Two-Dimensional Arrays 218
Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays 222
Multi-Dimensional Arrays 230
Dynamic Arrays 231
More About Arrays 232
Key Concepts 232
Always Remember 232
Brief Cases 233
Review Questions 246
Debugging Exercises 247
Programming Exercises 248

9. character arrays and strings 252

Introduction 252
Declaring and Initializing String Variables 253
Reading Strings from Terminal 254
 Contents ix

Writing Strings to Screen 260

Arithmetic Operations on Characters 264
Putting Strings Together 266
Comparison of Two Strings 267
String-Handling Functions 267
Table of Strings 273
Other Features of Strings 275
Key Concepts 275
Always Remember 275
Brief Cases 276
Review Questions 280
Debugging Exercises 282
Programming Exercises 283

UNIT 3: fUNcTIoNs aND PoINTErs

10. User-Defined Functions 287
Introduction 287
Need for User-Defined Functions 288
A Multi-Function Program 288
Elements of User-Defined Functions 291
Definition of Functions 292
Return Values and Their Types 294
Function Calls 295
Function Declaration 297
Category of Functions 298
No Arguments and no Return Values 298
Arguments but no Return Values 300
Arguments With Return Values 304
No Arguments but Returns a Value 309
Functions that Return Multiple Values 309
Nesting of Functions 310
Recursion 311
Passing Arrays to Functions 313
Passing Strings to Functions 317
The Scope, Visibility, and Lifetime of Variables 318
Multifile Programs 328
Key Concepts 329
x Contents

Always Remember 330

Brief Cases 331
Review Questions 334
Debugging Exercises 337
Programming Exercises 338

11. Pointers 340

Introduction 340
Understanding Pointers 341
Accessing the Address of a Variable 343
Declaring Pointer Variables 344
Initialization of Pointer Variables 345
Accessing a Variable Through its Pointer 346
Chain of Pointers 348
Pointer Expressions 349
Pointer Increments and Scale Factor 351
Pointers and Arrays 351
Pointers and Character Strings 355
Array of Pointers 357
Pointers as Function Arguments 358
Functions Returning Pointers 361
Pointers to Functions 362
Pointers and Structures 364
Troubles with Pointers 367
Key Concepts 367
Always Remember 368
Brief Cases 368
Review Questions 374
Debugging Exercises 376
Programming Exercises 376

UNIT 4: sTrUcTUrEs
12. Structures and Unions 381
Introduction 381
Defining a Structure 382
Declaring Structure Variables 383
Accessing Structure Members 385
 Contents xi

Structure Initialization 386

Copying and Comparingstructure Variables 388
Operations on Individual Members 390
Arrays of Structures 390
Arrays Within Structures 393
Structures Within Structures 394
Structures and Functions 396
Unions 399
Size of Structures 400
Bit Fields 400
Key Concepts 403
Always Remember 403
Brief Cases 404
Review Questions 408
Debugging Exercises 411
Programming Exercises 411

13. Dynamic Memory Allocation and Linked Lists 414

Introduction 414
Dynamic Memory Allocation 414
Allocating a Block of Memory: Malloc 415
Allocating Multiple Blocks of Memory: Calloc 417
Releasing the Used Space: Free 418
Altering the Size of a Block: Realloc 418
Concepts of Linked Lists 420
Advantages of Linked Lists 423
Types of Linked Lists 424
Pointers Revisited 424
Creating a Linked List 426
Inserting an Item 430
Deleting an Item 433
Application of Linked Lists 435
Key Concepts 435
Always Remember 436
Brief Cases 436
Review Questions 443
Debugging Exercises 444
Programming Exercises 445
xii Contents

UNIT 5: fILE ProcEssINg

14. file management in c 449
Introduction 449
Defining and Opening a File 450
Closing a File 451
Input/Output Operations on Files 452
Error Handling During I/O Operations 458
Random Access to Files 460
Command Line Arguments 467
Key Concepts 469
Always Remember 470
Review Questions 470
Debugging Exercises 471
Programming Exercises 471

Annexure 1: Model Question Papers with Hints and Short Solutions 473
annexure 2: Developing a c Program: some guidelines 492
Appendix I: Bit-Level Programming 507
appendix II: ascII Values of characters 512
Appendix III: ANSI C Library Functions 514
 Preface

C
is a powerful, flexible, portable and elegantly structured programming language. Since C
combines the features of high-level language with the elements of the assembler, it is suitable
for both systems and applications programming. It is undoubtedly the most widely used general-
purpose language today in operating systems, and embedded system development. Its influence
is evident in almost all modern programming languages. Since its standardization in 1989, C has
undergone a series of changes and improvements in order to enhance the usefulness of the language.
The version that incorporates the new features is now referred to as C11.

Why this book?

This book has been designed for enhanced higher learning. It is thoroughly updated with outcome
based learning approach as per standard ‘Bloom’s Taxonomy’. Additional write-ups, projects, worked-
out- problems, review exercises, programming and debugging exercises are fused around the content
for reference of the user.

salient features of the Book

∑ Learning Objectives
∑ Key Concepts
∑ Content Tagged with LO
∑ Worked Out Problems
∑ Tips
∑ Closing Vignette
∑ Review Exercises – True False, Fill in the blanks, Questions, Programming Exercises – categorized
into LO and Difficulty level (E for Easy, M for Medium and H for High)

Digital supplements
The digital supplement can be accessed at the given link (http://www.mhhe.com/balagurusamy/picau17)
It contains the following components:
∑ Write up on Self Referential Structures
∑ Write up on Selection sort, linear and binary search
∑ Additional Programs for practice
xiv Preface

feedback
I welcome any constructive criticism of the book and will be grateful for any appraisal by the readers.
Feedback to improve the book will be highly appreciated.
E Balagurusamy

Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be sent
to info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line). Piracy-
related issues may also be reported.
 UNIT 1
Basics of C Programming

Chapter 1 Overview of C
Chapter 2 Constants, Variables and Data Types
Chapter 3 Operators and Expressions
Chapter 4 Managing Input and Output Operations
Chapter 5 Decision Making and Branching
Chapter 6 Decision Making and Looping
Chapter 7 The Preprocessor
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 The truth is this; the particles of water are constantly exhaled from the earth by the
heat of the sun. During the day time, these particles ascend in an imperceptible
manner, and furnish the atmosphere with the materials of clouds and rain. But in
the night, the atmosphere grows cool, while the earth, retaining a superior degree
of heat, continues to throw off the particles of water. These particles, meeting the
colder atmosphere, are condensed, and lodge upon the surface of the earth, grass,
trees and other objects. So that the expression, the dew falls, is in a degree true,
altho it first rises from the earth.
64] It is a fact, supported by unquestionable testimony, that the savage nations on
the frontiers of these States, have fewer vices in proportion to their virtues, than are
to be found in the best regulated civilized societies with which we are acquainted.
65] Uxores habent deni, duodenique inter se communes; et maxime fratres cum
fratribus, et parentes cum liberis. Sed si qui sunt ex his nati; eorum habenter liberi a
quibus primum virgines quæque ductæ sunt.—— Cæsar de bell. Gall. Lib. 5.
66] Let an individual depend solely on his own exertions for food, and a single failure
of crops subjects him to a famin. Let a populous country depend solely on its own
produce, and the probability of a famine is diminished; yet is still possible. But a
commercial intercourse between all nations, multiplies the chances of subsistence,
and reduces the matter to a certainty. China, a well peopled country, is subject to a
famin merely for want of a free commerce.
67] Jacob Dict. word, domesday.
68] Cowel Dict. Daysman.
69] Coke Litt. 3. 248.
70] It iz singular that the last syllable of this word domesday, should hav been
mistaken for day, a portion of time; for the latter in Saxon waz written daeg and
daegum, az in the Saxon version of the Gospels; whereaz the termination of
domesday waz formerly, and ought now to be, spelt dey.
71] Cowel, Law Dict. dome.
72] In some words dom is substituted for the ancient termination rick; and in one
sense, it iz equivalent to rick, which implies jurisdiction or power. King rick waz used
az late az Queen Elizabeth: Bishop-rick iz stil used, denoting the territory or
jurisdiction of a bishop.
73] Johnson derives lay from the Greek λαος; as he does all other words which hav
some resemblance to Greek words in sound or signification. I beleev the Saxon or
Gothic original and the Greek may be the same, and of equal antiquity.
74] Blackstone Com. vol. I. 112.
75] Camden's Britannia. Baron.
76] Let no one question the probability of such changes of consonants which are
formed by the same organs; for to this day b and v are often used promiscuously. In
the Spanish language, we are at liberty to pronounce, b az v, or v az b; and with us,
marble is often pronounced marvle. It is also certain that the Roman vir is found in
the word mentioned by Cesar. Com. 11. 19. Vergo bretus, an annual magistrate
among the Ædui, a nation of Germany. This word is derived from vir, and guberno,
altho Cesar and Tacitus never suspected it. The same word iz mentioned by Mc
Pherson, az stil existing in the Erst language, Fergubreth; and its meaning iz the
same az in Cesar's time: A decisiv argument that vir, fer, and bar, are radically the
same; and that the ancient Celtic language had a common origin with the Latin. A
similar change of consonants iz observable in the words volo and bull (the Pope's
decree) which are radically the same; az also the German woll and the English will.
So the ancient Pergamus iz called by the modern Turks, Bergamo. See Masheim's
Eccle. Hist. Vol. I. and my Dissertations on the Eng. Language, Appendix.
77] The feudal system iz commonly supposed to hav originated in the conquest of the
Roman empire by the northern nations. The rudiments of it however may be
discovered az erly az the Cimbric invasion of Italy, a century before the Christian
era. Se Florus. lib. 3. c. 3. The Cimbri and Teutones were tribes of the same
northern race, az the Germans and Saxons.
78] So it iz spelt in the Saxon laws; but its root waz probably circe, from sciran, to
divide. C before i and e was in Saxon pronounced ch or neerly; hence circe is
chirche.
79] Blackstone Com. vol. I, 112. That each shire had its bishop, seems to be obvious
from a law of Edgar, c. 5, where, respecting the county court, it iz ordered,
"celeberrimo huic conventui episcopus et aldermannus intersunto;" not unus
episcoporum, but the bishop and erl.
80] Parson iz said, by Coke and others, to be derived from persona, because this
officer represents the corporation or church, vicem seu personam ecclesiæ gerere.
This reezon seems to be obscure and unsatisfactory. It iz possible the word may
proceed from the same root az parish, viz. par.
81] Great synod—great meeting.
82] Stuarts English Constitution, p. 275.
83] Mallets North. Antiq. Vol. I. 61. The northern nations had, like the Greeks, twelv
principal deities, and this article in their religious beleef might originate the
institution of twelv preests, twelv judges, &c. Many civil institutions among rude
nations, may be traced to their religious opinions; and perhaps the preference given
to the number twelv, in Germany, in Greece, and in Judea, had its origin in some
circumstances az ancient az the race of the Jews.
Odin, which in Anglo Saxon, waz Woden, waz the supreme god of the Goths,
answering to the Jupiter of the Greeks: And it iz remarkable that the words, god,
 good, odin and woden, all sprung from one source. We shall not be surprized that
the same word should begin with such different letters, when we reflect that such
changes are very common. The Danes omit w in word; a dictionary they call ord-
bog, a word book; and the Spaniards, in attempting to pronounce w, always
articulate g. See my Dissertations, p. 335.
84] North. Antiq. Vol. I. 169.
85] London, in England, probably had its name from this place.
86] North. Antiq. Vol. II. 41.
87] See Chardin's Travels, Vol. III.
88] Tac. de Mor. Germ. c. 7.
89] Tac. de Mor. Germ. c. 11.
90] C. 12.
91] De Bello Gallico. lib. VI. c. 21.
92] Com. Vol. III. 35. This cannot be strictly true; for the principes were electiv; and
therefore could not hav owned the land (pagus) or exercised the office of judge in
right of their property. The kings, princes, and generals of the ancient Germans
were elected; some for their nobility, that iz, the respectability of their families,
arising from the valor and merits of their ancestors; others, az their duces, military
commanders, were chosen for their virtues, their personal bravery. This I take to be
the meening of that passage in Tacitus, "Reges ex nobilitate, duces ex virtute
sumunt."
"The Comites ex plebe," says Selden, chap. 18, "made one rank of freemen superior
to the rest in wisdom." The Saxon nobles were called adelingi, or wel born; the
freemen, frilingi, or free born; the latter might be assistants in the judicial
department. The lower ranks were called lazzi or slaves; and indolence iz so
necessary a consequence of bondage, that this word lazzi, or lazy, haz become
sinonimous with indolent, sluggish. This word iz a living national satire upon every
species of slavery. But the effect of slavery iz not merely indolence; its natural
tendency iz to produce dishonesty; "almost every slave, being, says Dr. Franklin,
from the nature of hiz employment, a theef." Az a striking proof of this, we may
instance the change of meening in the words villain and knave, which at first
denoted tenant and plowman, but during the oppressions of the feudal system,
come to signify, a rogue. Vassal also denoted originally, a tenant or feudatory of a
superior lord. It waz an honorable name, the barons being called the kings vassals.
But servitude iz to natural a consequence of the tenure of lands under a proprietor,
in see, that vassal haz become sinonimous with slave.[c] The change of meening in
theze words iz a volum of instruction to princes and legislators. Reduce men to
bondage, and they hav no motiv but feer to keep them industrious and honest, and
of course, most of them commence rogues and drones. Why hav not the tyrants of
 Europe discovered this truth? Good laws, and an equal distribution of the
advantages and the rights of government, would generally be an effectual substitute
for the bayonet and the gallows. Look thro Europe; wherever we see poverty and
oppression, there we find a nursery of villains. A difference in the property,
education and advantages, originates the difference of character, between the
nobleman of nicest honor, and the culprits that swing at Tyburn.
[c] Blackstone, Vol. II. 52, says, "we now uze the word vassal
opprobriously, az sinonimous to slave or bondman, on account of
the prejudices we hav justly conceived against the doctrins grafted
on the feudal system." So good a man ought not to hav uzed the
word prejudice; and so great a man ought to hav assigned a better
reezon for this opprobriousness of the modern word vassal.
93] De Mor. Germ. c. 13.
94] The practice of choosing assistant judges in the Roman commonwealth, waz
something similar to our mode of impannelling a jury. Theze assistants were
sometimes a hundred, and it iz not improbable, the Roman and German customs of
electing that number might be derived from the same original.
95] See Coke Litt. and Hargraves notes on this subject.
96] Mallets North. Antiquities.
97] Mentioned in the preceding note, copied from Mallet.
98] These facts gave rise to Cokes quaint remarks, "that the law delighteth herself in
the number of twelv;" and he adds, "the number of twelv iz much respected in holy
writ; as 12 apostles, 12 stones, 12 tribes, &c." On juries, fol. 155.
99] Com. Vol. I. 398.
100] Com. Vol. I. 399.
101] I am by no meens certain that this derivation of counts from comites, iz just; it
iz at leest az probable az otherwise, that contees may be a Gothic word. But this iz
conjecture.
102] See Cowel on the word thane; and in Domesday, "thanus, est tenens, qui est
caput manerii."
103] Com. Vol. I. 403. "But the same author, in page 399, says, the right of peerage
seems to hav been originally territorial, that iz, annexed to lands, manors, &c. the
proprietors of which were, in right of thoze estates, allowed to be peers of the
relm;" that iz, in plain English, certain men, in right of their estates, were allowed to
be equals of the relm. This will not pass for reezon and truth on this side of the
Atlantic.
104] Horne, in hiz Mirror of Justices, chap. I. sect. 2. says, "altho the king ought not
to hav any peer (that iz, equal) in the land, yet because he cannot be a judge in a
 case where he iz a party, it waz behovefull by the law that he should hav
companions to heer and determin of all writs and plaints of all wrongs, &c. Theze
companions are now called countees, earles, according to the Latin comites, &c."
This iz singular! The king ought to hav no equal; therefore he ought to hav
companions for judges; or, in plainer words, if possible, the king ought not to hav
equals in the kingdom, therefore he should hav peers to heer and determin criminal
causes. Common sense at leest, if not etymology, will say, "the king ought not to
hav equals, but he must hav judges."
105] Blackstone, Vol. I. 157, from Staunford P C. 153.
106] It iz now held that e converso, a vote of the spiritual lords, if a majority, iz good
against all the temporal lords; but Coke douts it. Supposing this to be admitted, the
privilege is modern, and makes nothing against my supposition.
107] It haz been remarked that baron iz the most general title of nobility; indeed
every nobleman waz originally a baron. Coke. I. 74. The lords of manors, both in
England and on the continent, were the suitors in the king's court, and called pares
curtis or curiæ. The lords tenants were called the peers of hiz court baron. See
Blackstone, Vol. I. ch. 4.
108] The Norman princes might well call their councils parliaments, meetings of
barons; for they often summoned none but the barons and clergy, and sometimes
but a few of the barons. Henry the third, once summoned but twenty five barons of
two hundred and fifty, then in the kingdom, and one hundred and fifty of the clergy.
Yet this meeting waz a parliament. Selden, chap. 67.
109] Thoze who wish to see a more particular account of the extensiv judicial powers
of the barons in Europe, may consult Robertson's Charles V. Vol. I. page 49, and
note [Z] page 250, where the authorities are referred to.
110] Coke Litt. 74. That the freeholders were judges iz tru; but that the barons and
freeholders derived their authority from kings, iz wholly a mistake.
111] 1. Coke Litt. 73.
112] Cap. I. Sect. III.
113] He must speak of the state of things after the conquest, otherwise justices in
eyre would not hav been mentioned.
114] Law Dict. Court baron.
115] Bacon's Selden chap. 24.
116] Some say this see waz eight hundred akers of land; others, six hundred and
eighty, or 20l. a year, which, considering the difference in the value of money, waz
equal perhaps to 300l. or 400l. at the present time. Here seems to be a confusion of
ancient and modern ideas. The ancient knights see waz a certain tract of land; in
later times that see was valued at 20l. in money.
117] Hale's Hist of Com. Law, 154.
118] L L Ethel. c. 4.
119] We find by ancient records, that the clergy, before the conquest, were
sometimes summoned az jurors or judges in the temporal courts.[d] But the thanes
were the most usual judges in the courts baron. The proper Saxon name of this
court waz halimate or halmote, hallmeeting; "Omnis causa terminetur vel hundredo,
vel comitatu, vel halimote, socam habentiam, vel dominorum curia."[e] And in W.
Thorn, Anno 1176, the judges of this court are expressly said to be thanes,
"thanenses, qui in Halimoto suo, in Thaneto, omnia sua judicia exerceri," (debent.)
Selden, chap. 47, mentions a law of Henry I, which recites a custom of that time, by
which "the bishops and erls, with other the cheef men of the county, were present
in the county court az assistants in directory of judgement." Nothing can be more
explicit. And altho Selden, in a passage hereafter quoted, mentions a compromise
between Gunthrune, the Dane, and the Saxon king, that men of a rank inferior to
lords should be tried by their equals, yet this inferior rank could extend only to
freemen; for others were never admitted upon juries.
[d] See Selden, tit Sax. bishops.
[e] L. L. Hen. I. cap. 10.
120] "And the sheriffs and bailiffs caused the free tenants of their bailiwicks to meet
at the counties and hundreds, at which justice waz so done, that every one so
judged hiz nabor by such judgement az a man could not elsewhere receev in the
like cases, until such times az the customs of the relm were put in writing, and
certainly established."—— Mirror. chap 1. sect. 3.
121] Fleta. lib. I. c. 47.
122] Laghman, to this day, iz the name of a judge or magistrate, both in Sweden and
Iceland. In theze countries it retains its primitiv and tru English meening.—Mallets
North. Antiq. Vol. I.
123] Selden waz forced to confess the jure consulti and ætate superiores, so often
mentioned in the Saxon laws, az composing the homage or jury of twelv, to hav
been cheef men both for experience and knowlege. To such as stumble at this
conceet, as he expresses it, he remarks that the work of jurors requires them to be
cheef men, az they judge of matter of fact; (a reezon drawn from the modern
notions of jurymen's province.) And he adds, the jurors, who were co-assessors,
with the bishop or sheriff in the court, were seeted in the most eminent place, and
might hav held it to this day, az they do in Sweden, had the cheef men still holden
the service. But the great became negligent of such public duties, and left the
business to thoze of a meener condition, who would not or durst not take the
bench; and therefore took their seets on the floor—(took separate seets.) He says
further, that the Danes, on their settlement in England, would not associate with
men of this condition; so that a compromise took place between Alfred, the Saxon
 king, and Gunthrune, the Dane, by which it waz decreed, that a lord or baron
should be tried by twelv lords, and one of inferior rank, by eleven of his equals and
one lord. This waz in the case of homicide only; tho afterwards the law might
extend to other cases and civil suits. By hiz own account of the matter, this writer
supposes the trial by twelv waz originally a trial by the cheef men, (thanes lahmen)
and the idea of equality waz never suggested in the practice till the ninth or tenth
century. But juries existed az courts for centuries before; and the word peers iz
acknowleged to hav had its origin on the continent, where it signified the lords or
members of the high court instituted by Charlemagne. In modern use, trial by peers
iz trial by equals generally; for men are mostly become freemen and landholders;
but this waz not the primitiv practice; nor was equality the basis of the institution.
Even if we suppose the word peer to hav signified equal, as uzed originally on the
continent, it extended no privilege on that account to the body of the nations where
it waz used; for it ment only the kings equals, hiz comites, hiz dukes, erls and
barons, among whom he waz merely primus inter pares. In England Bracton, who
wrote under Henry III, declares the king waz considered in this light; and that the
"erls and barons are his associates, who ought to bridle him, when the law does
not."[f] The courts then which Charlemagne instituted in France and Germany,
consisted merely of the kings peers or equals; and in theze countries, the courts
remain mostly on the ancient footing; so that none but the nobility can be tried by
their equals. In this sense of the word therefore juries were not used in England, till
the compromise between Alfred and Gunthrune, about the year 900. Before that
period, the jurors were not called or considered az equals; but they were thanes,
jure consulti, lahmen and clergymen. A distinction afterwards took place, and lords
were tried by their equals, and commoners by theirs.
[f] L. I. c. 16.
124] "The division of the county waz done by freemen, who are the sole judges
thereof."[g] Selden, Matthew, Paris, and others, testify that the folk-mote, peeple's
meeting or county court, waz a county parliament, invested with legislativ or
discretionary powers in county matters. In theze small districts, they appeer to hav
been competent to decide all controversies, and make all necessary local
regulations. The legislativ, judicial and executiv powers, both civil and ecclesiastical,
were originally blended in the same council; the witena-gemote had the powers of a
legislature, of a court of law, and of a court of equity over the whole kingdom, in all
matters of great and general concern. But this court waz composed of lords,
bishops, and majores natu or sapientes, men respected for their age and lerning,
who were of the rank of freemen. All the freemen were bound also to do suit in the
lords court, and to attend the folk-mote on the sheriffs summons; but twelv were
usually selected to sit az judges in common cases.
[g] Selden on the authority of Polydore.
The vast powers of the county court, when the freeholders were all summoned and
actually sat in judgement, may be understood by two facts. One, the conquerors
 half-brother, and Lanfrank, archbishop of Canterbury, had a dispute about certain
lands and tenements in Kent. The archbishop petitioned the king, who issued hiz
writ, and summoned the freemen of the county, to take cognizance of the suit. After
three days trial, the freemen gave judgement for the archbishop, and the decision
waz final.
In like manner, two peers of the relm, a Norman and an Italian, submitted a title in
fifteen manors, two townships, and many liberties, to the freeholders of the county,
whose judgement waz allowed by the king.[h]
[h] Selden. Chap. 48.
125] "Magnaque et comitum æmulatio, quibus primus apud principem suum locus; et
principum, cui plurimi et acerrimi comites."[i] The princes kept az many of these
retainers in their service in time of peace, az they could support. "Hæc dignitas, hæ
vires, magno semper elestorum juvenum globo circumdari, in pace, decus, in bello,
præsidium. Ibid."
[i] Tacitus de mor Germ. c. 13.
126] In the time of Henry II, there were in England eleven hundred and fifteen
castles, and az many tyrants az lords of castles. William of Newbury says, in the
reign of Stephen, "Erant in Anglia quodammodo tot reges, vel potius tyranni, quot
domini castellorum." It waz the tyranny of theze lords or their deputies, which
rendered the intervention of twelv judges of the naborhood, highly necessary to
preserve the peeple from the impositions of their rapacious masters. Hence the
privilege of this mode of trial derived an inestimable valu.
127] Connecticut.
128] About the year 580.
129] Heriots or reliefs.
130] Lancæe.
131] Possibly for Mancusæ, i. e. thirty pence.
132] Capatanei.
133] This opinion of the lerned Camden, adds no small weight to my conjectures
reflecting the origin of trial per pares.
134] Optimos.
135] Blackstone Com. Vol. I. 100.
136] Lelands Introd. to Hist. of Ireland.
137] L. L. Hoeli.
138] See my Dissertations on the English language, 313.
139] This iz not accurate. The thaneships or lordships of the Saxons, at the conquest,
took the title of baronies; but the divisions probably existed before.
140] Curtis, court and the Spanish Cortez are all the same word.
141] In a conversation I had at Dr. Franklin's on this subject, the doctor admitted the
principle, and remarked, that a man who haz 1000l. in cash, can loan it for six per
cent. profit only; but he may bild a house with it, and if the demand for houses iz
sufficient, he may rent hiz house for fifteen per cent. on the value. This iz a fair
state of the argument, and I challenge my antagonists to giv a good reezon for the
distinction which the laws make in the two cases; or why a man should hav an
unrestrained right to take any sum he can get for the use of hiz house, and yet hiz
right to make profit by the loan of money, be abridged by law.
142] See Blackstone on this subject, Com. Vol. II. 455, where the author's reezoning
holds good, whether against fixing the value of horse hire or money lent. All
exorbitant demands are unjust in foro conscientiæ; but what right haz a legislature
to fix the price of money loaned, and not of house-rent?
143] The legislatures of several states during the late war, were rash enough to make
the attempt; and the success of the scheme waz just equal to the wisdom that
planned it.
144] Blackstone Vol. II. 462.
145] What are marine insurances, bottomry, loans at respondentia and annuities for
life, but exceptions to the general law against usury? The necessity of higher
interest than common iz pleeded for theze exceptions. Very good; but they proov
the absurdity of attempting to fix that, which the laws of nature and commerce
require should be fluctuating. Such laws are partial and iniquitous.
146] Robertsons Charles V. Vol. I. 280.
147] Blackstone Com. Vol. I. 369.
148] Blackstone remarks that allegiance iz applicable, not only to the political capacity
of the king, or regal office, but to hiz natural person and blood royal. I would ask
then what blood royal there can be in a man, except in hiz kingly capacity?
149] Except the case of Ambassadors or other agents.
150] It may be said, that moral right and rong must ultimately be resolved into the
wil of Deity, because society itself depends on hiz wil. This iz conceded; I only
contend that moral fitness and unfitness result immediately from the state of
created beings, with relation to eech other, and not from any arbitrary rules imposed
by Deity, subsequent to creation.
151] By the ancient laws of England, relations in the same degree, whether by
consanguinity or affinity, were placed exactly on a footing. See the suttle reezoning
 by which the prohibitions were supported, in Reeve's History of the English Laws,
Vol. IV.
152] Lands in Connecticut desend to the heirs in the following manner: First to
children, and if none, then to brothers and sisters or their legal representativs of the
whole blud; then to parents; then to brothers and sisters of the half blud; then to
next of kin, the whole blud taking the preference when of equal degree with the half
blud.
153] See my Dissertations on the English Language, page 106.
154] See Winthrop's Journal, Mather's Magnalia, and Hutchisons Collection of papers.
155] During the late war, eight thousand newspapers were published weekly at one
press in Hartford.
156] This iz an evil of great magnitude.
157] Uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi; fletusque ab omni turba mulierum ortus, et
comploratio sui patriæque, fregere tandem virum.—Liv. lib ii. 40.
158] The foregoing facts are taken from Leaming and Spicer's Collection; a concise
view of the controversy, &c. published in 1785; and from the acts of the legislature
of New Jersey.
159] See Dr. Franklins Review of the guvernment of Pensylvania.
160] The powers of legislation by the late constitution, were designed to be vested in
the peeple; but in fact were vested no where. The pretended legislature consisted of
but one house; and no bill, except on pressing occasions, could be passed into a
law, until it had been published for the assent of the peeple.
161] Clerk or register.
162] See the proceedings of the legislature of Maryland in 1785.
163] Virginia however iz not alone in this mezure. Rhode Island formerly took the
same steps, and stil adheres to its liberality.
164] The consumption of beef in New England iz the reezon why the exports of that
article do not exceed thoze of Ireland. Most of the laboring peeple in New England
eet meet twice a day, and az much az their appetites demand. Suppose eech person
to eet but six ounces a day on an average, which iz a low estimate, and the
inhabitants of New England consume more than one hundred million pounds of
meet, in a yeer. I do not know what proportion of this iz beef, but the greatest part
iz beef and pork, worth two pence, and two pence half penny a pound. By the best
accounts from Ireland, it iz probable the inhabitants do not consume a twentieth
part of the meet, consumed in the northern states, in proportion to their numbers.
But suppoze they consume a tenth; let the New England peeple reduce the
consumption of meet in the same proportion, and they would save ninety millions
for exportation. This at two pence a pound makes the sum of two million five
 hundred thousand dollars, which iz a very handsome commercial income. Let the
reduction proceed to all kinds of food and clothing; let our common peeple liv like
the poor of Ireland in all respects, and they would save twice the sum. I would not
recommend this to my countrymen; I wish them to enjoy good eeting and drinking.
But I make theze estimates to show them that they never wil hav much money; for
they eet and drink all they ern.
165] I say Boston, but I beleev the observations to be made at Cambridge.
166] I once passed the cape at five or six leegs from the breakers, and found but
seven fathoms of water.
167] It iz evident, from the silence of all ancient monuments, that the heeling art waz
not cultivated, and scarcely known among the old Romans. For several ages from
the bilding of Rome, there iz hardly any mention made of a physician. Pliny relates,
that Rome flurished, six hundred yeers, without physicians; that iz, the profession
waz not honorable, being confined to servants or other low karacters. In Seneca's
time, many of theze had acquired estates by the bizziness; but they were stil held in
no estimation. "Bona in arte medendi humillimisque quibus contingere videmus."
After the conquest of Greece and Asia, the manners of the Romans were corrupted
by the luxuries of the eest; diseeses multiplied, and the practice of physic became
more necessary and more reputable; but the art of surgery waz not separated from
that of medicin, til the times of the emperors.
168] Qui diutissime impuberes permanserunt, maximam inter suos ferunt laudem:
Hôc ali staturam, ali vires, nervosque confirmari putant. Intra annum vero xx
feminæ notitiam habuisse, in turpissimis habent rebus.—— Cesar De Bel. Gal. lib. 6.
19.
169] The ancients were wiser than the moderns in many respects; and particularly in
restraining certain vices by opinion, rather than by positiv injunctions. Duelling and
profane swearing are prohibited by the laws of most countries; yet penalties hav no
effect in preventing the crimes, whilst they are not followed by loss of reputation.
Vices which do not immediately affect the lives, honor or property of men, which are
not mala in se, which are eezily conceeled, or which are supported by a principle of
honor or reputation, are not restrainable by law. Under some of theze description
fall, duelling, profane swearing, gambling, &c. To check such vices, public opinion
must render them infamous.[j] Thoze who hav the distribution of honors and
offices, may restrain theze vices by making the commission of them an insuperable
bar to preferment. Were the Prezident and the executivs of the several states, to be
az particular in enquiring whether candidates for offices are given to gambling,
swearing or debaucheries; whether they hav ever given or receeved a challenge, or
betrayed an innocent female; az they are in enquiring whether they are men of
abilities and integrity; and would they, with undeviating resolution, proscribe from
their favor and their company, every man whoze karacter, in theze particulars, iz not
unimpeechable, they would diminish the number of vices, exclude some wholly from
 society, banish others from genteel company, and confine their contagion to the
herd of mankind. But where iz the man of elevated rank, of great talents, of
unshaken firmness, of heroic virtue, to begin the glorious reformation? America may
now furnish the man, but where shall hiz successor be found?
[j] See Vattels Law of Nations, b. I. ch. 13.
170] See my Dissertations on the English Language, 4.
 TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
In some essays the writer makes extensive use of phonetical spelling.
Inconsistencies in spelling have therefore not been corrected.
Missing punctuation has been silently corrected. Unmatched double
quotation marks in the text were not corrected.
The text on page 37 has been moved to a footnote after the second
paragraph on page 5 as the author suggests.

CORRECTIONS:
page original correction
xvi [missing in original] 322
021 mein mien
24 governments government
028 abandonded abandoned
057 dictinction distinction
125 crying carrying
153 Pensylvavia Pensylvania
160 removeaable removeable
164 concurrred concurred
196 intrisic intrinsic
221 Nothwithstanding Notwithstanding
242 hackeyned hackneyed
262 my may
265n propietor proprietor
279 be-before before
302 clossing closing
323 examinining examining
333 statues statutes
333 prohited prohibited
376 Brirain Britain
377 Eeest Eest
395n 'ma la mala
397 prepense pretense
398 reputatation reputation
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