CE 137-3A

HYDRAULICS

LABORATORY REPORT – 2

GROUP 2

Calinog, Andony
Cuenga, Jane Albert
Dalagan, Roland Josper
Diocares, Kent Anrei
Juanay, Mary Grace
Lamoste, Jobert
Lebumfacil, Eila Juliana
Lugo, Janizel Fe

INSTRUCTOR:

Engr. Samuel Erespe

Date performed: March 27, 2025 Date Submitted: April 2, 2025

 Experiment No. 2

ORIFICE AND JET FLOW

Objectives:

1. To be aware of Torricelli s theorem.

2. To know the discharge coefficient from nozzles of varying sizes and shapes.
3. To be familiarized with the trajectory of the water jet for various discharge velocities.
4. To know the effect of the height of the water column on discharge velocity.
5. To know the discharge coefficient on the orifice.

Apparatus:

Hydraulic bench, orifice and discharge apparatus, timer/stop watch. Container or

graduated cylinder (liter size)
TEST PROCEDURE 1:

1. Place the apparatus on the Bench and adjust for leveling.

2. Connect the Bench outlet to the apparatus inlet.
3. Adjust the overflow pipe to obtain a required level in the tank.
4. Use the by-pass valve for easy determining a constant flow rate.
5. Open the water supply valve to obtain a steady flow with minimum overflow.
6. Wait until the water level in the tank and jet profile is stable before adjusting the tips
of the probes to be in line with the center of the jet.
7. Record the tip of the probe profile (upper tips) as well as Y = 0 mark.
8. Record the volume of flow using a stop watch and the Bench measuring tank or
measuring cup.
9. Use the experiment format sheet.

2. THEORY

2.1 The Coefficient of Velocity, Cv

As the water level in the tank is above the orifice with a height of H, the velocity
of water discharged through the orifice can be found from Bernoulli’s equation applied
between point (1) at the water surface in the tank and point (2) in the jet flowing out
of

the tank this velocity is V = √(2𝑔𝐻 ). This velocity consists of two components a
horizontal and vertical component as air resistance is negligible velocity V can be
considered as a constant.
 At the same time the jet path is dropping due to the forces of gravity starting
from 0 velocity at the orifice.
If: u= g t , the vertical falling velocity of the jet.
(m/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2.
t = Time interval (s)
Then vertical dropping distance Y from the starting point is:
………………………………….. (2-1)

When the lower end of the needle is at the same level as the center of the
orifice then Y=0. The mark where Y = 0 is made on the panel behind the needle near
the top end of the first needle.

For this experiment, we assume that the jet path touches the probes at point 1, 2,
3,.................8 or 10 (optional) respectively.

Horizontal distance from 0 –1 = X1

0 –2 = X2
etc.
Vertical distance from 0 – 1 = Y1
0 – 2 = Y2
etc.
From Eq. 2-1,

Then 2𝑌
𝑡=√𝑔 ………………………. (2-2)
 etc.
Similarly, the horizontal travelling distance of the jet is:
𝑋1 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑡1
𝑋2 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑡2 etc.

Vertical distance Y1, Y2 can be measured from the graph (tips of stylus 1 and 2).

The actual velocity V1,act at point (1) can be found. Similarly V2,act and V3,act .The coefficient of
velocity is the ratio of actual velocity to theoretical velocity, that is

Substitute t from Eq. 2-2 in the above equation.

Then

………………………. (2-3)

etc.

Various values of CV of each orifice can be found by the varying water level in the tank.
2.2 The Coefficient of Discharge, Cd

The volume of water in experiment of item 2.1 is directly measured by the measuring
tank or the measuring cup. Therefore, actual flow rate can be determined by dividing the
volume of water with a measured unit of time recorded on a stop watch.
Theoretical flow rate:
Qth = AVth ………………………………… (2-4)

Where: Vth = Theoretical velocity, m/s; (Vth = )

A = Cross sectional area, m2 ; (A = π d2 /4)
d = Diameter of orifice, m (d = 4mm. or 8mm.)

Actual flow rate Qact can be measured in the experiment:

……………………………….. (2-5)

Thus, the coefficient of discharge will be:

……………………………….. (2-6)

From the experiment, we can see that Qact is lower than Qth. This is because of the
contraction of the diameter of the jet after passing through the orifice. This is known as vena
contracta which will be found at a distance of one-half d outwards. Another reason is that
there is some energy loss due to the viscosity of the water when flowing.
By varying the water level in the tank or changing the orifice size various values Cd can
be found.
 ORIFICE AND JET FLOW
DATA SHEET

Tested by: Group-2A Date: 01/04/25

Diameter of Orifice: 3 (mm)

Experiment No.
1 2 3
Water level H, mm 280 320 330
Volume, L 1 0.5 0.5
Time, s 71.06 32.72 31.25
Flow rate, m3 /s 1.407×10-5 1.528×10-5 1.600×10-5
Distance from graph, mm
X1 = 50, Y1 =? 0 0 0
X2 = 100, Y2 =? 4 2 2
X3 = 150, Y3 =? 15 11.5 11
X4 = 200, Y4 =? 31 26 25
X5 = 250, Y5 =? 50.5 43.5 41
X6 = 300, Y6 =? 77 66 61
X7 = 350, Y7 =? 109 93 88
X8 = 400, Y8 =? 145 124 118
Coefficient of velocity, Cv
Cv,1 - - -
Cv,2 1.494 1.976 1.946
Cv,3 1.157 1.236 1.245
Cv,4 1.073 1.096 1.101
Cv,5 1.051 1.059 1.075
Cv,6 1.022 1.032 1.057
Cv,7 1.002 1.014 1.027
Cv,8 0.993 1.004 1.014
Coefficient of discharge
Cd 0.849 0.863 0.890
 JET FLOW TRAJECTORIES
Distance From Orifice (mm)
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0

20

40
Fall Height (mm)

60

80

100

120

140

160
Trial 3 Trial 2 Trial 1
COMPUTATION

Note:
⚫ In this calculation, the data presented, all units are converted to meter.
⚫ The calculations here are rounded to three decimal places

Trial 1:

Orifice Diameter: 3 𝑚𝑚 = 0.003𝑚

Water Level H, m: 280𝑚𝑚 = 0.28𝑚
Volume, L or m^3: 1𝐿 = 0.001𝑚3
Time, s: 11.06𝑠
Flow Rate Q act , m3 /s(× 10−5 ): 9.042 × 10−5 𝑚3 /𝑠

Measuring Volume
Q act =
Measuring Time

1 m3
1L × 1000 L
Q act =
71.06s

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 9.042 × 10−5 𝑚3 /𝑠

Tabulated Results:

Distance from x y Coefficient of

graph, m Velocity
1 0.05 0 -
2 0.10 0.004 1.494
3 0.15 0.0150 1.157
4 0.20 0.0310 1.073
5 0.25 0.0505 1.051
6 0.30 0.0770 1.022
7 0.35 0.1090 1.002
8 0.40 0.1450 0.993

1 X(𝑚)
cv = ×
2 √YH(𝑚)2

1 0.05
cv1 = × = 𝑁/𝐴
2 √0 × .28
1 0.10
cv2 = × = 1.494
2 √0.004 × .28
 1 0.15
cv3 = × = 1.157
2 √0.0150 × .28
1 0.2
cv4 = × = 1.073
2 √0.0310 × .28
1 0.25
cv5 = × = 1.051
2 √0.0505 × .28
1 0.3
cv6 = × = 1.022
2 √0.0770 × .28
1 0.35
cv7 = × = 1.002
2 √0.1090 × .28
1 0.4
cv8 = × = 0.993
2 √0.1450 × .28

Coefficient of Discharge

Qact Q act Q act

cd = = =π
Q th A × Vth 2
4 × D × √2gH

1.407 × 10−5
cd = π
2
4 × (0.003) × √2(9.81)(.28)

cd ≈ 0.849

Trial 2:

Orifice Diameter: 3 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0003𝑚

Water Level H, m: 320𝑚𝑚 = 0.32𝑚
Volume, L or m^3: . 5𝐿 = 0.0005𝑚3
Time, s: 32.72𝑠
Flow Rate Q act , m3 /s(× 10−5 ): 1.528 × 10−5 𝑚3 /𝑠

Measuring Volume
Q act =
Measuring Time

1 m3
. 5L × 1000 L
Q act =
32.72s

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 1.528 × 10−5 𝑚3 /𝑠

Tabulated Results:

Distance from x y Coefficient of

graph, m Velocity
1 0.05 0 -
2 0.10 0.0020 1.976
3 0.15 0.0115 1.236
4 0.20 0.0260 1.096
5 0.25 0.0435 1.059
6 0.30 0.0660 1.032
7 0.35 0.0930 1.014
8 0.40 0.1240 1.004

1 X(𝑚)
cv = ×
2 √YH(𝑚)2

1 0.05
cv1 = × = 𝑁/𝐴
2 √0 × .32
1 0.10
cv2 = × = 1.976
2 √0.0020 × .32
1 0.15
cv3 = × = 1.236
2 √0.0115 × .32
1 0.2
cv4 = × = 1.096
2 √0.0260 × .32
1 0.25
cv5 = × = 1.059
2 √0.0435 × .32
1 0.3
cv6 = × = 1.032
2 √0.0660 × .32
1 0.35
cv7 = × = 1.014
2 √0.0930 × .32
1 0.4
cv8 = × = 1.004
2 √0.1240 × .32

Coefficient of Discharge

Qact Q act Q act

cd = = =π
Q th A × Vth 2
4 × D × √2gH

1.528 × 10−5
cd = π
2
4 × (0.003) × √2(9.81)(.32)

cd ≈ 0.863
Trial 3:

Orifice Diameter: 3 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0003𝑚

Water Level H, m: 330𝑚𝑚 = 0.33𝑚
Volume, L or m^3: . 5𝐿 = 0.0005𝑚3
Time, s: 31.258𝑠
Flow Rate Q act , m3 /s(× 10−5 ): 1.600 × 10−5 𝑚3 /𝑠

Measuring Volume
Q act =
Measuring Time

1 m3
. 5L × 1000 L
Q act =
31.258s

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 1.600 × 10−5 𝑚3 /𝑠

Tabulated Results:

Distance from x y Coefficient of

graph, m Velocity
1 0.05 0 -
2 0.10 0.0020 1.946
3 0.15 0.0110 1.245
4 0.20 0.0250 1.101
5 0.25 0.0410 1.075
6 0.30 0.0610 1.057
7 0.35 0.0880 1.027
8 0.40 0.1180 1.014

1 X(𝑚)
cv = ×
2 √YH(𝑚)2

1 0.05
cv1 = × = 𝑁/𝐴
2 √0 × .33
1 0.10
cv2 = × = 1.946
2 √0.0020 × .33
1 0.15
cv3 = × = 1.245
2 √0.0110 × .33
1 0.2
cv4 = × = 1.101
2 √0.0250 × .33
 1 0.25
cv5 = × = 1.075
2 √0.0410 × .33
1 0.3
cv6 = × = 1.057
2 √0.0610 × .33
1 0.35
cv7 = × = 1.027
2 √0.0880 × .33
1 0.4
cv8 = × = 1.014
2 √0.1180 × .33

Coefficient of Discharge

Qact Q act Q act

cd = = =π
Q th A × Vth 2
4 × D × √2gH

1.600 × 10−5
cd = π
× (0.003)2 × √2(9.81)(.33)
4

cd = 0.8895 ≈ 0.890
Discussion

In this experiment, the main objective was to observe the behavior of the
jet flow depending on the orifice characteristics and pressure heads. It can be
observed that the experiment demonstrates well the principles outlined in
Torricelli’s theorem. It confirming that the velocity of fluid discharged through an
orifice is directly related to the height of the water column. As observed in the
recorded data, the actual discharge velocity deviated slightly from the
theoretical predictions due to factors such as energy losses from viscosity and
the vena contracta effect. These losses resulted in a coefficient of discharge (Cd)
that was consistently lower than unity, which aligns with expectations in real-
world applications. Additionally, the coefficient of velocity (Cv) decreased as the
water jet progressed, further supporting the concept of energy dissipation
during fluid flow.

The variations in the recorded values of pressure head, coefficient of

velocity, vertical drop (Y) and horizontal distance also show significant
correlation with each other. As the pressure head was increased, the trajectory
of the jet flow became sharper (lessening of vertical drop with increase of
horizontal distance) and the coefficients of velocity showed increases in
magnitude as well. The experimental correlation between Y and X supports the
projectile motion theory governing free-falling fluids. These findings reinforce
the relationship between discharge velocity and the water column height,
validating the key principles of fluid mechanics.

With ocular observation and the data gathered by other groups in the
laboratory experiment, it can be surmised that orifice diameter may have an
effect on discharge behavior. Larger orifices appeared to produce higher flow
rates, which suggests that variations in the discharge coefficient could occur due
to flow restrictions. However, since this was not directly measured in our group’s
data, further investigation would be necessary to confirm this effect
quantitatively. Additionally, an issue encountered during the experiment was the
parallax error when taking measurements, particularly in determining the
trajectory of the water jet. Inaccurate readings due to misalignment of
observation angles affected the recorded values, emphasizing the need for
proper measurement techniques.
Conclusion

In conclusion, the experiment verified the fundamental principles of fluid

discharge through orifices. Torricelli’s theorem was validated, confirming that
discharge velocity is a function of the water column height. The discrepancies
between theoretical and actual discharge velocities were attributed to flow
contraction, viscosity effects, and minor experimental inconsistencies. The
coefficient of discharge remained below unity, indicating energy losses inherent
in real fluid flow. Similarly, the coefficient of velocity revealed the expected
reduction due to the effects of gravity and resistance. Additionally, parallax
errors introduced minor inaccuracies in trajectory measurements, reinforcing
the importance of precise data collection.

The data confirmed that the water jet trajectory follows a predictable
parabolic path, consistent with projectile motion equations. Variations in Cv and
Cd across different trials highlight the influence of orifice geometry and water
levels, demonstrating the complexity of accurately predicting fluid discharge in
engineering applications. The findings emphasize the need for accurate
measurement techniques and empirical calibration in hydraulic system designs.

Recommendations
To improve the accuracy of future experiments, we recommend the
following measures:
• Conduct tests with a wider range of orifice sizes and shapes to
comprehensively analyze their impact on flow characteristics.
• Use high-speed cameras or advanced sensors to track water jet
trajectories for more precise velocity and distance measurements.
• Reduce parallax errors by aligning measuring devices correctly and
maintaining a consistent observation angle.
• Incorporate computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations to enhance
analysis and visualization of flow behavior.
• The use of statistics to testing correlational data to solidify conclusions.

By implementing these recommendations, future studies can achieve

higher accuracy and a deeper understanding of orifice and jet flow phenomena.