INTEGRAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

MCA-205 Paper Code :PIJ/M

PROGRAMMING IN JAVA
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DISCLAIMER: This academic material is not for sale. This academic material is not produced for any commercial benefit. We thank to all
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content writers/authors/publishers.

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CONTENTS
UNIT -1 INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE

UNIT-2 ABOUT JAVA

UNIT-3 JAVA TOKENS

UNIT-4 CONTROL STRUCTURE AND ITERATIVE STATEMENT

UNIT-5 OOP’S CONCEPTS WITH CLASSES AND OBJECTS

UNIT -6 INTRODUCTION TO STRING, ARRAY AND VECTOR

UNIT-7 EXCEPTION HANDLING

UNIT- 8 MULTI THREADING

UNIT-9 APPLET & AWT

UNIT-10 SWING

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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4
UNIT -1 ABOUT LANGUAGE ABOUT LANGUAGE

Notes
Contents
 Language
 Machine language
 Assembly language
 High language
 Java as a programming plateform
 Features of java
 History of java
 Common misconcepts
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings
Machine Language
A computer’s native language, which differs among different types of
computers, is its machine language—a set of built-in primitive
instructions. These instructions are in the form of binary code, so if you
want to give a computer an instruction in its native language, you have to
enter the instruction as binary code. For example, to add two numbers, you
might have to write an instruction in binary code, like this:
1101101010011010

Assembly Language
Programming in machine language is a tedious process. Moreover,
programs written in machine language are very difficult to read and
modify. For this reason, assembly language was created in the early days
of computing as an alternative to machine languages. Assembly language
uses a short descriptive word, known as a mnemonic, to represent each of
the machine-language instructions. For example, the mnemonic add
typically means to add numbers and sub means to subtract numbers. To
add the numbers 2 and 3 and get the result, you might write an instruction
in assembly code like this:
add 2, 3, result
Assembly languages were developed to make programming easier.
However, because the computer cannot execute assembly language,
another program—called an assembler—is used to translate assembly-
language programs into machine code
High-Level Language
In the 1950s, a new generation of programming languages known
as high-level languages
emerged. They are platform independent, which means that you can write
a program in a highlevel language and run it in different types of

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PROGRAMMING
machines. High-level languages are English-like and easy to learn and use.
IN JAVA
The instructions in a high-level programming language are called
NOTES statements. Here, for example, is a high-level language statement that
computes the area of a circle with a radius of 5:

area = 5 * 5 * 3.14159;
There are many high-level programming languages, and each was
designed for a specific purpose.
A program written in a high-level language is called a source program or
source code. Because a computer cannot execute a source program, a
source program must be translated into machine code for execution. The
translation can be done using another programming tool called an
interpreter or a compiler.
An interpreter reads one statement from the source code, translates it to the
machine code or virtual machine code, and then executes it right away.
The World Wide Web is an electronic information repository that can be
accessed on the Internet from anywhere in the world. The Internet, the
Web’s infrastructure, has been around for more than forty years. The
colorful World Wide Web and sophisticated Web browsers are the major
reason for the Internet’s popularity.
Java initially became attractive because Java programs can be run from a
Web browser. Such programs are called applets. Applets employ a modern
graphical interface with buttons, text fields, text areas, radio buttons, and
so on, to interact with users on the Web and process their requests. Applets
make the Web responsive, interactive, and fun to use. Applets are
embedded in an HTML file. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is a
simple scripting language for laying out documents, linking documents on
the Internet, and bringing images, sound, and video alive on the Web.
Today, you can use Java to develop rich Internet applications.
A rich Internet application (RIA) is a Web application designed to deliver
the same features and functions normally associated with desktop
applications.
Java is now very popular for developing applications on Web servers.
These applications process data, perform computations, and generate
dynamic Web pages. Many commercial Websites are developed using Java
on the backend.
Java is a versatile programming language: you can use it to develop
applications for desktop computers, servers, and small handheld devices.
The software for Android cell phones is developed using Java.
Java as a Programming Platform
“As a computer language, Java’s hype is overdone: Java is certainly a
good programming language. There is no doubt that it is one of the better
languages available to serious programmers. We think it could potentially
have been a great programming language, but it is probably too late for

6
that. Once a language is out in the field, the ugly reality of compatibility ABOUT LANGUAGE
with existing code sets in.”
Java has a lot of nice language features—It has its share of warts, and Notes

newer additions to the language are not as elegant as the original ones
because of the ugly reality of compatibility.
There are lots of programming languages out there, and few of them make
much of a splash. Java is a whole platform, with a huge library, containing
lots of reusable code, and an execution environment that provides services
such as security, portability across operating systems, and automatic
garbage collection.
As a programmer, you will want a language with a pleasant syntax and
comprehensible semantics (i.e., not C++). Java fits the bill, as do dozens of
other fine languages. Some languages give you portability, garbage
collection, and the like, but they don’t have much of a library, forcing you
to roll your own if you want fancy graphics or networking or database
access.
Well, Java has everything—a good language, a high-quality execution
environment, and a vast library. That combination is what makes Java an
irresistible proposition to so many programmers.
Features of Java
There is given many features of java. They are also known as java
buzzwords. The Java Features given below are simple and easy to
understand.
 Simple
 Object-Oriented
 Network Savy
 Secure
 Architecture neutral
 Portable
 Interpreted
 High Performance
 Multithreaded
 Dynamic
Simple
We wanted to build a system that could be programmed easily without a
lot of esoteric training and which leveraged today’s standard practice. So
even though we found that C++ was unsuitable, we designed Java as

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PROGRAMMING
closely to C++ as possible in order to make the system more
IN JAVA
comprehensible. Java omits many rarely used, poorly understood,
NOTES confusing features of C++ that, in our experience, bring more grief than
benefit.
The syntax for Java is, indeed, a cleaned-up version of the syntax for C++.
There is no need for header files, pointer arithmetic (or even a pointer
syntax), structures, unions, operator overloading, virtual base classes, and
so on. (See the C++ notes interspersed throughout the text for more on the
differences between Java and C++.) The designers did not, however,
attempt to fix all of the clumsy features of C++. For example, the syntax of
the switch statement is unchanged in Java. If you know C++, you will find
the transition to the Java syntax easy.
If you are used to a visual programming environment (such as Visual
Basic), you will not find Java simple. There is much strange syntax
(though it does not take long to get the hang of it). More important, you
must do a lot more programming in Java. The beauty of Visual Basic is
that its visual design environment almost automatically provides a lot of
the infrastructure for an application. The equivalent functionality must be
programmed manually, usually with a fair bit of code, in Java. There are,
however, third-party development environments that provide “drag-and-
drop”-style program development.
Another aspect of being simple is being small. One of the goals of Java is
to enable the construction of software that can run stand-alone in small
machines. The size of the basic interpreter and class support is about 40K
bytes; adding the basic standard libraries and thread support (essentially a
self-contained microkernel) adds an additional 175K.
This was a great achievement at the time. Of course, the library has since
grown to huge proportions. There is now a separate Java Micro Edition
with a smaller library, suitable for embedded devices.
Object Oriented
Simply stated, object-oriented design is a technique for programming that
focuses on the data (= objects) and on the interfaces to that object. To
make an analogy with carpentry, an “object-oriented” carpenter would be
mostly concerned with the chair he was building, and secondarily with the
tools used to make it; a “non-object oriented” carpenter would think
primarily of his tools. The object-oriented facilities of Java are essentially
those of C++. Object orientation has proven its worth in the last 30 years,
and it is inconceivable that a modern programming language would not
use it. Indeed, the object-oriented features of Java are comparable to those
8
of C++. The major difference between Java and C++ lies in multiple ABOUT LANGUAGE
inheritance, which Java has replaced with the simpler concept of
interfaces, and in the Java meta class model. Notes

Network-Savvy
Java has an extensive library of routines for coping with TCP/IP protocols
like HTTP and FTP. Java applications can open and access objects across
the Net via URLs with the same ease as when accessing a local file
system.
We have found the networking capabilities of Java to be both strong and
easy to use. Anyone who has tried to do Internet programming using
another language will revel in how simple Java makes onerous tasks like
opening a socket connection. The remote method invocation mechanism
enables communication between distributed objects.
Robust
Java is intended for writing programs that must be reliable in a variety of
ways. Java puts a lot of emphasis on early checking for possible problems,
later dynamic (runtime) checking, and eliminating situations that are error-
prone. . . . The single biggest difference between Java and C/C++ is that
Java has a pointer model that eliminates the possibility of overwriting
memory and corrupting data.
This feature is also very useful. The Java compiler detects many problems
that, in other languages, would show up only at runtime. As for the second
point, anyone who has spent hours chasing memory corruption caused by a
pointer bug will be very happy with this feature of Java.
If you are coming from a language like Visual Basic that doesn’t explicitly
use pointers, you are probably wondering why this is so important. C
programmers are not so lucky.
They need pointers to access strings, arrays, objects, and even files. In
Visual Basic, you do not use pointers for any of these entities, nor do you
need to worry about memory allocation for them. On the other hand, many
data structures are difficult to implement in a pointerless language. Java
gives you the best of both worlds. You do not need pointers for everyday
constructs like strings and arrays. You have the power of pointers if you
need it, for example, for linked lists. And you always have complete
safety, because you can never access a bad pointer, make memory
allocation errors, or have to protect against memory leaking away.

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PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA Secure
Java is intended to be used in networked/distributed environments. Toward
NOTES
that end, a lot of emphasis has been placed on security. Java enables the
construction of virus-free, tamper-free systems.
In the first edition of Core Java we said: “Well, one should ‘never say
never again,’” and we turned out to be right. Not long after the first version
of the Java Development Kit was shipped, a group of security experts at
Princeton University found subtle bugs in the security features of Java 1.0.
Sun Microsystems has encouraged research into Java security, making
publicly available the specification and implementation of the virtual
machine and the security libraries. They have fixed all known security
bugs quickly.
In any case, Java makes it extremely difficult to outwit its security
mechanisms. The bugs found so far have been very technical and few in
number.
From the beginning, Java was designed to make certain kinds of attacks
impossible, among them:
• Overrunning the runtime stack—a common attack of worms and
viruses
• Corrupting memory outside its own process space
• Reading or writing files without permission
A number of security features have been added to Java over time. Since
version 1.1, Java has the notion of digitally signed classes. With a signed
class, you can be sure who wrote it. Any time you trust the author of the
class, the class can be allowed more privileges on your machine.
Architecture Neutral
The compiler generates an architecture-neutral object file format—the
compiled code is executable on many processors, given the presence of the
Java runtime system.
The Java compiler does this by generating byte code instructions which
have nothing to do with a particular computer architecture. Rather, they
are designed to be both easy to interpret on any machine and easily
translated into native machine code on the fly.
This is not a new idea. More than 30 years ago, both Niklaus Wirth’s
original implementation of Pascal and the UCSD Pascal system used the
same technique.
Of course, interpreting byte codes is necessarily slower than running
machine instructions at full speed, so it isn’t clear that this is even a good

10
idea. However, virtual machines have the option of translating the most ABOUT LANGUAGE
frequently executed byte code sequences into machine code, a process
called just-in-time compilation. This strategy has proven so effective that Notes
even Microsoft’s .NET platform relies on a virtual machine.
The virtual machine has other advantages. It increases security because the
virtual machine can check the behavior of instruction sequences. Some
programs even produce byte codes on the fly, dynamically enhancing the
capabilities of a running program.
Portable
Unlike C and C++, there are no “implementation-dependent” aspects of
the specification. The sizes of the primitive data types are specified, as is
the behavior of arithmetic on them.
For example, an int in Java is always a 32-bit integer. In C/C++, int can
mean a 16-bit integer, a 32-bit integer, or any other size that the compiler
vendor likes. The only restriction is that the int type must have at least as
many bytes as a short int and cannot have more bytes than a long int.
Having a fixed size for number types eliminates a major porting headache.
Binary data is stored and transmitted in a fixed format, eliminating
confusion about byte ordering. Strings are saved in a standard Unicode
format.
The libraries that are a part of the system define portable interfaces. For
example, there is an abstract Window class and implementations of it for
UNIX, Windows, and the Macintosh.
As anyone who has ever tried knows, it is an effort of heroic proportions to
write a program that looks good on Windows, the Macintosh, and ten
flavors of UNIX. Java 1.0 made the heroic effort, delivering a simple
toolkit that mapped common user interface elements to a number of
platforms. Unfortunately, the result was a library that, with a lot of work,
could give barely acceptable results on different systems. (And there were
often different bugs on the different platform graphics implementations.)
But it was a start. There are many applications in which portability is more
important than user interface slickness, and these applications did benefit
from early versions of Java. By
Now, the user interface toolkit has been completely rewritten so that it no
longer relies on the host user interface. The result is far more consistent
and, we think, more attractive than in earlier versions of Java.
Interpreted
The Java interpreter can execute Java byte codes directly on any machine
to which the interpreter has been ported. Since linking is a more
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PROGRAMMING
incremental and lightweight process, the development process can be
IN JAVA
much more rapid and exploratory.
NOTES Incremental linking has advantages, but its benefit for the development
process is clearly overstated. Early Java development tools were, in fact,
quite slow. Today, the byte codes are translated into machine code by the
just-in-time compiler.
High Performance
While the performance of interpreted byte codes is usually more than
adequate, there are situations where higher performance is required. The
byte codes can be translated on the fly (at runtime) into machine code for
the particular CPU the application is running on.
In the early years of Java, many users disagreed with the statement that the
performance was “more than adequate.” Today, however, the just-in-time
compilers have become so good that they are competitive with traditional
compilers and, in some cases, even outperform them because they have
more information available. For example, a just-in-time compiler can
monitor which code is executed frequently and optimize just that code for
speed. A more sophisticated optimization is the elimination (or “inlining”)
of function calls. The just-in-time compiler knows which classes have
been loaded. It can use inlining when, based upon the currently loaded
collection of classes, a particular function is never overridden, and it can
undo that optimization later if necessary.
Multithreaded
The benefits of multithreading are better interactive responsiveness and
real-time behavior. If you have ever tried to do multithreading in another
language, you will be pleasantly surprised at how easy it is in Java.
Threads in Java also can take advantage of multiprocessor systems if the
base operating system does so. On the downside, thread implementations
on the major platforms differ widely, and Java makes no effort to be
platform independent in this regard. Only the code for calling
multithreading remains the same across machines; Java offloads the
implementation of multithreading to the underlying operating system or a
thread library.
Nonetheless, the ease of multithreading is one of the main reasons why
Java is such an appealing language for server-side development.
Dynamic
In a number of ways, Java is a more dynamic language than C or C++. It
was designed to adapt to an evolving environment. Libraries can freely add

12
new methods and instance variables without any effect on their clients. In ABOUT LANGUAGE
Java, finding out runtime type information is straightforward.
This is an important feature in those situations in which code needs to be Notes

added to a running program. A prime example is code that is downloaded

from the Internet to run in a browser. In Java 1.0, finding out runtime type
information was anything but straightforward, but current versions of Java
give the programmer full insight into both the structure and behavior of its
objects. This is extremely useful for systems that need to analyze objects at
runtime, such as Java GUI builders, smart debuggers, pluggable
components, and object databases.
Java Applets and the Internet
The idea here is simple: Users will download Java byte codes from the
Internet and run them on their own machines. Java programs that work on
web pages are called applets. To use an applet, you only need a Java-
enabled web browser, which will execute the byte codes for you. You need
not install any software. Because Sun licenses the Java source code and
insists that there be no changes in the language and standard library, a Java
applet should run on any browser that is advertised as Java-enabled. You
get the latest version of the program whenever you visit the web page
containing the applet.
Most important, thanks to the security of the virtual machine, you need
never worry about attacks from hostile code.
When the user downloads an applet, it works much like embedding an
image in a web page. The applet becomes a part of the page, and the text
flows around the space used for the applet. The point is, the image is alive.
It reacts to user commands, changes its appearance, and sends data
between the computer presenting the applet and the computer serving it.
History of Java
Java history is interesting to know. The history of java starts from Green
Team. Java team members (also known as Green Team), initiated a
revolutionary task to develop a language for digital devices such as set-top
boxes, televisions etc.
For the green team members, it was an advance concept at that time. But,
it was suited for internet programming. Later, Java technology as
incorporated by Netscape.
Currently, Java is used in internet programming, mobile devices, games, e-
business solutions etc. There are given the major points that describes the
history of java.

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PROGRAMMING
1) James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton initiated the Java
IN JAVA
language project in June 1991. The small team of sun engineers called
NOTES Green Team.
2) Originally designed for small, embedded systems in electronic
appliances like set-top boxes.
3) Firstly, it was called "Greentalk" by James Gosling and file extension
was .gt.
4) After that, it was called Oak and was developed as a part of the Green
project.
Why Oak name for java language?
5) Why Oak? Oak is a symbol of strength and choosen as a national tree of
many countries like U.S.A., France, Germany, Romania etc.
6) In 1995, Oak was renamed as "Java" because it was already a trademark
by Oak Technologies.
Why Java name for java language:
7) Why they choosed java name for java language? The team gathered to
choose a new name. The suggested words were "dynamic",
"revolutionary", "Silk", "jolt", "DNA" etc. They wanted something that
reflected the essence of the technology: revolutionary, dynamic, lively,
cool, unique, and easy to spell and fun to say.
According to James Gosling "Java was one of the top choices along with
Silk". Since java was so unique, most of the team members preferred java.
8) Java is an island of Indonesia where first coffee was produced (called
java coffee).
9) Notice that Java is just a name not an acronym.
10) Originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems (which is
now a subsidiary of Oracle Corporation) and released in 1995.
11) In 1995, Time magazine called Java one of the Ten Best Products of
1995.
12) JDK 1.0 released in(January 23, 1996).
Java Version History
There are many java versions that has been released. Current stable release
of Java is Java SE 8.
 JDK Alpha and Beta (1995)
 JDK 1.0 (23rd Jan, 1996)
 JDK 1.1 (19th Feb, 1997)
 J2SE 1.2 (8th Dec, 1998)
 J2SE 1.3 (8th May, 2000)
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  J2SE 1.4 (6th Feb, 2002) ABOUT LANGUAGE
 J2SE 5.0 (30th Sep, 2004)
 Java SE 6 (11th Dec, 2006) Notes

 Java SE 7 (28th July, 2011)

 Java SE 8 (18th March, 2014)
Common Misconceptions about Java
We close this chapter with a list of some common misconceptions about
Java, along with commentary.
Java is an extension of HTML.
Java is a programming language; HTML is a way to describe the structure
of a web page. They have nothing in common except that there are HTML
extensions for placing Java applets on a web page.
I use XML, so I don’t need Java.
Java is a programming language; XML is a way to describe data. You can
process XML data with any programming language, but the Java API
contains excellent support for XML processing. In addition, many
important third-party XML tools are implemented in Java.
Java is an easy programming language to learn
No programming language as powerful as Java is easy. You always have
to distinguish between how easy it is to write toy programs and how hard
it is to do serious work.
The Java libraries contain thousands of classes and interfaces, and tens of
thousands of functions. Luckily, you do not need to know every one of
them, but you do need to know surprisingly many to use Java for anything
realistic.
Java will become a universal programming language for all
platforms
This is possible, in theory, and it is certainly the case that every vendor but
Microsoft seems to want this to happen. However, many applications,
already working perfectly well on desktops, would not work well on other
devices or inside a browser. Also, these applications have been written to
take advantage of the speed of the processor and the native user interface
library and have been ported to all the important platforms anyway.
Among these kinds of applications are word processors, photo editors, and
web browsers. They are typically written in C or C++, and we see no
benefit to the end user in rewriting them in Java.

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PROGRAMMING
Java is just another programming language
IN JAVA
Java is a nice programming language; most programmers prefer it over C,
NOTES C++, or C#. But there have been hundreds of nice programming languages
that never gained widespread popularity, whereas languages with obvious
flaws, such as C++ and Visual Basic, have been wildly successful.
Why? The success of a programming language is determined far more by
the utility of the support system surrounding it than by the elegance of its
syntax. Are there useful, convenient, and standard libraries for the features
that you need to implement? Are there tool vendors that build great
programming and debugging environments? Does the language and the
toolset integrate with the rest of the computing infrastructure?
Java is successful because its class libraries let you easily do things that
were hard before, such as networking and multithreading. The fact that
Java reduces pointer errors is a bonus and so programmers seem to be
more productive with Java, but these factors are not the source of its
success.
Now that C# is available, Java is obsolete.
C# took many good ideas from Java, such as a clean programming
language, a virtual machine, and garbage collection. But for whatever
reasons, C# also left some good stuff behind, in particular security and
platform independence. If you are tied to Windows, C# makes a lot of
sense. But judging by the job ads, Java is still the language of choice for a
majority of developers.
Java is proprietary, and it should therefore be avoided.
Sun Microsystems licenses Java to distributors and end users. Although
Sun has ultimate control over Java through the “Java Community
Process,” they have involved many other companies in the development of
language revisions and the design of new libraries. Source code for the
virtual machine and the libraries has always been freely available, but only
for inspection, not for modification and redistribution. Up to this point,
Java has been “closed source, but playing nice.”
This situation changed dramatically in 2007, when Sun announced that
future versions of Java will be available under the General Public License,
the same open source license that is used by Linux. It remains to be seen
how Sun will manage the governance of Java in the future, but there is no
question that the open sourcing of Java has been a very courageous move
that will extend the life of Java by many years.

16
Java is interpreted, so it is too slow for serious applications. ABOUT LANGUAGE
In the early days of Java, the language was interpreted. Nowadays, except
on “micro” platforms such as cell phones, the Java virtual machine uses a Notes

just-in-time compiler. The “hot spots” of your code will run just as fast in
Java as they would in C++, and in some cases, they will run faster.
Java does have some additional overhead over C++. Virtual machine
startup time is slow, and Java GUIs are slower than their native
counterparts because they are painted in a platform-independent manner.
People have complained for years that Java applications are too slow.
However, today’s computers are much faster than they were when these
complaints started. A slow Java program will still run quite a bit better
than those blazingly fast C++ programs did a few years ago. At this point,
these complaints sound like sour grapes, and some detractors have instead
started to complain that Java user interfaces are ugly rather than slow.
All Java programs run inside a web page
All Java applets run inside a web browser. That is the definition of an
applet—a Java program running inside a browser. But most Java programs
are stand-alone applications that run outside of a web browser. In fact,
many Java programs run on web servers and produce the code for web
pages. Most of the programs in this book are stand-alone programs. Sure,
applets can be fun. But stand-alone Java programs are more important and
more useful in practice.
Java programs are a major security risk
In the early days of Java, there were some well-publicized reports of
failures in the Java security system. Most failures were in the
implementation of Java in a specific browser.
Researchers viewed it as a challenge to try to find chinks in the Java armor
and to defy the strength and sophistication of the applet security model.
The technical failures that they found have all been quickly corrected, and
to our knowledge, no actual systems were ever compromised. To keep this
in perspective, consider the literally millions of virus attacks in Windows
executable files and Word macros that cause real grief but surprisingly
little criticism of the weaknesses of the attacked platform. Also, the
ActiveX mechanism in Internet Explorer would be a fertile ground for
abuse, but it is so boringly obvious how to circumvent it that few
researchers have bothered to publicize their findings.
Some system administrators have even deactivated Java in company
browsers, while continuing to permit their users to download executable
files, ActiveX controls, and Word documents. That is pretty ridiculous—
17
PROGRAMMING
currently, the risk of being attacked by hostile Java applets is perhaps
IN JAVA
comparable to the risk of dying from a plane crash; the risk of being
NOTES infected by opening Word documents is comparable to the risk of dying
while crossing a busy freeway on foot.
JavaScript is a simpler version of Java
JavaScript, a scripting language that can be used inside web pages, was
invented by Netscape and originally called LiveScript. JavaScript has a
syntax that is reminiscent of Java, but otherwise there are no relationships
(except for the name, of course). A subset of JavaScript is standardized as
ECMA-262. JavaScript is more tightly integrated with browsers than Java
applets are. In particular, a JavaScript program can modify the document
that is being displayed, whereas an applet can only control the appearance
of a limited area.
With Java, I can replace my computer with a $500 “Internet
appliance.”
When Java was first released, some people bet big that this was going to
happen.we have believed it is absurd to think that home users are going to
give up a powerful and convenient desktop for a limited machine with no
local storage. We found the Java-powered network computer a plausible
option for a “zero administration initiative” to cut the costs of computer
ownership in a business, but even that has not happened in a big way.
On the other hand, Java has become widely distributed on cell phones. We
must confess that we haven’t yet seen a must-have Java application
running on cell phones, but the usual fare of games and screen savers
seems to be selling well in many markets
Review & Self Assessment Questio
1. What is language?
2. What is World Wide Web?
3. Java is a programming Platform or not Define it.
4. How you can say that java is architecture Neutral?
5. What are the features of java?
6. Define the term dynamic.
7. What are the common miss-concepts about java.
Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey

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 UNIT-2 INTRODUCRION INTRODUCTION TO
JAVA

TO Notes

JAVA
Contents
 Java
 Platform
 Java is platform independent
 Types of java program
 Java architecture
 Java Virtual machine
 Java Runtime Environment
 Java Standard Library
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings

Introduction to JAVA
Java is a programming language and a platform.Java is a high level,
robust, secured and object-oriented programming language.
Platform: Any hardware or software environment in which a program
runs, is known as a platform. Since Java has its own runtime environment
(JRE) and API, it is called platform.
Java Example:
class Simple
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
System.out.println("Hello Java");
}
}
Java is Platform Independent
A platform is the hardware or software environment in which a program
runs. There are two types of platforms software-based and hardware-
based. Java provides software-based platform. The Java platform differs
from most other platforms in the sense that it's a software-based platform
that runs on top of other hardware-based platforms.It has two components:

19
PROGRAMMING
 Runtime Environment
IN JAVA
 API(Application Programming Interface)
NOTES

Java code can be run on multiple platforms e.g.Windows,Linux,Sun

Solaris,Mac/OS etc. Java code is compiled by the compiler and converted
into bytecode.This bytecode is a platform independent code because it can
be run on multiple platforms i.e. Write Once and Run Anywhere (WORA).
Secured
Java is secured because:
No explicit pointer
Programs run inside virtual machine sandbox.

Classloader- adds security by separating the package for the classes of the
local file system from those that are imported from network sources.
20
Bytecode Verifier- checks the code fragments for illegal code that can INTRODUCTION TO
violate access right to objects. JAVA
Security Manager- determines what resources a class can access such as
Notes
reading and writing to the local disk.
The difference between C++ and Java
JAVA
 1-Java does not support pointers, templates, unions, operator
overloading, structures etc. The Java language promoters initially
said "No pointers!", but when many programmers questioned how
you can work without pointers, the promoters began saying
"Restricted pointers." Java supports what it calls "references".
References act a lot like pointers in C++ languages but you cannot
perform arithmetic on pointers in Java. References have types, and
they're type-safe. These references cannot be interpreted as raw
address.
 2- Java support automatic garbage collection. It does not support
destructors as C++ does.
 3- Java does not support conditional compilation and inclusion
 4- Java has built in support for threads. In Java, there is a Thread
class that you inherit to create a new thread and override the run()
method.
 4- java does not support default arguments. There is no scope
resolution operator (::) in Java. The method definitions must
always occur within a class, so there is no need for scope resolution
there either.
 5-There is no goto statement in Java. The keywords const and goto
are reserved, even though they are not used.
 6- Java doesn't provide multiple inheritance, at least not in the
same sense that C++ does.
 7- Exception handling in Java is different because there are no
destructors. Also, in Java, try/catch must be defined if the function
declares that it may throw an exception
C++
 C++ supports structures, unions, templates, operator overloading,
pointers and pointer arithmetic.
 C++ support destructors, which is automatically invoked when the
object is destroyed.

21
PROGRAMMING
 Conditional inclusion (#ifdef #ifndef type) is one of the main
IN JAVA
features of C++.
NOTES  C++ has no built in support for threads. C++ relies on non-standard
third-party libraries for thread support.
 C++ supports default arguments. C++ has scope resolution operator
(::) which is used to to define a method outside a class and to
access a global variable within from the scope where a local
variable also exists with the same name.
 C++ has goto statement. However, it is not considered good
practice to use of goto statement
 C++ does support multiple inheritance. The keyword virtual is used
to resolve ambiguities during multiple inheritance if there is any.
 While in C++, you may not include the try/catch even if the
function throws an exception.
What happens at runtime:
At runtime, following steps are performed:

Classloader: is the subsystem of JVM that is used to load class files.

Bytecode Verifier: checks the code fragments for illegal code that can
violate access right to objects.

22
Interpreter: read bytecode stream then execute the instructions. INTRODUCTION TO
 Can you save a java source file by other name than the class JAVA

name? Yes, if the class is not public. It is explained in the figure given Notes

below:

Types of Java Program

 There are two types of Java programs
 Application Programs
 2. Applet Programs
Application Programs
Application programs are stand-alone programs that are written to carry
out certain tasks on local computer such as solving equations, reading and
writing files etc.
The application programs can be executed using two steps
1. Compile source code to generate Byte code using Javac
compiler.
2. Execute the byte code program using Java interpreter.
Applet programs:
Applets are small Java programs developed for Internet applications. An
applet located in distant computer can be downloaded via Internet and
executed on a local computer using Java capable browser. The Java applets
can also be executed in the command line using appletviewer,which is part
of the JDK.
Applet
Applet is a special type of program that is embedded in the webpage to
generate the dynamic content. It runs inside the browser and works at
client side.
Servlet
Servlet technology is used to create web application (resides at server side
and generates dynamic web page).
23
PROGRAMMING
Servlet technology is robust and scalable because of java language. Before
IN JAVA
Servlet, CGI (Common Gateway Interface) scripting language was popular
NOTES as a server-side programming language. But there was many disadvantages
of this technology.
There are many interfaces and classes in the servlet API such as Servlet,
GenericServlet, HttpServlet, ServletRequest, ServletResponse etc.
Servlet
Servlet can be described in many ways, depending on the context.
 Servlet is a technology i.e. used to create web application.
 Servlet is an API that provides many interfaces and classes
including documentations.
 Servlet is an interface that must be implemented for creating any
servlet.
 Servlet is a class that extend the capabilities of the servers and
respond to the incoming request. It can respond to any type of
requests.
 Servlet is a web component that is deployed on the server to create
dynamic web page.
Java Architecture
 Compilation and interpretation in Java
Java combines both the approaches of compilation and interpretation.
First, java compiler compiles the source code into bytecode. At the run
time, Java Virtual Machine (JVM) interprets this bytecode and generates
machine code which will be directly executed by the machine in which
java program runs. So java is both compiled and interpreted language.

24
Java Virtual Machine (JVM) INTRODUCTION TO
JVM is a component which provides an environment for running Java JAVA
programs. JVM interprets the bytecode into machine code which will be Notes
executed the machine in which the Java program runs.
 Why Java is Platform Independent
Platform independence is one of the main advantages of Java. In another
words, java is portable because the same java program can be executed in
multiple platforms without making any changes in the source code. You
just need to write the java code for one platform and the same program
will run in any platforms.
As we discussed early, first the Java code is compiled by the Java compiler
and generates the bytecode. This bytecode will be stored in class files.
Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is unique for each platform. Though JVM is
unique for each platform, all interpret the same bytecode and convert it
into machine code required for its own platform and this machine code
will be directly executed by the machine in which java program runs. This
makes Java platform independent and portable.
Let’s make it more clear with the help of the following diagram. Here the
same compiled Java bytecode is interpreted by two different JVMS to
make it run in Windows and Linux platforms.

Java Runtime Environment (JRE) and Java

Architecture in Detail
Java Runtime Environment contains JVM, class libraries and other
supportingcomponents.
25
PROGRAMMING
As you know the Java source code is compiled into bytecode by Java
IN JAVA
compiler. This bytecode will be stored in class files. During runtime, this
NOTES bytecode will be loaded, verified and JVM interprets the bytecode into
machine code which will be executed in the machine in which the Java
program runs.
A Java Runtime Environment performs the following main tasks
respectively.
 Loads the class
This is done by the class loader
 Verifies the bytecode
This is done by bytecode verifier.
 Interprets the bytecode
This is done by the JVM
These tasks are described in detail in the subsequent sessions.A detailed
Java architecture can be drawn as given below.

JAVA STANDARD LIBRARY (JSL)

JSL is a library written in Java that provides a framework for
general searching on graphs. While the standard search algorithms depth-
first, breadth-first and A* are already provided by JSL you can easily plug
in any other search algorithm you like. JSL must not be confused with
libraries for full text or web search.

26
Internal Architecture of JVM INTRODUCTION TO
JAVA
Let's understand the internal architecture of JVM. It contains classloader,
memory area, execution engine etc. Notes

1) Classloader:
Classloader is a subsystem of JVM that is used to load class files.
2) Class (Method) Area:
Class (Method) Area stores per-class structures such as the runtime
constant pool, field and method data, the code for methods.
3) Heap:
It is the runtime data area in which objects are allocated.
4) Stack:
 Java Stack stores frames.It holds local variables and partial
results, and plays a part in method invocation and return.
 Each thread has a private JVM stack, created at the same
time as thread.
 A new frame is created each time a method is invoked. A
frame is destroyed when its method invocation completes.
5) Program Counter Register:
PC (program counter) registers. It contains the address of the Java virtual
machine instruction currently being executed.
6) Native Method Stack:
It contains all the native methods used in the application.
7) Execution Engine:
It contains:
 1) A virtual processor
 2) Interpreter:Read bytecode stream then execute the instructions.

27
PROGRAMMING
 3) Just-In-Time(JIT) compiler:It is used to improve the
IN JAVA
performance.JIT compiles parts of the byte code that have similar
NOTES functionality at the same time, and hence reduces the amount of
time needed for compilation.Here the term ?compiler? refers to a
translator from the instruction set of a Java virtual machine (JVM)
to the instruction set of a specific CPU.
Review & Self Assessment Question

1. What is Application programming interface (API).

2. Differentiate C++ and Java Language.
3. What Java Virtual Machine (JVM).
4. What is Java standard Library (JSL)?
Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey
DETAILED PRACTICE

28
UNIT-3 JAVA TOKENS JAVA TOKENS

Notes
Contents
 Data types
 Tokens
 Variable
 Scope of variables
 Member variable
 Local variable
 Method parameter
 Operator
 Keyword
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings

Simple Program of Java

To create a simple java program, you need to create a class that contains
main method.
 Creating hello java example
class Simple
{
public static void main(String args [ ])
{
System.out.println("Hello Java");
}
}
Understanding first java program:
Let's see what is the meaning of class, public, static, void, main, String [ ],
System.out.println().
 Class :
Class keyword is used to declare a class in java.
 Public:
Public keyword is an access modifier which represents
visibility, it means it is visible to all.
 Static:

29
PROGRAMMING IN
Static is a keyword, if we declare any method as static, it is
JAVA
known as static method. The core advantage of static method is
NOTES that there is no need to create object to invoke the static
method. The main method is executed by the JVM, so it
doesn't require to create object to invoke the main method. So
it saves memory.
 Void:
Void is the return type of the method, it means it doesn't
return any value.
 Main:
Main represents startup of the program.
 String[] args
String[ ] args is used for command line argument.
 System.out.println () is used print statement.
How many ways can we write a java program:
There are many ways to write a java program. The modifications that can
be done in a java program are given below:
1) By changing sequence of the modifiers, method prototype is not
changed.
static public void main (String args[ ])
2) Subscript notation in java array can be used after type, before variable
or after variable.
public static void main(String[ ] args)
public static void main(String [ ]args)
public static void main(String args[ ])
3) You can provide var-args support to main method by passing 3 ellipses
(dots)
public static void main(String... args)
4) Having semicolon at the end of class in java is optional.
Valid java main method signature
public static void main(String[ ] args)
public static void main(String [ ]args)
public static void main(String args[ ])
public static void main(String... args)
static public void main(String[ ] args)

30
 public static final void main(String[ ]args)
JAVA TOKENS
final public static void main(String[ ]args)
final strictfp public static void main(String[ ]args) Notes

DATA TYPES, VARIABLES AND OPERATORS

Tokens: - A Program is made up of Classes and Methods and in the
Methods are the Container of the various Statements And a Statement is
made up of Variables, Constants, operators etc.
Tokens are the various Java program elements which are identified by the
compiler. A token is the smallest element of a program that is meaningful
to the compiler. Tokens supported in Java include keywords, variables,
constants, special characters, operations etc.

When you compile a program, the compiler scans the text in your source
code and extracts individual tokens. While tokenizing the source file, the
compiler recognizes and subsequently removes whitespaces (spaces, tabs,
newline and form feeds) and the text enclosed within comments.
Now let us consider a program
//Print Hello
Public class Hello
{
Public static void main(String args [ ])
{
System.out.println(“Hello Java”);
}}
The source code contains tokens such as public, class, Hello, {, public,
static, void, main, (, String, [ ], args, {, System, out, println, (, "Hello
Java", }, }. The resulting tokens· are compiled into Java bytecodes that is
capable of being run from within an interpreted java environment. Token

31
PROGRAMMING
are useful for compiler to detect errors. When tokens are not arranged in a
IN JAVA
particular sequence, the compiler generates an error message.
NOTES Tokens are the smallest unit of Program There is Five Types of Tokens
1) Keywords
2) Identifier
3) Literals
4) Operators
5) Separators
Keyword
In Java, a keyword is a word with a predefined meaning in Java
programming language syntax. Reserved for Java, keywords may not be
used as identifiers for naming variables, classes, methods or other entities.
Reserved KeyWords
There are 50 reserved keywords in the Java programming language.
Because these keywords have predefined functions, they are usually
highlighted with different colors in most integrated development
environments (IDE) used by Java programmers.
Common Java keywords include abstract, assert, boolean, break, byte,
case, catch, char, class, const, continue, default, do, for, while, switch, this
and int. The keywords const and goto are reserved but not currently used
by the Java language. False, null and true are reserved keywords for literal
values.
Identifiers
An identifier is a sequence of one or more characters. The first character
must be a valid first character (letter, $, _) in an identifier of the Java
programming language, hereafter in this chapter called simply “Java”.
Each subsequent character in the sequence must be a valid nonfirst
character (letter, digit, $, _) in a Java identifier. (For details, see the Java
SE API documentation of the isJavaIdentifierStart and isJavaIdentifierPart
methods of the Character class.) The question mark (?) is a reserved
character in the query language and cannot be used in an identifier.
A query language identifier is case-sensitive, with two exceptions:
 Keywords
Identification variables
Java Constants
Constant in Java refer to fixed values that do not change during the
execution of the program. Java supports several types of constants. They
are
32
1) Integer constant
Integer constant refers to sequence of numbers without decimal point. JAVA TOKENS
There are three types of integer constants
Notes
Decimal integers: They consist of combination digits 0 through 9
withnegative sign.
Example:
105 -245 0
octal integers: They consist of combination of digits 0 through 7
withleading zero.
Example:
074 0 034
Hexadecimal integer: They consist of combination of digits 0 through 9
and letter a through f or A through F with leading 0x or 0X.
Example:
0X7A4 0Xa 0xA4
2) Real constants
Real constant refers to sequence of numbers with decimal point. They can
be represented in two forms decimal notation and exponential notation
Decimal notation : The deciaml notation has three parts the integer part,
the decimal point and the fractional part and can be used to represent sinle
precision numbers.
Example:
2.15 -7.8 0.78
Exponential notation: The exponential notation is used to represent
double precision numbers and has the following synatx
mantissa e/E Exponent
The mantissa is either a real number expressed in decimal notaion or an
integer. The exponent is an integer withan optinal + or - sign. e2 means
102.
Example:
0.97e4 12e-2 -1.2E-4
3) Character constant
A single character enclosed within single quotes is called character
constant.
Example:
‘5’ ‘E’ ‘$’

4) String Constants:
33
PROGRAMMING
A sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes is called string
IN JAVA
constant.
NOTES Example:
“Hai” “Java programming” “1998”
5) Back slash character constant
They are special character constants that are used in output methods.
Example:
‘\b’ - Back space
‘\t’ -Horizontal tab
‘\n’ -New line
‘\r’ –Carriage return
These constants are also known as escape sequences.
Variable:
Variable is name of reserved area allocated in memory.

int data=50;//Here data is variable

Scope of Variables:
The scope of a Java variable is defined by the block of code within which
the variable is accessible.
The scope also determines when the variable is created (memory set
aside to contain the data stored in the variable) and when it possibly
becomes a candidate for destruction (memory returned to the operating
system for recycling and re-use).
Scope categories
The scope of a variable places it in one of the following four categories:
 Member Variable
 Local Variable
 Method Parameter
 Exception handler parameter

Member variable
34
A member variable is a member of a class (class variable) or a member of
an object instantiated from that class (instance variable). It must be JAVA TOKENS
declared within a class, but not within the body of a method of the class.
Notes
Local variable
A local variable is a variable declared within the body of a method or
within a block of code contained within the body of a method.
Method parameters
Method parameters are the formal arguments of a method. (A method is a
function defined inside of a class.) Method parameters are used to pass
values into and out of methods. The scope of a method parameter is the
entire method for which it is a parameter.
DATA TYPE:
The Java programming language is strongly-typed, which means that all
variables must first be declared before they can be used. A variable's data
type determines the values it may contain, plus the operations that may be
performed on it. Java has two groups of data types
 Primitive data types
 Reference data types
Java Primitive Data Types
Default
Data Type Purpose Contents
Value*

Boolean Truth value true or false Fales

Char Character Unicode characters \u0000

Byte Signed integer 8 bit two's complement (byte) 0

Short Signed integer 16 bit two's complement (short) 0

Int Signed integer 32 bit two's complement 0

Long Signed integer 64 bit two's complement 0L

Float Real number 32 bit IEEE 754 floating point 0.0f

Double Real number 64 bit IEEE 754 floating point 0.0d

Java Reference Data Types

35
PROGRAMMING
In Java a reference data type is a variable that can contain the reference or
IN JAVA
an address of dynamically created object.
NOTES These type of data type are not predefined like primitive data type.
 The reference data types are:
 Arrays
 Classes
 Interfaces

Operators in java
 Operators:
Operators are special symbols that perform specific operations
on one, two, or three operands, and then return a result.
 Operands
An operands are the values on which the operators act upon.
An operand can be:
36
A numeric variable - integer, floating point or character
Any primitive type variable - numeric and boolean JAVA TOKENS
Reference variable to an object
Notes
A literal - numeric value, boolean value, or string.
An array element, "a[2]"
char primitive, which in numeric operations is treated as an unsigned two
byte integer
Types of Operators:
The operators can be classified into three types based on the Number of
operands
1. Unary if it acts on a single operand (Eg : ++, --)
2. Binary if it requires two operands. (Eg: +, * )
3. Ternary if it requires three operands. The conditional operator
is the only ternary operator in Java.
The operators can be classified into the following categories based on the
operations they perform
1. Arithmetic operators
2. Relational operators
3. Logical operators
4. Bitwise Operators
5. Assignment Operators
6. Conditional Operators
7. Special Operator
1. Arithmetic Operators
Operator Name Example Result Description
Adds the two
a+b Addition 3+5 8 operands( Can also be
used for String
Concatenation)
Subtracts the second
a–b Subtraction 3–5 -2 operand from the first
Operand.

Multiplie both the

a*b Multiplication 3 *5 15
operands.

Divides the first

a/b Division 15 /3 5
operand by the second.

a%b Modulo Division 3%2 1 Returns the remainder

37
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA 2. LOGICAL OPERATOR
Relational operators enable you to compare two variables to determine
NOTES
whether they are equal or if one is greater than the other, and so on. But
when you want to check to see if a variable is in between a range of values
or to check multiple conditions we use logical operators.
The following table lists the logical operators
Operator Name Example Result Description
Logical (3>5) && Returns true if the both
a && b True
AND (2>5) operands is true.

(3>5) && Returns true if any of the

a || b Logical OR True
(10>5) operands is true

Complements the result of

!a NOT ! (3>= 5) True
the expression

3. Bitwise Operator
Java's bitwise operators operate on individual bits of integer (int and long)
values. If an operand is shorter than an int, it is promoted to int before
doing the operations.
It helps to know how integers are represented in binary. For example the
decimal number 3 is represented as 11 in binary and the decimal number 5
is represented as 101 in binary. Negative integers are store in two's
complement form. For example, -4 is 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
1111 1100.
The following table lists bitwise operators
Operator Name Example Result Description
a& b and 3&5 1 1 if both bits are 1.

a|b or 3|5 7 1 if either bit is 1.

a^b xor 3^5 6 1 if both bits are different.

~a not ~3 -4 Inverts the bits.

left Shifts the bits

n<<p 3 <<< 2 12
shift of n left p positions. Zero bits are

38
 shifted into the low-order
JAVA TOKENS
positions.
Notes
Shifts the bits
of n right p positions. If n is a 2's
right
n>>p 5 >> 2 1 complement signed number, the
shift
sign bit is shifted into the high-
order positions.

Shifts the bits

right of n right p positions. Zeros are
n>>>p -4 >>> 28 15
shift shifted into the high-order
positions.

4. Increment and Decrement :

The ++ and the – are java’s increment and decrement operators.The increment
operator increases its operand by one. The decrement operator decreases its
operand by one.
For example:
This statement: x = x + 1 can be rewritten like this by use for the
increment operator x++;Similarly, this statement x = x –1 is equivalent to
x--;
Increment and decrement operators can be applied to all integers and
floating point types.These operators are unique in that they can appear
both in postfix form (x--, x++) and prefix form (--x, ++x), where they
precede the operand.
In postfix form, the previous value is obtained for use in the expression,
and then the operand is modified.
For example:
x= 42;
y = ++x;
In this case, y is set to 43 as you would expect, because the increment
occurs before x is assigned to y. thus, the line y=++x; is the equivalent of
these two statements:
x = 42;
y = x++;
The value of x is obtained before the increment operator is executed, so the
value of y is 42. of course, in both cases x is set to 43. Here, the line y = x+
+; is the equivalent of these two statements:
y = x;

39
PROGRAMMING
x = x + 1;
IN JAVA
Example:
NOTES
/* Demo increment and decrement operator */
class InDec
{ public static void main (String args[ ] {
int a = 1;
int b = 2;
int c;
int d;
c = ++b;
d = a++;
c++;
System.out.println(“a = “ + a);
System.out.println(“b= “ + b);
System.out.println(“c = “ + c);
System.out.println(“d = “ + d);
}
}
5. Relational Operators
Relational Operators are used for comparing numerals and the
characters. The result of applying relational operators is either true or
false. The following table lists the relational operators.
Operator Name Example Result Description
Returns true if the first
Greater
a>b 3>5 False operand is greater than the
than
second operand

Returns true if the first

a<b Lesser than 5<5 False operand is lesser than the
second operand

Greater Returns true if the first

a >= b than or 3 >= 5 False operand is greater than or
equal equal to the second operand.

Returns true if the first

Lesser than
a <= b 15 <= 15 True operand is lesser than or
or equal to
equal to the second operand.

40
 Returns true if the first
JAVA TOKENS
a == b Equal To 3 == 2 False operand is equal to the
second operand. Notes

Returns true if the first

Not equal
a != b 3 != 2 True operand is not equal to the
to
second operand.

6. Conditional Operaotr
Java supports another conditional operator that is known as the ternary
operator "?:&quot; It is basically used as an short hand for simple if..else
boolean expression ? operand1 : operand2;

The "?:&quot; operator evaluates an expression which may also be

an operand and returns operand1 if the expression istrue; otherwise
returns operand2, if the expression is false. We can understand this thing
with the help of a diagram shown as:

Example:
int a=14, b=20;
int x= (a>b) ? a : b;
In the above example the value of x is assigned the value of b since the
condition is false.
41
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA 7. Special Operators:
 Instanceof Operator
NOTES
Java provides a run-time operator instanceof to compare a class and
an instance of that class. This operator "instanceof" compares an object to
a specified class type. The instanceof operator is defined to know about
an object'srelationship with a class. It evaluates to true, if the object or
array is an instance of the specified type; otherwise it returns false.
The instanceof operator can be used with the arrays and objects. It can't be
used with primitive data types and values.
Its syntax is
object instanceof type
Example:
class X
{
int i, j;
}
class Y
{
int i, j;
}
class Z extends X
{
int k;
}
public class InstanceOfDemo
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
X x = new X();
Y y = new Y();
Z z = new Z();
if(x instanceof X)
System.out.println("x is instance of X");
X obj;
obj = z; // X reference to c
if(obj instanceof Z)
System.out.println("obj is instance of Z");
42
 }}
 Dot operator JAVA TOKENS
This operator is used to access the variables and methods of a class. Notes
Example1
student.mark
Here we are accessing the variable “mark” of the “student” object
 Assignment Operator
Assignment operator is the most common operator almost used with all
programming languages. It is represented by "=" symbol in Java which is
used to assign a value to a variable lying to the left side of the assignment
operator. But, If the value already exists in that variable then it will be
overwritten by the assignment operator (=). This operator can also be used
to assign the references to the objects.
Syntax: <variable> = <expression>;
Example: int a = 8;
Precedence:
Which Operator Goes First?
 High Precedence (performed first)
()
unary -,
+
*/%
+-
 Low Precedence (performed last)
Punctuation symbols
Separators are Java's punctuation. Just as periods, semicolons, question
marks, pairs of parenthesis, and other punctuation add structure to written
text, Java separators help the Java compiler interpret components of Java
source code.
( and ) Pairs of parenthesis surround:
 arguments for a method in a method invocation
 method parameters and their type in a method declaration
 parts/pieces of an expression for the purposes of controling
evaluation order or simply for clarity

43
PROGRAMMING
 the mechanics of a for statement (the initialization, test, and
IN JAVA
update pieces)
NOTES  the test part of an if statement
 the test part of a while statement
[ and ]
 pairs of square brackets surround array indicies.
{ and }
 pairs of squiggly brackets surround a few things:
the body of a class
the body of a method
a block of statements to treated as a unit
sets of literals for array initialization
; A semicolon terminates:
Statements expression lists, e.g. the mechanics of a for statement (the
initialization, test, and update pieces) field declarations
, Acomma is used to separate items in sets/lists:
type and identifier pairs in parameter lists litterals in an array initialization
. a period is used to:
separate pieces (identifiers) of a name, e.g. an object identifier and a field
identifier or an object identifier and method identifier separate the whole
number part from the fractional number part of a floating-point literal; it is
the decimal point
Unicode System
Unicode is a universal international standard character encoding that is
capable of representing most of the world's written languages.
Why java uses Unicode System?
Before Unicode, there were many language standards:
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) for the
United States.
ISO 8859-1 for Western European
Language. KOI-8 for Russian.
GB18030 and BIG-5 for chinese, and so on.

This caused two problems:

A particular code value corresponds to different letters in the various
language standards.
The encodings for languages with large character sets have variable
44
length.Some common characters are encoded as single bytes, other require
two or more byte. JAVA TOKENS

To solve these problems, a new language standard was developed i.e. Notes
Unicode System.
In unicode, character holds 2 byte, so java also uses 2 byte for characters.
 lowest value:\u0000
 highest value:\uFFFF
Review & Self Assessment Question

1. What is data type?

2. What is variable and constant?
3. Define the term Token?
4. What is Reserved Keywords?
5. What is the Relational Operator in java?

Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey

45
PROGRAMMING IN
JAVA

NOTES
UNIT:4 CONTROL
STRUCTURE ANDITERATIVE
STATEMENT
Contents
 Input statemenet
 Output statement
 Control flow statemenet
 Decision making ststemenet
 Looping statemenet
 Loop control statement
 Type casting
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings

Input/Ouput
Programs are useless unless there is interaction with the outside world.
You must be able to read input from the user write output where the user
can see it
There are two ways of doing this:
 console input/output:
 GUI input/output
Java is a language designed primarily for developing programs with a
graphical interface. As a result, performing console I/O (particularly
reading input) is rather awkward. Note: Many older languages were
designed for console I/O only.
To help ease you into the details of I/O (which can be a mess) the author of
your text has written several classes that provide a clean I/O graphical
interface.
Input Statement :
One of the strengths of Java is the huge libraries of code available to you.
This is code that has been written to do specific jobs. All you need to do is
to reference which library you want to use, and then call a method into
action. One really useful class that handles input from a user is called the
46
Scanner class. The Scanner class can be found in the java.util library. To CONTROL
use the Scanner class, you need to reference it in your code. This is done STRUCTURE
with the keyword import. AND ITERATIVE
import java.util.Scanner; STATEMENT

The import statement needs to go just above the Class statement: Notes
import java.util.Scanner;
public class StringVariables
{
}
This tells java that you want to use a particular class in a particular library
- the Scanner class, which is located in the java.util library.
The next thing you need to do is to create an object from the Scanner class.
(A class is just a bunch of code. It doesn't do anything until you create a
new object from it.)
To create a new Scanner object the code is this:
Scanner user_input = new Scanner( System.in );
So instead of setting up an int variable or a String variable, we're setting up
a Scanner variable. We've called ours user_input. After an equals sign, we
have the keyword new. This is used to create new objects from a class. The
object we're creating is from the Scanner class. In between round brackets
we have to tell java that this will be System Input (System.in).
To get the user input, you can call into action one of the many methods
available to your new Scanner object. One of these methods is called next.
This gets the next string of text that a user types on the keyboard:
String first_name;
first_name = user_input.next( );
So after our user_input object we type a dot. You'll then see a popup list of
available methods. Double click next and then type a semicolon to end the
line. We can also print some text to prompt the user:
String first_name;
System.out.print("Enter your first name:");
first_name = user_input.next( );
Notice that we've used print rather than println like last time. The
difference between the two is that println will move the cursor to a new
line after the output, but print stays on the same line.
We'll add a prompt for a family name, as well:

47
PROGRAMMING
String family_name;
IN JAVA
System.out.print("Enter your family name:");
NOTES family_name = user_input.next( );
This is the same code, except that java will now store whatever the user
types into our family_name variable instead of our first_name variable.
To print out the input, we can add the following:
String full_name;
full_name=first_name+" "+family_name;
System.out.println("You are " + full_name);
We've set up another String variable, full_name. We're storing whatever is
in the two variables first_name and family_name. In between the two,
we've added a space. The final line prints it all out in the Output window.
Output Statement :
There are no I/O statements in the Java language. The I/O methods belong
to classes in the java.io package. Any source or destination for I/O is
considered a stream of bytes. There are three objects that can be used for
input and output.
 System.out can be used to write output to the console.
 System.err can be used to write error messages to the
console.
 System.in can be used to handle input from the console.
The System.out object has two methods - print() and println(). The
println() method will print a carriage return and line feed after printing so
that the next output will be printed on a new line. The method print() will
keep the cursor on the same line after printing.
In Java 1.5 you can also use the method printf(). The advantage of using
the printf() method is that you can now format your output easily. The
structure of the printf syntax is as follows:
System.out.printf (format, args);
Control flow statements:
A program is a group of statements that are executed to achieve a
predetermined task. Statements in a program are generally executed in a
sequential manner, which is called sequential execution or sequential
control flow. However, by putting the decision-making statement in the
program, the normal flow of the program can be controlled. Statements
that control the flow of the program are called control statements.

48
Control statements are used in programming languages to cause the flow CONTROL
of control to advance and branch based on changes to the state of a STRUCTURE
program. AND ITERATIVE
The kinds of control flow statements supported by different languages STATEMENT
vary, but can be categorized by their effect: Notes
Continuation at a different statement (jump),
Executing a set of statements only if some condition is met (choice),
Executing a set of statements zero or more times, until some condition is
met (loop),
Executing a set of distant statements, after which the flow of control may
possibly return (subroutines, coroutines, and continuations),
Stopping the program, preventing any further execution (halt).
Java supports three types of control structures
* Decision-making statements(if-then,if-then-else,switch),
* Looping statements(for,while,do-while),
* Branching statements(break, continue, return)
Decision Making Statement
The decision-making statements are used to change the flow of the
program based on conditions. The various decision-making statements are
 if statement
 if..else statement
 if..else if Ladder
 Nested if statements
 switch statement
If Statement
Ensures that a statement is executed only when a condition is true
Conditions typically involve comparison of variables or quantities for
equality or inequality
Example
if (age >= 18)
System.out.println(“You are eligible to vote.”);

49
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA If Statement with Optional else
An if statement may have an optional else clause that will only be
NOTES
executed when the condition is false
Example:
if (wages <= 57600)
tax = 0.124 * wages;
else
tax = 0.124 * 57600;

Compound Alternatives
To execute more than one statement conditionally, you may use { } to
define a compound statement for either (or both) conditional alternatives
Example:
if (firstNumber <= secondNumber)
{
quotient = secondNumber / firstNumber;
remainder = secondNumber % firstNumber;
}
Cascading if-else Statements
else
{
quotient = firstNumber / secondNumber;

remainder = firstNumber % secondNumber;

}
50
Cascading if-else Statements CONTROL
Example: Another STRUCTURE
AND ITERATIVE
format:
STATEMENT
if (condition-1) if
(condition-1) Notes
statement-1; statement-1;
else else if
(condition-2)
if (condition-2) statement-2;
statement-2; else

else
statement-3;
statement-3;

Dangling else
Code written: Interpreted as:
if (condition-1) if (condition-
1)
if (condition-2) if (condition-2
statement-1 statement-2
else else
statement-2; statement-2;

51
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA

NOTES

Switch Statement:
Used to accomplish multi-way branching based on the value of an integer
selector variable
Example:
switch (number of passengers)
{
case 0: out.println(“The Harley”);

case 1: out.println(“The Dune Buggy”);

default: out.println(“The Humvee”);

52
 CONTROL
STRUCTURE
AND ITERATIVE
STATEMENT

Notes

Looping Statements
Looping statements are used to execute single or group of statements
repeatedly until thegiven condition is true. Java supports three types of
Looping statements
1. While Loop
2. Do...while Loop
3. For Loop

Loop Type Description

While Loop in Java Repeats a statement or group of statements

while a given condition is true. It tests the
condition before executing the loop body.

For loop in Java Execute a sequence of statements multiple

times and abbreviates the code that manages
the loop variable.

Do…. While loop in java Like a while statement, except that it tests the
condition at the end of the loop body

While Statement :
The while Statement:
This executes a block of statements as long as a specified condition is
true.
Syntax:
while(condition)
{
statement(s);
53
PROGRAMMING
}
IN JAVA
next_statement;
NOTES The (condition) may be any valid Java expression.
The statement(s) may be either a single or a compound (a block)
statement.
Execution:
When program execution reaches a while statement, the following events
occur:
The (condition) is evaluated.
If (condition) evaluates as false the while statement terminates and
execution passes to the first statement following statement(s) that is the
next_statement.
If (condition) evaluates as true the statement(s) iside the loop are
executed.
Then, the execution returns to step number 1.
Flow chart:

54
Do..while Statement: CONTROL
do..while loop is used when you need to run some statements and STRUCTURE
AND ITERATIVE
processes once at least before checking the condition to execute the loop.
STATEMENT
Syntax:
do Notes

{
statements;
}
while(condition);
next Statement;
Execution:
1. The statement in the do..while block is executed once.
2.Evaluate the condition.
3. If the condition evaluates to true goto step1. If the condition is
false then goto step 4.
4. Execute the statement following the do..while statement.
Example:
/* Program to find the reverse of the number */
public class DoWhile
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int n = 12345;
int t,r = 0;
System.out.println("The original number : " + n);
do
{
t = n % 10;
r = r * 10 + t;
n = n / 10;
}while (n &gt; 0);
System.out.println("The reverse number : " + r);
}
}
For Loop :
The for loop statement is similar to while loop. Usually it is used to
execute set of statements repeatedly a known number of times.
55
PROGRAMMING
Syntax:
IN JAVA
for( initialization; termination; increment/decrement)
NOTES {
statements;
}
next Statement;
Execution:
When the loop first starts, the initialization portion of the loop is executed.
Generally, this is an expression that sets the value of the loop control
variable, which acts as a counter that controls the loop.The initialization
expression is only executed once.
Next, condition is evaluated. This must be a Boolean expression. It
usually tests the loop control variable against a target value. If this
expression is true, then the body of the loop is executed. If it is false, the
loop terminates.
Next, the increment/ decrement portion of the loop is executed.
This is usually an expression that increments or decrements the loop
control variable.
The loop then iterates, first evaluating the conditional expression, then
executing the body of the loop, and then executing the iteration expression
with each pass. This process repeats until the controlling expression is
false.
Flowchart

Example:
/* Printing numbers from 1 to 5 */
class ForDemo
{
56
 public static void main(String args[]) CONTROL
{ STRUCTURE
for(int i=1; i&lt;=5; i++) AND ITERATIVE
STATEMENT
{

System.out.println(“value of i=”i); Notes

}}}
Loop Control Statements:
Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence.
When execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in
that scope are destroyed.
Control Statement Description
Terminates the loop or switch statement and
Break statement in
transfers execution to the statement immediately
java
following the loop or switch.
Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body
Continue statement
and immediately retest its condition prior to
in java
reiterating.
A Java method is a collection of statements that are grouped together to
perform an operation. When you call the System.out.println () method, for
example, the system actually executes several statements in order to
display a message on the console.
Now you will learn how to create your own methods with or without
return values, invoke a method with or without parameters, and apply
method abstraction in the program design.
Creating Method:
Considering the following example to explain the syntax of a method:
public static int methodName(int a, int b)
{
// body
}
Here,
Public static: modifier.
int: return type
methodName: name of the method
a, b: formal parameters
int a, int b: list of parameters

57
PROGRAMMING
Method definition consists of a method header and a method body. The
IN JAVA
same is shown below:
NOTES Modifier returnType nameOfMethod (Parameter List)
{
// method body
}
The syntax shown above includes:
Modifier: It defines the access type of the method and it is optional to use.
returnType: Method may return a value.
NameofMethod: This is the method name. The method signature consists
of the method name and the parameter list.
Parameter List: The list of parameters, it is the type, order, and number of
parameters of a method. These are optional, method may contain zero
parameters.
Method body: The method body defines what the method does with
statements.
Example:
Here is the source code of the above defined method called max(). This
method takes two parameters num1 and num2 and returns the maximum
between the two:
/** the snippet returns the minimum between two numbers
*/ public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2)
{
int min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else
min = n1;

return min;
}

Method Calling:
For using a method, it should be called. There are two ways in which a
method is called i.e. method returns a value or returning nothing (no return
value).
The process of method calling is simple. When a program invokes a
method, the program control gets transferred to the called method. This

58
called method then returns control to the caller in two conditions, when: CONTROL
return statement is executed. STRUCTURE
reaches the method ending closing brace. AND ITERATIVE
STATEMENT
The methods returning void is considered as call to a statement.
 Lets consider an example: Notes
System.out.println("This is
tutorialspoint.com!");
The method returning value can be understood by the following example:
int result = sum(6, 9);
 Example:
Following is the example to demonstrate how to define a
method and how to call it:
public class ExampleMinNumber
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a = 11;
int b = 6;
int c = minFunction(a, b);
System.out.println("Minimum Value = " + c);
}
/** returns the minimum of two numbers */
public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2) {
int min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else
min = n1;

return min;
}}
Type Casting:
Assigning a value of one type to a variable of another type is known as
Type Casting.
Example :
int x = 10;
byte y = (byte)x;
In Java, type casting is classified into two types,

59
PROGRAMMING
 Widening Casting(Implicit)
IN JAVA

NOTES

 Narrowing Casting(Explicitly done)

Widening or Automatic type conversion:

Automatic Type casting take place when, the two types are compatible the
target type is larger than the source type
Example :
public class Test
{
public static void main(String[ ] args)
{
int i = 100;
long l = i; //no explicit type casting required
float f = l; //no explicit type casting required
System.out.println("Int value "+i);
System.out.println("Long value "+l);
System.out.println("Float value "+f);
}}
Narrowing or Explicit type conversion:
When you are assigning a larger type value to a variable of smaller type,
then you need to perform explicit type casting.
Example :
public class
Test
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
60
 double d = 100.04; CONTROL
long l = (long)d; //explicit type casting required STRUCTURE
int i = (int)l; //explicit type casting AND ITERATIVE
STATEMENT
required System.out.println("Double value "+d);
System.out.println("Long value "+l); Notes
System.out.println("Int value "+i);
}}
Review & Self Assessment Question
1. What is control flow statements?
2. What is decision making statements?
3. Define for loop with example.
4. Define the Break and Continue statement?
5. What is entry controlled loop and Exist controlled Loop.

Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey

61
PROGRAMMING IN
JAVA

NOTES
UNIT-5 OOP’S
CONCEPTS WITH CLASSES
AND OBJECTS
Contents
 Class
 Object
 Java naming convention
 Constructor
 Static keyword
 This keyword
 Aggregation in java
 Inheritance
 Polymorphism
 Abstract class
 Package and Interface
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings
Object is the physical as well as logical entity whereas class is the logical
entity only.
Object in Java:
An entity that has state and behavior is known as an object e.g. chair, bike,
marker, pen, table, car etc. It can be physical or logical (tengible and
intengible). The example of integible object is banking system.
An object has three characteristics:
 state: represents data (value) of an object.
 behavior: represents the behavior (functionality) of an
object such as deposit, withdraw etc.
 identity: Object identity is typically implemented via a
unique ID. The value of the ID is not visible to the external
user. But,it is used internally by the JVM to identify each
object uniquely.
For Example: Pen is an object. Its name is Reynolds, color is white etc.
62
known as its state. It is used to write, so writing is its behavior. OOP’S CONCEPTS
WITH CLASSES
Object is an instance of a class. Class is a template or blueprint from which AND OBJECTS
objects are created. So object is the instance(result) of a class.
Notes
Class in Java:
A class is a group of objects that has common properties. It is a template or
blueprint from which objects are created.
A class in java can contain:
data member
method
constructor
block
class and interface
Syntax to declare a class:
class <class_name>
{ data member;
method; }
Simple Example of Object and Class:
In this example, we have created a Student class that have two data
members id and name. We are creating the object of the Student class by
new keyword and printing the objects value.
class Student1{
int id;//data member (also instance variable)
String name;//data member(also instance
variable)
public static void main(String args[ ]){

Student1 s1=new Student1();//creating an object of Student

System.out.println(s1.id);
System.out.println(s1.name);
} }
Java Naming conventions:
Java naming convention is a rule to follow as you decide what to name
your identifiers such as class, package, variable, constant, method etc.
But, it is not forced to follow. So, it is known as convention not rule.
All the classes, interfaces, packages, methods and fields of java
programming language are given according to java naming convention.

63
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA Advantage of naming conventions in java:
By using standard Java naming conventions, you make your code easier to
NOTES
read for yourself and for other programmers. Readability of Java program
is very important. It indicates that less time is spent to figure out what the
code does.
Name Convention

class name should start with uppercase letter and be a noun e.g. String,
Color, Button, System, Thread etc.

interface should start with uppercase letter and be an adjective e.g.

name Runnable, Remote, ActionListener etc.

method name should start with lowercase letter and be a verb e.g.
actionPerformed(), main(), print(), println() etc.

variable name should start with lowercase letter e.g. firstName, orderNumber
etc.

package name should be in lowercase letter e.g. java, lang, sql, util etc.

constants should be in uppercase letter. e.g. RED, YELLOW,

name MAX_PRIORITY etc.

Method Overloading in Java

If a class have multiple methods by same name but different parameters, it
is known as Method Overloading.
If we have to perform only one operation, having same name of the
methods increases the readability of the program.
Suppose you have to perform addition of the given numbers but there can
be any number of arguments, if you write the method such as a(int,int) for
two parameters, and b(int,int,int) for three parameters then it may be
difficult for you as well as other programmers to understand the behaviour
of the method because its name differs. So, we perform method
overloading to figure out the program quickly.
Advantage of method overloading
 Method overloading increases the readability of the
program
Different ways to overload the method:
There are two ways to overload the method in java

64
  By changing number of arguments OOP’S CONCEPTS
 By changing the data type WITH CLASSES
AND OBJECTS

Example of Method Overloading by changing the no. of Notes

arguments:
In this example, we have created two overloaded methods, first sum
method performs addition of two numbers and second sum method
performs addition of three numbers.
class Calculation
{
void sum(int a,int b){System.out.println(a+b);
}
void sum(int a,int b,int c){System.out.println(a+b+c);
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Calculation obj=new Calculation();
obj.sum(10,10,10);
obj.sum(20,20); } }
Example of Method Overloading by changing data type of
argument:
In this example, we have created two overloaded methods that differs in
data type. The first sum method receives two integer arguments and
second sum method receives two double arguments.
class Calculation2
{
void sum(int a,int b)
{
System.out.println(a+b);
}
void sum(double a,double b)
{
System.out.println(a+b);
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{

65
PROGRAMMING
Calculation2 obj=new Calculation2();
IN JAVA
obj.sum(10.5,10.5);
NOTES obj.sum(20,20);
}}
Constructor:
Constructor in java is a special type of method that is used to initialize the
object. Java constructor is invoked at the time of object creation. It
constructs the values i.e. provides data for the object that is why it is
known as constructor.
Rules for creating java constructor
There are basically two rules defined for the constructor.
 Constructor name must be same as its class name
 Constructor must have no explicit return type
Types of java constructors
There are two types of constructors:
 Default constructor (no-arg constructor)
 Parameterized constructor

Java Default Constructor

A constructor that have no parameter is known as default constructor.

Syntax of default constructor:

<class_name>()
{
}
Example of default constructor:
In this example, we are creating the no-arg constructor in the Bike class. It
will be invoked at the time of object creation.
class Bike1
{

66
 Bike1( ) OOP’S CONCEPTS
{ WITH CLASSES
System.out.println("Bike is created"); AND OBJECTS
} Notes
public static void main(String args[])
{
Bike1 b=new Bike1();
} }
Rule: If there is no constructor in a class, compiler automatically
creates a default constructor.

Purpose of default constructor:

Default constructor provides the default values to the object like 0, null
etc. depending on the type.
Example of default constructor that displays the default values:
class Student3
{
int id;
String name;

void display( )
{
System.out.println(id+" "+name);
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Student3 s1=new Student3( );
Student3 s2=new Student3( );

67
PROGRAMMING IN
s1.display( );
JAVA
}} s2.display( );
NOTES
Explanation:In the above class,you are not creating any constructor so
compiler provides you a default constructor.Here 0 and null values are
provided by default constructor.
Java parameterized constructor:
A constructor that have parameters is known as parameterized
constructor.
Use of parameterized constructor
Parameterized constructor is used to provide different values to the distinct
objects.
Example of parameterized constructor:
In this example, we have created the constructor of Student class that have
two parameters. We can have any number of parameters in the constructor.
class Student4
{
int id;
String name;
Student4(int i,String n)
{
id = i;
name = n;
}
void display( )
{
System.out.println(id+" "+name);
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Student4 s1 = new Student4(111,"kamlesh");
Student4 s2 = new Student4(222,"vijay");
s1.display();
s2.display();
}
}

68
Static keyword: OOP’S CONCEPTS
The static keyword in java is used for memory management mainly. We WITH CLASSES
AND OBJECTS
can apply java static keyword with variables, methods, blocks and nested
class. The static keyword belongs to the class than instance of the class. Notes
The static can be:
variable (also known as class variable)
method (also known as class method)
block
nested class
1) Java static variable
If you declare any variable as static, it is known static variable.
The static variable can be used to refer the common property of all objects
(that is not unique for each object) e.g. company name of
employees,college name of students etc.
The static variable gets memory only once in class area at the time of class
loading.
Advantage of static variable
 It makes your program memory efficient (i.e it saves memory).
Understanding problem without static variable
class Student
{
int rollno;
String name;
String college="ITS";
}
Suppose there are 500 students in my college, now all instance data
members will get memory each time when object is created.All student
have its unique rollno and name so instance data member is good.Here,
college refers to the common property of all objects.If we make it
static,this field will get memory only once.
Example of static variable:
//Program of static variable
class Student8
{
int rollno;
String name;
static String college ="ITS";
Student8(int r,String n)
69
PROGRAMMING {
IN
JAVA rollno = r;
NOTES name = n;
}
void display ( )
{
System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+college);
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Student8 s1 = new Student8(111,"suresh");
Student8 s2 = new Student8(222,"sandeep");
s1.display();
s2.display();
}}
This keyword:
There can be a lot of usage of java this keyword. In java, this is areference
variable that refers to the current object.
Usage of java this keyword
Here is given the 6 usage of java this keyword.
 this keyword can be used to refer current class instance variable.
 this() can be used to invoke current class constructor.
 this keyword can be used to invoke current class method
(implicitly)
 this can be passed as an argument in the method call.
 this can be passed as argument in the constructor call.
 this keyword can also be used to return the current class instance.
Suggestion: If you are beginner to java, lookup only two usage of this
keyword.

1) The this keyword can be used to refer current class instance

variable.
If there is ambiguity between the instance variable and parameter, this

70
keyword resolves the problem of ambiguity. OOP’S CONCEPTS
Understanding the problem without this keyword WITH CLASSES
AND OBJECTS
Let's understand the problem if we don't use this keyword by the example
given below: Notes

class Student10
{
int id;
String name;
Student10(int id,String name)
{
id = id;
name = name;
}
void display( )
{
System.out.println(id+" "+name);
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Student10 s1 = new
Student10(111,"Rahul"); Student10 s2 = new
Student10(321,"Rohan"); s1.display();
s2.display();
}}
In the above example, parameter (formal arguments) and instance
variables are same that is why we are using this keyword to distinguish
between local variable and instance variable.
Solution of the above problem by this keyword
//example of this keyword
class Student11
{
int id;
String name;

Student11(int id,String name)

{

71
PROGRAMMING
this.id = id;
IN JAVA
this.name = name;
NOTES }
void display(){System.out.println(id+" "+name);
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
Student11 s1 = new Student11(111,"Suresh");
Student11 s2 = new Student11(222,"Vijay");
s1.display();
s2.display();
}}
Exploring methods and inheritance
Aggregation in Java
If a class have an entity reference, it is known as Aggregation.
Aggregation represents HAS-A relationship.
Consider a situation, Employee object contains many informations
such as id, name, emailId etc. It contains one more object named address,
which contains its own informations such as city, state, country, zipcode
etc. as given below.
class Employee
{
int id;
String name;
Address address;//Address is a class
...
}
In such case, Employee has an entity reference address, so relationship is
Employee HAS-A address.
Simple Example of Aggregation

72
In this example, we have created the reference of Operation class in the OOP’S CONCEPTS
Circle class. WITH CLASSES
class operation AND OBJECTS
{ Notes
int square(int n)
{
return n*n;
}}
class Circle
{
operation op;//aggregation
double pi=3.14;
double area(int radius)
{
op=new operation();
int rsquare=op.square(radius);//code reusability (i.e. delegates the
method call).
return pi*rsquare;
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Circle c=new Circle( );
double result=c.area(5);
System.out.println(result);
}}
When use Aggregation:
Code reuse is also best achieved by aggregation when there is no is-a
relationship.
Inheritance should be used only if the relationship is-a is maintained
throughout the lifetime of the objects involved; otherwise, aggregation is
the best choice.
Understanding meaningful example of Aggregation:
In this example, Employee has an object of Address, address object
contains its own informations such as city, state, country etc. In such case
relationship is Employee HAS-A address.
File Name : Address.java
public class Address

73
PROGRAMMING {
IN
JAVA String city,state,country;
public Address(String city, String state, String country)
NOTES
{
this.city = city;
this.state = state;
this.country = country;
}}
Emp.java
public class Emp
{
int id;
String name;
Address address;
public Emp(int id, String name,Address address)
{
this.id = id;
this.name = name;
this.address=address;
}
void display( )
{
System.out.println(id+" "+name);
System.out.println(address.city+" "+address.state+" "+address.country);
}
public static void main(String[ ] args)
{
Address address1=new Address("allahabad","UP","india");
Address address2=new Address("varansi","UP","india");
Emp e=new Emp(111,"tanu",address1);
Emp e2=new Emp(112,"arun",address2);
e.display();
e2.display();
}}
Call by Value in Java
There is only call by value in java, not call by reference. If we call a
method passing a value, it is known as call by value. The changes being
74
done in the called method, is not affected in the calling method. OOP’S CONCEPTS
WITH CLASSES
Example of call by value AND OBJECTS
In case of call by value original value is not changed. Let's take a simple Notes
example:
class Operation
{
int data=50;
void change(int data)
{
data=data+100;//changes will be in the local variable only
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Operation op=new Operation();
System.out.println("before change "+op.data);
op.change(500);
System.out.println("after change "+op.data);
}}
Another Example of call by value
In case of call by reference original value is changed if we made changes
in the called method. If we pass object in place of any primitive value,
original value will be changed. In this example we are passing object as a
value. Let's take a simple example:
class Operation2
{
int data=50;
void change(Operation2 op)
{
op.data=op.data+100;//changes will be in the instance variable
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Operation2 op=new Operation2();
System.out.println("before change "+op.data);
op.change(op);//passing object
System.out.println("after change "+op.data);

75
PROGRAMMING
}}
IN JAVA
Polymorphism
NOTES
Polymorphism in java is a concept by which we can perform a single
action by different ways. Polymorphism is derived from 2 greek words:
poly and morphs. The word "poly" means many and "morphs" means
forms. So polymorphism means many forms.
There are two types of polymorphism in java: compile time polymorphism
and runtime polymorphism. We can perform polymorphism in java by
method overloading and method overriding.
If you overload static method in java, it is the example of compile time
polymorphism. Here, we will focus on runtime polymorphism in java.
Inheritance
Inheritance in java is a mechanism in which one object acquires all the
properties and behaviors of parent object.
The idea behind inheritance in java is that you can create new classes that
are built upon existing classes. When you inherit from an existing class,
you can reuse methods and fields of parent class, and you can add new
methods and fields also.
Inheritance represents the IS-A relationship, also known as parent-
child relationship.
Why use inheritance in java
 For Method Overriding (so runtime polymorphism can be
achieved).
 For Code Reusability.
Syntax of Java Inheritance
class Subclass-name extends Superclass-name
{
//methods and fields
}
The extends keyword indicates that you are making a new class that
derives from an existing class.
In the terminology of Java, a class that is inherited is called a super class.
The new class is called a subclass.
Understanding the simple example of inheritance

76
 OOP’S CONCEPTS
WITH CLASSES
AND OBJECTS

Notes

As displayed in the above figure, Programmer is the subclass and

Employee is the superclass. Relationship between two classes
is Programmer IS-A Employee.It means that Programmer is a type of
Employee.
class Employee
{
float salary=40000;
}
class Programmer extends Employee
{
int bonus=10000;
public static void main(String args[])
{
Programmer p=new Programmer();
System.out.println("Programmer salary is:"+p.salary);
System.out.println("Bonus of Programmer is:"+p.bonus);
}
}
In the above example, Programmer object can access the field of own class
as well as of Employee class i.e. code reusability.
Types of inheritance
On the basis of class, there can be three types of inheritance in java: single,
multilevel and hierarchical.
In java programming, multiple and hybrid inheritance is supported through
interface only. We will learn about interfaces later.

77
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA

NOTES

Note: Multiple inheritance is not supported in java through class.

When a class extends multiple classes i.e. known as multiple
inheritance. For Example:

Multiple inheritance is not supported in java:

To reduce the complexity and simplify the language, multiple inheritance
is not supported in java.
Consider a scenario where A, B and C are three classes. The C class
inherits A and B classes. If A and B classes have same method and you
call it from child class object, there will be ambiguity to call method of A
or B class.
Since compile time errors are better than runtime errors, java renders
compile time error if you inherit 2 classes. So whether you have same
method or different, there will be compile time error now.
class A
{
void msg( )
{
System.out.println("Hello");

78
}} OOP’S CONCEPTS
class B WITH CLASSES
{ AND OBJECTS
void msg( ) Notes
{
System.out.println("Welcome");
}}
class C extends A,B
{
//suppose if it were
Public Static void main(String args[ ] )
{
C obj=new C();
obj.msg();//Now which msg( ) method would be invoked?
}}
Method Overriding:
If subclass (child class) has the same method as declared in the parent
class, it is known as method overriding in java.
In other words, If subclass provides the specific implementation of the
method that has been provided by one of its parent class, it is known as
method overriding.
Usage of Java Method Overriding:
Method overriding is used to provide specific implementation of a method
that is already provided by its super class.
Method overriding is used for runtime polymorphism
Rules for Java Method Overriding:
 method must have same name as in the parent class
 method must have same parameter as in the parent class.
 must be IS-A relationship (inheritance).
Understanding the problem without method overriding:
Let's understand the problem that we may face in the program if we don't
use method overriding.
class Vehicle
{
void run( )
{
System.out.println("Vehicle is running");

79
PROGRAMMING
}}
IN JAVA
class Bike extends Vehicle
NOTES {
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Bike obj = new Bike( );
obj.run( );
} }
Example of method overriding
In this example, we have defined the run method in the subclass as defined
in the parent class but it has some specific implementation. The name and
parameter of the method is same and there is IS-A relationship between the
classes, so there is method overriding.
class Vehicle
{
void run( )
{
System.out.println("Vehicle is running");
}
}
class Bike2 extends Vehicle
{
void run( )
{
System.out.println("Bike is running safely");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Bike2 obj = new Bike2();
obj.run();
}
Runtime Polymorphism
Runtime polymorphism or Dynamic Method Dispatch is a process in
which a call to an overridden method is resolved at runtime rather than
compile-time.

80
In this process, an overridden method is called through the reference OOP’S CONCEPTS
variable of a superclass. The determination of the method to be called is WITH CLASSES
based on the object being referred to by the reference variable. AND OBJECTS

Upcasting: Notes
When reference variable of Parent class refers to the object of Child class,
it is known as upcasting. For example:

class A
{

}
class B extends A
{

}
A a=new B( );//upcasting
Example of Runtime Polymorphism
In this example, we are creating two classes Bike and Splendar. Splendar
class extends Bike class and overrides its run() method. We are calling the
run method by the reference variable of Parent class. Since it refers to the
subclass object and subclass method overrides the Parent class method,
subclass method is invoked at runtime.
Since method invocation is determined by the JVM not compiler, it is
known as runtime polymorphism.
class Bike
{
void run()
{
System.out.println("running");
}
}
81
PROGRAMMING
class Splender extends Bike
IN JAVA
{
NOTES void run( )
{
System.out.println("running safely with 60km");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Bike b = new Splender();//upcasting
b.run();
}
}
Runtime Polymorphism with data member
Method is overridden not the datamembers, so runtime polymorphism
can't be achieved by data members.
In the example given below, both the classes have a datamember
speedlimit, we are accessing the datamember by the reference variable of
Parent class which refers to the subclass object. Since we are accessing the
datamember which is not overridden, hence it will access the datamember
of Parent class always.
Rule: Runtime polymorphism can't be achieved by data members.
class Bike
{
int speedlimit=90;
}
class Honda3 extends Bike
{
int speedlimit=150;
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Bike obj=new Honda3( );
System.out.println(obj.speedlimit);//90
}
Runtime Polymorphism with Multilevel Inheritance
Simple example of Runtime Polymorphism with multilevel inheritance.
class Animal

82
{ OOP’S CONCEPTS
void eat( ) WITH CLASSES
{ AND OBJECTS
System.out.println("eating"); Notes
}}
class Dog extends Animal
{
void eat( )
{
System.out.println("eating fruits");
}}
class BabyDog extends Dog
{
void eat( )
{
System.out.println("drinking milk");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Animal a1,a2,a3;
a1=new Animal();
a2=new Dog();
a3=new BabyDog();
a1.eat();
a2.eat();
a3.eat();
}}
Abstract class
A class that is declared with abstract keyword, is known as abstract class
in java. It can have abstract and non-abstract methods (method with body).
Abstraction in Java
Abstraction is a process of hiding the implementation details and showing
only functionality to the user.
Another way, it shows only important things to the user and hides the
internal details for example sending sms, you just type the text and send
the message. You don't know the internal processing about the message
delivery

83
PROGRAMMING
There are two ways to achieve abstraction in java
IN JAVA
 Abstract class
NOTES
 Interface
Abstract class
A class that is declared as abstract is known as abstract class. It needs to be
extended and its method implemented. It cannot be instantiated.
Example abstract class
abstract class A
{
}
Abstract method
A method that is declared as abstract and does not have implementation is
known as abstract method.
Example abstract method
abstract void printStatus( );//no body and abstract
Example of abstract class that has abstract method
In this example, Bike the abstract class that contains only one abstract
method run. It implementation is provided by the Honda class.
abstract class Bike
{
abstract void run( );
}
class Honda4 extends Bike
{
void run( )
{
System.out.println("running safely..");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Bike obj = new Honda4();
obj.run();
}}
Understanding the real scenario of abstract class
In this example, Shape is the abstract class, its implementation is provided
by the Rectangle and Circle classes. Mostly, we don't know about the
84
implementation class (i.e. hidden to the end user) and object of the OOP’S CONCEPTS
implementation class is provided by the factory method. WITH CLASSES
A factory method is the method that returns the instance of the class. We AND OBJECTS
will learn about the factory method later.
Notes
In this example, if you create the instance of Rectangle class, draw()
method of Rectangle class will be invoked.
abstract class Shape
{
abstract void draw( );
}
class Rectangle extends Shape
{
void draw( )
{
System.out.println("drawing rectangle");
} }
class Circle1 extends Shape
{
void draw( )
{
System.out.println("drawing circle");}
}
//Method is called by programmer or user
class TestAbstraction1
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Shape s=new Circle1();//In real scenario,object is provided through metho
d e.g. getShape() method
s.draw();
} }
Abstract class having constructor, data member, methods etc.
An abstract class can have data member, abstract method, method body,
constructor and even main() method.
//example of abstract class that have method body
abstract class Bike
{
Bike( )
85
PROGRAMMING
{
IN JAVA
System.out.println("bike is created");
NOTES }
abstract void run();
void changeGear( )
{
System.out.println("gear changed");
}}
class Honda extends Bike
{
void run( )
{
System.out.println("running safely..");
} }
class TestAbstraction2
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Bike obj = new Honda();
obj.run();
obj.changeGear();
}}
Rule: If there is any abstract method in a class, that class must be
abstract.
class Bike12
{
abstract void run();
}
compile time error
Rule: If you are extending any abstract class that have abstract method,
you must either provide the implementation of the method or make this
class abstract.
Another real scenario of abstract class
The abstract class can also be used to provide some implementation of the
interface. In such case, the end user may not be forced to override all the
methods of the interface.

86
Note: If you are beginner to java, learn interface first and skip this OOP’S CONCEPTS
example. WITH CLASSES
interface A AND OBJECTS
{ Notes
void a();
void b();
void c();
void d();
}
abstract class B implements A
{
public void c( )
{
System.out.println("I am C");
}
}
class M extends B
{
public void a( )
{
System.out.println("I am a");
}
public void b( )
{
System.out.println("I am b");
}

public void d( )
{
System.out.println("I am d");
}
}
class Test5
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
A a=new M( );

87
PROGRAMMING IN
a.a( );
JAVA
a.b( );
NOTES a.c( );
a.d( );
}}
PACKAGES AND INTERFACE
A java package is a group of similar types of classes, interfaces and sub-
packages.
Package in java can be categorized in two form, built-in package
and user-defined package.
There are many built-in packages such as java, lang, awt, javax, swing,
net, io, util, sql etc.
Advantage of Java Package
1) Java package is used to categorize the classes and interfaces so
that they can be easily maintained.
2) Java package provides access protection.
3) Java package removes naming collision.

Simple example of package

The package keyword is used to create a package in java.
//save as Simple.java
package mypack;
public class Simple
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
System.out.println("Welcome to package");
}
}
88
How to access package from another package: OOP’S CONCEPTS
There are three ways to access the package from outside the package. WITH CLASSES
import package.*; AND OBJECTS
import package.classname; Notes
fully qualified name.
 Using packagename.*
If you use package.* then all the classes and interfaces of this package will
be accessible but not subpackages.
The import keyword is used to make the classes and interface of another
package accessible to the current package.

Example of package that import the packagename.*

//save by A.java
package pack;
public class A
{
public void msg( )
{
System.out.println("Hello");
}
}
//save by B.java
package mypack;
import pack.*;
class B
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
A obj = new A( );
obj.msg();
}}
 Using packagename.classname
If you import package.classname then only declared class of this package
will be accessible.
Example of package by import package.classname
//save by A.java
package pack;

89
PROGRAMMING
public class A
IN JAVA
{
NOTES public void msg( )
{
System.out.println("Hello");
}}
//save by B.java
package mypack;
import pack.A;
class B
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
A obj = new A();
obj.msg();
}}
 Using fully qualified name
If you use fully qualified name then only declared class of this package
will be accessible. Now there is no need to import. But you need to use
fully qualified name every time when you are accessing the class or
interface.
It is generally used when two packages have same class name e.g. java.util
and java.sql packages contain Date class.
Example of package by import fully qualified name
//save by A.java
package pack;
public class A
{
public void msg(){System.out.println("Hello");}
}
//save by B.java
package mypack;
class B{
public static void main(String args[]){
pack.A obj = new pack.A();//using fully qualified
name obj.msg();
}
}
90
If you import a package, all the classes and interface of that package will OOP’S CONCEPTS
be imported excluding the classes and interfaces of the subpackages. WITH CLASSES
Hence, you need to import the subpackage as well. AND OBJECTS
Note: Sequence of the program must be package then import then class.
Notes

Subpackage
Package inside the package is called the subpackage. It should be
created to categorize the package further.
Let's take an example, Sun Microsystem has definded a package
named java that contains many classes like System, String, Reader, Writer,
Socket etc. These classes represent a particular group e.g. Reader and
Writer classes are for Input/Output operation, Socket and ServerSocket
classes are for networking etc and so on. So, Sun has subcategorized the
java package into subpackages such as lang, net, io etc. and put the
Input/Output related classes in io package, Server and ServerSocket
classes in net packages and so on.
Example of Subpackage
package com.javatpoint.core;
class Simple
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
System.out.println("Hello subpackage");
}
}
There are two ways to load the class files temporary and permanent.
Temporary
 By setting the classpath in the command prompt
 By -classpath switch

91
PROGRAMMING
Permanent
IN JAVA
 By setting the classpath in the environment variables
NOTES  By creating the jar file, that contains all the class files, and copying
the jar file in the jre/lib/ext folder.

//save as C.java otherwise Compilte Time Error
class A
{
}
class B
{
}
public class C
{
}

How to put two public classes in a package

If you want to put two public classes in a package, have two java source
files containing one public class, but keep the package name same. For
example:
//save as A.java
package javatpoint;
public class A
{
}
//save as B.java
package javatpoint;
public class B
{
}
Interface
The interface in java is a mechanism to achieve fully abstraction. There
can be only abstract methods in the java interface not method body. It is
used to achieve fully abstraction and multiple inheritance in Java.
 Java Interface also represents IS-A relationship.
 It cannot be instantiated just like abstract class.

92
Uses of Java interface OOP’S CONCEPTS
There are mainly three reasons to use interface. They are given below. WITH CLASSES
AND OBJECTS
 It is used to achieve fully abstraction.
 By interface, we can support the functionality of multiple Notes
inheritance.
 It can be used to achieve loose coupling.
In other words, Interface fields are public, static and final bydefault, and
methods are public and abstract.

Understanding relationship between classes and

interfaces
As shown in the figure given below, a class extends another class, an
interface extends another interface but a class implements an interface.

Simple example of Java interface

In this example, Printable interface have only one method, its

93
PROGRAMMING
implementation is provided in the A class.
IN JAVA
interface printable
NOTES
{
void print( );
}
class A6 implements printable
{
public void print( )
{
System.out.println("Hello");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
A6 obj = new A6();
obj.print();
}
}
Multiple inheritance Using interface
If a class implements multiple interfaces, or an interface extends multiple
interfaces i.e. known as multiple inheritance.

interface Printable
{
void print();
}
interface Showable
{
void show();
}
class A7 implements Printable,Showable

94
{ OOP’S CONCEPTS
public void print( ) WITH CLASSES
{ AND OBJECTS
System.out.println("Hello"); Notes
}
public void show( )
{
System.out.println("Welcome");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
A7 obj = new A7( );
obj.print( );
obj.show( );
}
}
Interface & inheritance
A class implements interface but one interface extends another interface .
interface Printable
{
void print( );
}
interface Showable extends Printable
{
void show();
}
class Testinterface2 implements Showable
{
public void print( )
{
System.out.println("Hello");
}
public void show( )
{
System.out.println("Welcome");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
95
PROGRAMMING
{
IN JAVA
Testinterface2 obj = new Testinterface2();
NOTES obj.print();
obj.show();
}
}
Review & Self Assessment Question
1. What is class and object?
2. What is java naming convention?
3. What is package?
4. What is interface in java? And why we used.
5. Define abstract class.

Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey

IMPORTANT NOTES

96
UNIT-6 INTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCTION TO
STRING,ARRAYAND

STRING,ARRAYAND VECTOR VECTOR

Notes
Contents
 String
substring
 Mutable string
 Array
 Single Dimensional array
 Multidimensional Array
 Copying a java array
 Wrapper class
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings
In java, string is basically an object that represents sequence of char
values.
An array of characters works same as java string. For example:
char[ ] ch={'j','a','v','a','t','p','o','i','n','t'};
String s=new String(ch);
is same as:
String s="java";
The java.lang.String class
implements Serializable, Comparable and CharSequence interfaces.
The java String is immutable i.e. it cannot be changed but a new instance
is created. For mutable class, you can use StringBuffer and StringBuilder
class.
String
String is a sequence of characters. But in java, string is an object that
represents a sequence of characters. String class is used to create string
object.
How to create String object
There are two ways to create String object:
 By string literal
 By new keyword

97
PROGRAMMING
1) String Literal
IN JAVA
Java String literal is created by using double quotes. For
NOTES Example: String s="welcome";
Each time you create a string literal, the JVM checks the string constant
pool first. If the string already exists in the pool, a reference to the pooled
instance is returned. If string doesn't exist in the pool, a new string instance
is created and placed in the pool.
For example:
String s1="Welcome";
String s2="Welcome";//will not create new instance

In the above example only one object will be created. Firstly JVM will not
find any string object with the value "Welcome" in string constant pool, so
it will create a new object. After that it will find the string with the value
"Welcome" in the pool, it will not create new object but will return the
reference to the same instance.
java uses concept of string literal:
2) By new keyword
String s=new String("Welcome");//creates two objects and one reference
v ariable
In such case, JVM will create a new string object in normal(non pool)
heap memory and the literal "Welcome" will be placed in the string
constant pool. The variable s will refer to the object in heap(non pool).
Java String Example
public class StringExample
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String s1="java";//creating string by java string literal

98
char ch[ ]={'s','t','r','i','n','g','s'};
INTRODUCTION TO
String s2=new String(ch);//converting char array to string STRING,ARRAYAND
String s3=new String("example");//creating java string by new keyword VECTOR
System.out.println(s1);
Notes
System.out.println(s2);
System.out.println(s3);
}}
Java String class methods
The java.lang.String class provides many useful methods to perform
operations on sequence of char values.
No. Method Description

1 java –string-charat returns char value for the particular

index

2 java-string –length returns string length

3 java-string-format returns formatted string

4 java-string-format returns formatted string with given

locale

5 java-string-substring returns substring for given begin

index

6 java-string-substring returns substring for given begin

index and end index

7 java-string-contains returns true or false after matching

the sequence of char value

8 java-string-join returns a joined string

9 java-string-join returns a joined string

10 java-string-equals checks the equality of string with

object

11 java-string-isempty checks if string is empty

12 java-string-concat concatinates specified string

99
 PROGRAMMING String Concatenation in Java
IN JAVA
In java, string concatenation forms a new string that is the
NOTES combination of multiple strings. There are two ways to concat string in
13 java-string-replacejava:

14 java-string-replace

15 java-string-trim

16 java-string-split

17 java-string-split

18 java-string-intern

19 java-string-indexof

20 java-string-indexof

21 java-string-indexof

22 java-string-indexof

23 java-string-tolowercase

24 java-string-tolowercase

25 java-string-touppercase

26 java-string-touppercase

 By + (string concatenation) operator

 By concat() method
1) String Concatenation by + (string concatenation) operator
100
 Java string concatenation operator (+) is used to add strings.
INTRODUCTION TO
For Example: STRING,ARRAYAND
class TestStringConcatenation1 VECTOR
{
Notes
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String s="Ramesh "+" Singh";
System.out.println(s);//Ramesh Singh
}}
Substring in Java
A part of string is called substring. In other words, substring is a subset of
another string. In case of substring startIndex is inclusive and endIndex is
exclusive.
You can get substring from the given string object by one of the two
methods:
 public String substring(int startIndex): This method
returns new String object containing the substring of the
given string from specified startIndex (inclusive).
 public String substring(int startIndex, int
endIndex): This method returns new String object
containing the substring of
Example of java substring
public class TestSubstring
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String s=" Ramesh Tendulkar";
System.out.println(s.substring(6));//Tendulkar
System.out.println(s.substring(0,6));//Ramesh
}}
Comparisons Of String :
We can compare string in java on the basis of content and reference.
It is used in authentication (by equals() method), sorting (by compareTo()
method)etc.
There are three ways to compare string in java:
 By equals() Method
 By compareTo() Method
101
PROGRAMMING
By equals() method
IN JAVA
1) String compare by equals ( ) method
NOTES The String equals() method compares the original content of the string. It
compares values of string for equality. String class provides two methods:
 public boolean equals(Object another) compares this string to the
specified object.
 public boolean equalsIgnoreCase(String another) compares this
String to another string, ignoring case.
class Teststringcomparison1
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String s1="Akhilesh ";
String s2="Akhilesh";
String s3=new String("Sachin");
String s4="Furkan";
System.out.println(s1.equals(s2));//true
System.out.println(s1.equals(s3));//true
System.out.println(s1.equals(s4));//false
}}
class Teststringcomparison2
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String s1="Akhilesh";
String s2="AKHILESH";
System.out.println(s1.equals(s2));//false
System.out.println(s1.equalsIgnoreCase(s3));//true
}}
2) String compare by compareTo( ) method
The String compareTo() method compares values lexicographically and
returns an integer value that describes if first string is less than, equal to or
greater than second string.
Suppose s1 and s2 are two string variables. If:
s1 == s2 : returns zero
s1 > s2 : returns +v Integer
s1 < s2 : returns –v Integer

102
class Teststringcomparison4
INTRODUCTION TO
{ STRING,ARRAYAND
public static void main(String args[ ]) VECTOR
{
Notes
String
s1="Akhilesh";
String
s2="Akhilesh";
String s3="Furkan";
System.out.println(s1.compareTo(s2)); //0
System.out.println(s1.compareTo(s3)); // -v Integer
System.out.println(s3.compareTo(s1));// +v Integer
}}
String concat( )
The java string concat( ) method combines specified string at the end of
this string. It returns combined string. It is like appending another string.
Signature
The signature of string concat( ) method is given below:
public String concat(String anotherString)
Parameter
anotherString : another string i.e. to be combined at the end of this string.
Returns
combined string
Java String concat( ) method example
public class ConcatExample
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String s1=" AKHILESH";
s1.concat(" FURKAN ");
System.out.println(s1);
s1=s1.concat(" is immutable so assign it explicitly");
System.out.println(s1);
}}
String contains( )
The java string contains( ) method searches the sequence of characters in
this string. It returns true if sequence of char values are found in this string
otherwise returns false.

103
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA Signature
The signature of string contains() method is given below:
NOTES
public boolean contains(CharSequence sequence)
Parameter
sequence : specifies the sequence of characters to be searched.
Returns
true if sequence of char value exists, otherwise false.
Throws
NullPointerException : if sequence is
null. Java String contains( ) method
example class ContainsExample
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String name="what do you know about me";
System.out.println(name.contains("do you know"));
System.out.println(name.contains("about"));
System.out.println(name.contains("hello"));
}}
String length
The java string length() method length of the string. It returns count of
total number of characters. The length of java string is same as the unicode
code units of the string.
Signature
The signature of the string length( ) method is given below:
public int length()
Specified by
CharSequence interface
Returns
length of characters
Java String length() method example:
public class LengthExample
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String s1="javatpoint";
String s2="python";
104
System.out.println("string length is: "+s1.length());//10 is the length of jav
INTRODUCTION TO
atpoint string STRING,ARRAYAND
System.out.println("string length is: "+s2.length());//6 is the length of pyth VECTOR
on string
Notes
}}
Java String indexOf
The java string indexOf( ) method returns index of given character value .
If it is not found, it returns -1. The index counter starts from zero.
Signature
There are 2 types of indexOf method in java. The signature of indexOf
methods are given below:
No. Method Description

1 int indexOf(int ch) returns index position for the given

char value

2 int indexOf(int ch, int fromIndex) returns index position for the given
char value and from index

Parameters
ch: char value i.e. a single character e.g. 'a'
fromIndex: index position from where index of the char value or substring
is retured substring: substring to be searched in this string
Returns
index of the string
Java String indexOf( ) method example
public class IndexOfExample
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String s1="this is index of example";
//passing substring
int index1=s1.indexOf("is");//returns the index of is substring
int index2=s1.indexOf("index");//returns the index of index substring
System.out.println(index1+" "+index2);//2 8
//passing substring with from index
int index3=s1.indexOf("is",4);//returns the index of is substring after 4th in
dex
System.out.println(index3);//5 i.e. the index of another is
105
PROGRAMMING
//passing char value
IN JAVA
int index4=s1.indexOf('s');//returns the index of s char value
NOTES System.out.println(index4);//3
}}
Java String charAt()
The java string charAt() method returns a char value at the given index
number. The index number starts from 0.
Signature
The signature of string charAt() method is given below:
public char charAt(int index)
Parameter
index : index number, starts with 0
Returns
char value
Specified by
CharSequence interface
Throws
IndexOutOfBoundsException : if index is negative value or greater than
this string length.
Java String charAt( ) method example
public class CharAtExample
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
String name="javaprint";
char ch=name.charAt(4);//returns the char value at the 4th index
System.out.println(ch);
}}
Java String equals
The java string equals() method compares the two given strings based on
the content of the string. If any character is not matched, it returns false. If
all characters are matched, it returns true.
The String equals() method overrides the equals() method of Object class.
Signature
public boolean equals(Object anotherObject)
Parameter
anotherObject : another object i.e. compared with this string.
106
Returns INTRODUCTION TO
true if characters of both strings are equal otherwise false. STRING,ARRAYAND
VECTOR
Overrides
equals() method of java Object class. Notes
Java String equals() method
example public class EqualsExample
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
String s1="javap";
String s2="javap";
String s3="JAVAP";
String s4="python";
System.out.println(s1.equals(s2));//true because content and case is same
System.out.println(s1.equals(s3));//false because case is not same
System.out.println(s1.equals(s4));//false because content is not same
}}
Java StringBuffer class
Java StringBuffer class is used to created mutable (modifiable) string. The
StringBuffer class in java is same as String class except it is mutable i.e. it
can be changed.
Important Constructors of StringBuffer class
StringBuffer( ): creates an empty string buffer with the initial capacity of
16.
StringBuffer(String str): creates a string buffer with the specified string.
StringBuffer(int capacity): creates an empty string buffer with the
specified capacity as length.
Important methods of StringBuffer class
public synchronized StringBuffer append(String s): is used to append
the specified string with this string. The append() method is overloaded
like append(char), append(boolean), append(int), append(float),
append(double) etc.
public synchronized StringBuffer insert(int offset, String s): is used to
insert the specified string with this string at the specified position. The
insert() method is overloaded like insert(int, char), insert(int, boolean),
insert(int, int), insert(int, float), insert(int, double) etc.

107
PROGRAMMING
public synchronized StringBuffer replace(int startIndex, int endIndex,
IN JAVA
String str): is used to replace the string from specified startIndex and
NOTES endIndex.
public synchronized StringBuffer delete(int startIndex, int
endIndex): is used to delete the string from specified startIndex and
endIndex.
public synchronized StringBuffer reverse(): is used to reverse the string.
public int capacity(): is used to return the current capacity.
public void ensureCapacity(int minimumCapacity): is used to ensure
the capacity at least equal to the given minimum.
public char charAt(int index): is used to return the character at the
specified position.
public int length(): is used to return the length of the string i.e. total
number of characters.
public String substring(int beginIndex): is used to return the substring
from the specified beginIndex.
public String substring(int beginIndex, int endIndex): is used to return
the substring from the specified beginIndex and endIndex.
Mutable string
A string that can be modified or changed is known as mutable string.
StringBuffer and StringBuilder classes are used for creating mutable
string.
1) StringBuffer append() method
The append( ) method concatenates the given argument with this
string.
class A
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer("Hello ");
sb.append("Java");//now original string is changed
System.out.println(sb);//prints Hello Java
}}
2) StringBuffer insert() method
The insert() method inserts the given string with this string at the given
position.
class A
{
108
 public static void main(String args[ ])
INTRODUCTION TO
{ STRING,ARRAYAND
StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer("Hello "); VECTOR
sb.insert(1,"Java");//now original string is changed
Notes
System.out.println(sb);//prints HJavaello
}}
3) StringBuffer replace( ) method
The replace() method replaces the given string from the specified
beginIndex and endIndex.
class A
{
public static void main(String args[])
{ StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer("Hello");
sb.replace(1,3,"Java");
System.out.println(sb);//prints HJavalo
}}
4) StringBuffer delete() method
The delete() method of StringBuffer class deletes the string from the
specified beginIndex to endIndex.
class A
{
public static void main(String args[ ])\
{
StringBuffer sb=new
StringBuffer("Hello"); sb.delete(1,3);
System.out.println(sb);//prints Hlo
}}
5) StringBuffer reverse( ) method
The reverse() method of StringBuilder class reverses the current string.
class A
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer("Hello");
sb.reverse();
System.out.println(sb);//prints olleH
}}

109
PROGRAMMING
6) StringBuffer capacity( ) method
IN JAVA
The capacity() method of StringBuffer class returns the current capacity of
NOTES the buffer. The default capacity of the buffer is 16. If the number of
character increases from its current capacity, it increases the capacity by
(oldcapacity*2)+2.
For example if your current capacity is 16, it will be
(16*2)+2=34. class A
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer();
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//default 16
sb.append("Hello");
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now 16
sb.append("java is my favourite language");
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now (16*2)+2=34
}}
7) StringBuffer ensureCapacity( ) method
The ensureCapacity() method of StringBuffer class ensures that the given
capacity is the minimum to the current capacity. If it is greater than the
current capacity, it increases the capacity by (oldcapacity*2)+2. For
example if your current capacity is 16, it will be (16*2)+2=34.
class A
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer();
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//default 16
sb.append("Hello");
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now 16
sb.append("java is my favourite language");
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now (16*2)+2=34
sb.ensureCapacity(10);//now no change
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now 34
sb.ensureCapacity(50);//now (34*2)+2
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now 70
} }

110
Array INTRODUCTION TO
Array is a collection of similar type of elements that have contiguous STRING,ARRAYAND
memory location. VECTOR
Java array is an object the contains elements of similar data type. It is a Notes
data structure where we store similar elements. We can store only fixed set
of elements in a java array.
Array in java is index based, first element of the array is stored at 0 index.

Advantage of Array
 Code Optimization: It makes the code optimized, we can retrieve
or sort the data easily.
 Random access: We can get any data located at any index position.
Disadvantage of Array
 Size Limit: We can store only fixed size of elements in the array. It
doesn't grow its size at runtime. To solve this problem, collection
framework is used in java.
Types of Array
There are two types of array.
 Single Dimensional Array
 Multidimensional
Array Single Dimensional
Array
Syntax to Declare an Array in java
dataType[ ] arr; (or)
dataType [ ]arr; (or)
dataType arr[ ];
Instantiation of an Array
arrayRefVar=new datatype[size];
Example of single dimensional array
Let's see the simple example of java array, where we are going to declare,
instantiate, initialize and traverse an array.
class Testarray
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
111
PROGRAMMING
{
IN JAVA
int a[ ]=new int[5];//declaration and instantiation
NOTES a[0]=10;//initialization
a[1]=20;
a[2]=70;
a[3]=40;
a[4]=50;
//printing array
for(int i=0;i<a.length;i++)//length is the property of array
System.out.println(a[i]);
}}
Declaration, Instantiation and Initialization Array
We can declare, instantiate and initialize the java array together by:
int a[ ]={33,3,4,5};//declaration, instantiation and initialization
Let's see the simple example to print this array.
class Testarray1
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
int a[]={33,3,4,5};//declaration, instantiation and initialization

//printing array
for(int i=0;i<a.length;i++)//length is the property of array
System.out.println(a[i]);
}}
Passing Array to method
We can pass the java array to method so that we can reuse the same logic
on any array.
Let's see the simple example to get minimum number of an array using
method.
class Testarray2
{
static void min(int arr[ ])
{
int min=arr[0];
for(int i=1;i<arr.length;i++)
if(min>arr[i])
112
min=arr[i];
INTRODUCTION TO
System.out.println(min); STRING,ARRAYAND
} VECTOR
public static void main(String args[ ])
Notes
{
int a[]={33,3,4,5};
min(a);//passing array to method
}}
Multidimensional array
In such case, data is stored in row and column based index (also known as
matrix form).
Syntax to Declare Multidimensional Array
dataType[][] arrayRefVar; (or)
dataType [][]arrayRefVar; (or)
dataType arrayRefVar[][]; (or)
dataType []arrayRefVar[];
Example to instantiate Multidimensional Array
int[][] arr=new int[3][3];//3 row and 3 column
Example to initialize Multidimensional Array in java
arr[0][0]=1;
arr[0][1]=2;
arr[0][2]=3;
arr[1][0]=4;
arr[1][1]=5;
arr[1][2]=6;
arr[2][0]=7;
arr[2][1]=8;
arr[2][2]=9;
Example of Multidimensional Array
Let's see the simple example to declare, instantiate, initialize and print the
2Dimensional array.
class Testarray3
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
//declaring and initializing 2D array
int arr[][]={{1,2,3},{2,4,5},{4,4,5}};
113
PROGRAMMING
//printing 2D array
IN JAVA
for(int i=0;i<3;i++)
NOTES { for(int j=0;j<3;j++){
System.out.print(arr[i][j]+" ");
}
System.out.println();
}}}
Copying a java array
We can copy an array to another by the arraycopy method of System class.
Syntax of arraycopy method
public static void arraycopy( Object src, int srcPos,Object dest, int destPos
, int length )
Example of arraycopy method
class TestArrayCopyDemo
{
public static void main(String[ ] args)
{
char[] copyFrom = { 'd', 'e', 'c', 'a', 'f', 'f', 'e',
'i', 'n', 'a', 't', 'e', 'd' };
char[] copyTo = new char[7];
System.arraycopy(copyFrom, 2, copyTo, 0, 7);
System.out.println(new String(copyTo));
}}
Addition of 2 matrices
Let's see a simple example that adds two matrices.
class Testarray5
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
//creating two matrices
int a[][]={{1,3,4},{3,4,5}};
int b[][]={{1,3,4},{3,4,5}};
//creating another matrix to store the sum of two matrices
int c[][]=new int[2][3];
//adding and printing addition of 2 matrices
for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
114
for(int j=0;j<3;j++)
INTRODUCTION TO
{ STRING,ARRAYAND
c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j]; VECTOR
System.out.print(c[i][j]+" ");
Notes
}
System.out.println();//new line
}}}
Wrapper class
Wrapper class in java provides the mechanism to convert primitive into
object and object into primitive.
Since J2SE 5.0, autoboxing and unboxing feature converts primitive into
object and object into primitive automatically. The automatic conversion
of primitive into object is known and autoboxing and vice-versa unboxing.
One of the eight classes of java.lang package are known as wrapper class
in java. The list of eight wrapper classes are given below:

Primitive Data Type Wrapper class

Boolean Boolean
Char Character

Byte Byte

Short Short

Int Integer

Long Long

Float Float

Double Double
Wrapper class Example: Primitive to Wrapper
public class WrapperExample1
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
//Converting int into Integer
int a=20;

115
PROGRAMMING
Integer i=Integer.valueOf(a);//converting int into Integer
IN JAVA
Integer j=a;//autoboxing, now compiler will write Integer.valueOf(a) intern
NOTES ally
System.out.println(a+" "+i+" "+j);
}}
Wrapper class Example: Wrapper to Primitive
public class WrapperExample2
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
//Converting Integer to int
Integer a=new Integer(3);
int i=a.intValue();//converting Integer to int
int j=a;//unboxing, now compiler will write a.intValue() internally
System.out.println(a+" "+i+" "+j);
}}
Review & Self Assessment Question
1. What are the uses of new keyword in string?
2. What is substring in java?
3. Why we use concatenate method ( ).
4. What is mutable string .
5. What is wrapper class.

Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey

116
 UNIT-7 EXCEPTION EXCEPTION
HANDLING

HANDLING Notes

Contents
 Exception
Exception Handling
 Hierarchy of Java Exception Classes
 Types of Exception
 Try and Catch
 Throw
 Throws
 Finally
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings

Exception
Exception is an abnormal condition. In java, exception is an event that
disrupts the normal flow of the program. It is an object which is thrown at
runtime.
Exception handling
Exception Handling is a mechanism to handle runtime errors such as
ClassNotFound, IO, SQL, Remote etc.
Advantage of Exception Handling
The core advantage of exception handling is to maintain the normal flow
of the application. Exception normally disrupts the normal flow of the
application that is why we use exception handling.
For example :
statement 1;
statement 2;
statement 3;
statement 4;
statement 5;//exception occurs
statement 6;
statement 7;

117
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA Suppose there is 7 statements in your program and there occurs an
NOTES
exception at statement 5, rest of the code will not be executed i.e.
statement 6 to 7 will not run. If we perform exception handling, rest of the
statement will be executed. That is why we use exception handling in java.
Hierarchy of Java Exception classes

Types of Exception
There are mainly two types of exceptions: checked and unchecked where
error is considered as unchecked exception. The sun microsystem says
there are three types of exceptions:
 Checked Exception
 Unchecked Exception
 Error
1) Checked Exception
The classes that extend Throwable class except RuntimeException and
Error are known as checked exceptions e.g.IOException, SQLException
etc. Checked exceptions are checked at compile-time.
2) Unchecked Exception
The classes that extend RuntimeException are known as unchecked
exceptions e.g. ArithmeticException, NullPointerException,
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException etc. Unchecked exceptions are not
checked at compile-time rather they are checked at runtime.

118
3) Error EXCEPTION
Error is irrecoverable e.g. OutOfMemoryError, VirtualMachineError, HANDLING
AssertionError etc.
Notes
Common scenarios where exceptions may occur
There are given some scenarios where unchecked exceptions can occur.
They are as follows:
1) ArithmeticException occurs
If we divide any number by zero, there occurs an ArithmeticException.
int a=50/0;//ArithmeticException
2) NullPointerException occurs
If we have null value in any variable, performing any operation by the
variable occurs an NullPointerException.
String s=null;
System.out.println(s.length());//NullPointerException
3)NumberFormatException occurs
The wrong formatting of any value, may occur NumberFormatException.
Suppose I have a string variable that have characters, converting this
variable into digit will occur NumberFormatException.
String s="abc";
int i=Integer.parseInt(s);//NumberFormatException
4) ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException occurs
If you are inserting any value in the wrong index, it would result
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException as shown below:
int a[]=new int[5];
a[10]=50; //ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
Exception Handling Keywords
There are 5 keywords used in java exception handling.
 try
 catch
 finally
 throw
 throws
Try block
Java try block is used to enclose the code that might throw an exception. It
must be used within the method.Java try block must be followed by either
catch or finally block.

119
PROGRAMMING
Syntax of java try-catch:
IN JAVA
try
NOTES {
//code that may throw exception
}catch(Exception_class_Name ref)
{ }
Syntax of try-finally block
try
{
//code that may throw exception
}
finally
{}
Catch block
Java catch block is used to handle the Exception. It must be used after the
try block only.
You can use multiple catch block with a single try.
Problem without exception handling
Let's try to understand the problem if we don't use try-catch block.
public class Testtrycatch1
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
int data=50/0;//may throw exception
System.out.println("rest of the code...");
}}
Internal working of java try-catch block

120
 EXCEPTION
The JVM firstly checks whether the exception is handled or not. If HANDLING
exception is not handled, JVM provides a default exception handler that
Notes
performs the following tasks:
 Prints out exception description.
 Prints the stack trace (Hierarchy of methods where the exception
occurred).
 Causes the program to terminate.
But if exception is handled by the application programmer, normal flow of
the application is maintained i.e. rest of the code is executed.
Multi catch block
If you have to perform different tasks at the occurrence of different
Exceptions, use java multi catch block.
Example of java multi-catch block
public class TestMultipleCatchBlock
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
try
{
int a[ ]=new int[5];
a[5]=30/0;
}
catch(ArithmeticException e)
{
System.out.println("task1 is completed");
}
catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e){System.out.println("task 2 co
mpleted");
}
catch(Exception e){System.out.println("common task completed");}

System.out.println("rest of the code...");

}
}

121
PROGRAMMING
Rule: At a time only one Exception is occured and at a time only one
IN JAVA
catch block is executed.
NOTES Rule: All catch blocks must be ordered from most specific to most
general i.e. catch for ArithmeticException must come before catch for
Exception .
class TestMultipleCatchBlock1
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try{
int a[]=new int[5];
a[5]=30/0;
}
catch(Exception e)
{
System.out.println("common task completed");
}
catch(ArithmeticException e)
{
System.out.println("task1 is completed");
}
catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e)
{
System.out.println("task 2 completed");
}
System.out.println("rest of the code...");
}
}
Throw keyword
The Java throw keyword is used to explicitly throw an exception.
We can throw either checked or uncheked exception in java by throw
keyword. The throw keyword is mainly used to throw custom exception.
The syntax of java throw keyword is given below.
throw exception;
throw new IOException("sorry device error);

122
 EXCEPTION
Throw keyword example HANDLING
In this example, we have created the validate method that takes integer
Notes
value as a parameter. If the age is less than 18, we are throwing the
ArithmeticException otherwise print a message welcome to vote.
public class TestThrow1
{
static void validate(int age)
{
if(age<18)
throw new ArithmeticException("not valid");
else
System.out.println("welcome to vote");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
validate(13);
System.out.println("rest of the code...");
}}
Throws keyword
The Java throws keyword is used to declare an exception. It gives an
information to the programmer that there may occur an exception so it is
better for the programmer to provide the exception handling code so that
normal flow can be maintained.
Exception Handling is mainly used to handle the checked exceptions. If
there occurs any unchecked exception such as NullPointerException, it is
programmers fault that he is not performing check up before the code
being used.
Syntax of java throws
return_type method_name( ) throws exception_class_name
{
//method code
}
Advantage of Java throws keyword
Now Checked Exception can be propagated (forwarded in call stack).
 It provides information to the caller of the method about
the exception.

123
PROGRAMMING
Example:
IN JAVA
Example of java throws clause which describes that checked exceptions
NOTES can be propagated by throws keyword.
import java.io.IOException;
class Testthrows1
{
void m( )throws IOException
{
throw new IOException("device error");//checked exception
}
void n( )throws IOException
{
m( );
}
void p( )
{
try{
n( );
}catch(Exception e)
{
System.out.println("exception handled");
}
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Testthrows1 obj=new Testthrows1();
obj.p();
System.out.println("normal flow...");
}
}
Finally block
Finally block is a block that is used to execute important code such as
closing connection, stream etc.
Java finally block is always executed whether exception is handled or not.
Java finally block must be followed by try or catch block.

124
 EXCEPTION
HANDLING

Notes

Usage of Java finally

The different cases where java finally block can be used.
Case:1
The java finally example where exception doesn't occur.
class TestFinallyBlock
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
try
{
int data=25/5;
System.out.println(data);
}
catch(NullPointerException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
Finally
{
System.out.println("finally block is always executed");
}
System.out.println("rest of the code...");
} }

125
PROGRAMMING
Case:2
IN JAVA
The java finally example where exception occurs and not handled.
NOTES class TestFinallyBlock1
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Try
{
int data=25/0;
System.out.println(data);
}
catch(NullPointerException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
finally
{
System.out.println("finally block is always
executed");} System.out.println("rest of the code...");
}}
Case:3
The java finally example where exception occurs and handled.
public class TestFinallyBlock2
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Try
{
int data=25/0;
System.out.println(data);
}
catch(ArithmeticException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}

126
 EXCEPTION
Finally HANDLING
{ Notes
System.out.println("finally block is always executed");}
System.out.println("rest of the code...");
} }
Review & Self Assessment Question

1. What is exception handling?

2. What are the advantage of exception handling in java.
3. Define throws Keyword?
4. What are the hierarchies of Java exception classes.
5. What are the advantage of java throw keyword?

Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey

127
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA UNIT- 8 MULTI THREADING
NOTES
Contents
 Multithreading
 Thread
 Multitasking
 Life cycle of Thread
 Thread Scheduler in java
 Naming a thread
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings
Multithreading in java is a process of executing multiple threads
simultaneously.
Thread is basically a lightweight sub-process, a smallest unit of
processing. Multiprocessing and multithreading, both are used to achieve
multitasking.
But we use multithreading than multiprocessing because threads share a
common memory area. They don't allocate separate memory area so saves
memory, and context-switching between the threads takes less time than
process.
Java Multithreading is mostly used in games, animation etc.
Advantage of Java Multithreading
 It doesn't block the user because threads are
independent and you can perform multiple operations at
same time.
 2) You can perform many operations together so it
saves time.
 3) Threads are independent so it doesn't affect other
threads if exception occur in a single thread.
Multitasking
Multitasking is a process of executing multiple tasks simultaneously. We use
multitasking to utilize the CPU. Multitasking can be achieved by two
ways:
 Process-based Multitasking(Multiprocessing)
 Thread-based Multitasking(Multithreading)
128
1) Process-based Multitasking (Multiprocessing)
MULTI THREADING
Each process have its own address in memory i.e. each process allocates
separate memory area. Notes
 Process is heavyweight.
 Cost of communication between the process is high.
 Switching from one process to another require some time for
saving and loading registers, memory maps, updating lists etc.
2) Thread-based Multitasking (Multithreading)
 Threads share the same address space.
 Thread is lightweight.
 Cost of communication between the thread is low.
Thread in java
A thread is a lightweight sub process, a smallest unit of processing. It is a
separate path of execution.
Threads are independent, if there occurs exception in one thread, it doesn't
affect other threads. It shares a common memory area.

As shown in the above figure, thread is executed inside the process. There
is context-switching between the threads. There can be multiple processes
inside the OS and one process can have multiple threads.
Life cycle of a Thread
A thread can be in one of the five states. According to sun, there is only 4
states in thread life cycle in java new, runnable, non-runnable and
terminated. There is no running state.
But for better understanding the threads, we are explaining it in the 5
states.

129
PROGRAMMING
The life cycle of the thread in java is controlled by JVM. The java thread
IN JAVA
states are as follows:
NOTES  New
 Runnable
 Running
 Non-Runnable (Blocked)
 Terminated

1) New
The thread is in new state if you create an instance of Thread class but
before the invocation of start() method.
2) Runnable
The thread is in runnable state after invocation of start() method, but the
thread scheduler has not selected it to be the running thread.
3) Running
The thread is in running state if the thread scheduler has selected it.
4) Non-Runnable (Blocked)
This is the state when the thread is still alive, but is currently not eligible to
run.
5) Terminated
A thread is in terminated or dead state when its run() method exits.
There are two ways to create a thread:
 By extending Thread class
 By implementing Runnable interface.

130
Thread class: MULTI THREADING
Thread class provide constructors and methods to create and perform
Notes
operations on a thread.Thread class extends Object class and implements
Runnable interface.
Commonly used Constructors of Thread class:
 Thread()
 Thread(String name)
 Thread(Runnable r)
 Thread(Runnable r,String name)
Commonly used methods of Thread class:
 public void run(): is used to perform action for a thread.
 public void start(): starts the execution of the thread.JVM calls the
run() method on the thread.
 public void sleep(long miliseconds): Causes the currently
executing thread to sleep (temporarily cease execution) for the
specified number of milliseconds.
 public void join(): waits for a thread to die.
 public void join(long miliseconds): waits for a thread to die for the
specified miliseconds.
 public int getPriority(): returns the priority of the thread.
 public int setPriority(int priority): changes the priority of the
thread.
 public String getName(): returns the name of the thread.
 public void setName(String name): changes the name of the thread.
 public Thread currentThread(): returns the reference of currently
executing thread.
 public int getId(): returns the id of the thread.
 public Thread.State getState(): returns the state of the thread.
 public boolean isAlive(): tests if the thread is alive.
 public void yield(): causes the currently executing thread object to
temporarily pause and allow other threads to execute.
 public void suspend(): is used to suspend the thread(depricated).
 public void resume(): is used to resume the suspended
thread(depricated).
 public void stop(): is used to stop the thread(depricated).

131
PROGRAMMING
 public boolean isDaemon(): tests if the thread is a daemon thread.
IN JAVA
 public void setDaemon(boolean b): marks the thread as daemon or
NOTES user thread.
 public void interrupt(): interrupts the thread.
 public boolean isInterrupted(): tests if the thread has been
interrupted.
 public static boolean interrupted(): tests if the current thread has
been interrupted.
Runnable interface:
The Runnable interface should be implemented by any class whose
instances are intended to be executed by a thread. Runnable interface have
only one method named run().
public void run(): is used to perform action for a thread.
Starting a thread:
start( ) method of Thread class is used to start a newly created thread. It
performs following tasks:
 A new thread starts(with new callstack).
 The thread moves from New state to the Runnable state.
 When the thread gets a chance to execute, its target run() method
will run.
1) By extending Thread class:
class Multi extends Thread
{
public void run( )
{
System.out.println("thread is running...");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Multi t1=new Multi();
t1.start();
}}
Thread class constructor allocates a new thread object.When you create
object of Multi class,your class constructor is invoked(provided by
Compiler) fromwhere Thread class constructor is invoked(by super() as

132
first statement).So your Multi class object is thread object now.
MULTI THREADING
2) By implementing the Runnable interface:
Notes
class Multi3 implements Runnable
{
public void run( )
{
System.out.println("thread is running...");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
Multi3 m1=new Multi3( );
Thread t1 =new Thread(m1);
t1.start( );
}}
Thread Scheduler in Java
Thread scheduler in java is the part of the JVM that decides which thread
should run.
There is no guarantee that which runnable thread will be chosen to run by
the thread scheduler.
Only one thread at a time can run in a single process.
The thread scheduler mainly uses preemptive or time slicing scheduling to
schedule the threads.
Difference between preemptive scheduling and time
slicing
Under preemptive scheduling, the highest priority task executes until it
enters the waiting or dead states or a higher priority task comes into
existence. Under time slicing, a task executes for a predefined slice of time
and then reenters the pool of ready tasks. The scheduler then determines
which task should execute next, based on priority and other factors.
Sleep method in java
The sleep() method of Thread class is used to sleep a thread for the
specified amount of time.
Syntax : sleep() method in java
The Thread class provides two methods for sleeping a thread:
 public static void sleep(long miliseconds)throws
InterruptedException

133
PROGRAMMING
 public static void sleep(long miliseconds, int nanos)throws
IN JAVA
InterruptedException
NOTES Example
class TestSleepMethod1 extends Thread
{
public void run( )
{
for(int i=1;i<5;i++)
{
try
{
Thread.sleep(500);
}catch(InterruptedException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
System.out.println(i);
}}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
TestSleepMethod1 t1=new TestSleepMethod1();
TestSleepMethod1 t2=new TestSleepMethod1();
t1.start();
t2.start();
}}
Note : if we call run() method directly instead start() method
Each thread starts in a separate call stack.
Invoking the run() method from main thread, the run() method goes onto
the current call stack rather than at the beginning of a new call stack.

class TestCallRun1 extends Thread

{
public void run( )
{
System.out.println("running...");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
134
{
MULTI THREADING
TestCallRun1 t1=new TestCallRun1();
t1.run();//fine, but does not start a separate call stack Notes
}}
The join() method:
The join() method waits for a thread to die. In other words, it causes the
currently running threads to stop executing until the thread it joins with
completes its task.
Syntax:
public void join()throws InterruptedException
public void join(long milliseconds)throws InterruptedException
Example of join() method
class TestJoinMethod1 extends Thread
{
public void run( )
{
for(int i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
try
{
Thread.sleep(500);
}catch(Exception e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
System.out.println(i);
}}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
TestJoinMethod1 t1=new TestJoinMethod1();
TestJoinMethod1 t2=new TestJoinMethod1();
TestJoinMethod1 t3=new TestJoinMethod1();
t1.start();
try
{
t1.join( );
135
PROGRAMMING
}catch(Exception e)
IN JAVA
{
NOTES System.out.println(e);
}
t2.start();
t3.start();
}}
getName(),setName(String) and getId() method:
 public String getName()
 public void setName(String name)
 public long getId( )
class TestJoinMethod3 extends Thread
{
public void run()
{
System.out.println("running...");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
TestJoinMethod3 t1=new TestJoinMethod3();
TestJoinMethod3 t2=new TestJoinMethod3();
System.out.println("Name of t1:"+t1.getName());
System.out.println("Name of t2:"+t2.getName());
System.out.println("id of t1:"+t1.getId());
t1.start();
t2.start();
t1.setName("Sonoo Jaiswal");
System.out.println("After changing name of t1:"+t1.getName());
}}
The currentThread() method:
The currentThread() method returns a reference to the currently executing
thread object.
Syntax:
public static Thread currentThread()

136
Example of currentThread() method MULTI THREADING
class TestJoinMethod4 extends Thread
Notes
{
public void run( )
{
System.out.println(Thread.currentThread().getName());
} }
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
TestJoinMethod4 t1=new TestJoinMethod4( );
TestJoinMethod4 t2=new TestJoinMethod4( );
t1.start();
t2.start();
}}
Naming a thread:
The Thread class provides methods to change and get the name of a thread.
 public String getName(): is used to return the name of a thread.
 public void setName(String name): is used to change the name of a
thread.
Example of naming a thread:
class TestMultiNaming1 extends Thread
{
public void run( )
{
System.out.println("running...");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
TestMultiNaming1 t1=new TestMultiNaming1(
); TestMultiNaming1 t2=new TestMultiNaming1(
); System.out.println("Name of t1:"+t1.getName(
)); System.out.println("Name of t2:"+t2.getName(
)); t1.start( );
t2.start( );
t1.setName("Sonoo ");
System.out.println("After changing name of t1:"+t1.getName());

137
PROGRAMMING
}
IN JAVA
}
NOTES The currentThread() method:
The currentThread() method returns a reference to the currently executing
thread object.
Syntax of currentThread() method:
public static Thread currentThread(): returns the reference of currently
running thread.
Example of currentThread() method:
class TestMultiNaming2 extends Thread
{
public void run( )
{
System.out.println(Thread.currentThread().getName());
}
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
TestMultiNaming2 t1=new TestMultiNaming2(
); TestMultiNaming2 t2=new TestMultiNaming2(
); t1.start();
t2.start();
} }
Priority of a Thread (Thread Priority):
Each thread have a priority. Priorities are represented by a number
between 1 and 10. In most cases, thread schedular schedules the threads
according to their priority (known as preemptive scheduling). But it is not
guaranteed because it depends on JVM specification that which scheduling
it chooses.
3 constants defiend in Thread class:
 public static int MIN_PRIORITY
 public static int NORM_PRIORITY
 public static int MAX_PRIORITY
Default priority of a thread is 5 (NORM_PRIORITY). The value of
MIN_PRIORITY is 1 and the value of MAX_PRIORITY is 10.

138
Example of priority of a Thread: MULTI THREADING
class TestMultiPriority1 extends Thread
Notes
{
public void run( )
{
System.out.println("running thread name is:"+Thread.currentThread(
).getName( ));
System.out.println("running thread priority is:"+Thread.currentThread(
).getPriority( ));
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
TestMultiPriority1 m1=new TestMultiPriority1();
TestMultiPriority1 m2=new TestMultiPriority1();
m1.setPriority(Thread.MIN_PRIORITY);
m2.setPriority(Thread.MAX_PRIORITY);
m1.start();
m2.start();
}}
Review & Self Assessment Question
1. Define the term thread.
2. What is multithreading?
3. Explain life cycle of thread?
4. What is preemptive scheduling in java?
5. What is thread scheduler in java?

Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey

139
PROGRAMMING IN
JAVA
UNIT-9 APPLET
NOTES
Contents
 Applet
 Hierarchy of Applet
 Life cycle of Applet
 Displaying Graphics in Applet
 AWT
 Event Handling
 Java AWT Hierarchy
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings
Applet is a special type of program that is embedded in the webpage to
generate the dynamic content. It runs inside the browser and works at
client side.
Advantage of Applet
There are many advantages of
applet. They are as follows:
 It works at client side so less response time.
 Secured
 It can be executed by browsers running under many plateforms,
including Linux, Windows, Mac Os etc.
Drawback of Applet
Plugin is required at client browser to execute applet.
Hierarchy of Applet

140
As displayed in the above diagram, Applet class extends Panel. Panel class APPLET
extends Container which is the subclass of Component.
Notes
Lifecycle of Java Applet
 Applet is initialized.
 Applet is started.
 Applet is painted.
 Applet is stopped.
 Applet is destroyed.
Lifecycle methods for Applet:
 The java.applet.Applet class 4 life cycle methods and
java.awt.Component class provides 1 life cycle methods for
an applet.
java.applet.Applet class
For creating any applet java.applet.Applet class must be inherited. It
provides 4 life cycle methods of applet.
 public void init(): is used to initialized the Applet. It is invoked
only once.
 public void start(): is invoked after the init() method or browser is
maximized. It is used to start the Applet.
 public void stop(): is used to stop the Applet. It is invoked when
Applet is stop or browser is minimized.
 public void destroy(): is used to destroy the Applet. It is invoked
only once.
java.awt.Component class
The Component class provides 1 life cycle method of applet.
 public void paint(Graphics g): is used to paint the Applet. It
provides Graphics class object that can be used for drawing oval,
rectangle, arc etc.
There are two ways to run an applet
 By html file.
 By appletViewer tool (for testing purpose).
Example of Applet by html file:
To execute the applet by html file, create an applet and compile it. After
that create an html file and place the applet code in html file. Now click
the html file.

141
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA //First.java
NOTES import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.Graphics;
public class First extends
Applet
{
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
g.drawString("welcome",150,150);
}
}
Note: class must be public because its object is created by Java Plugin
software that resides on the browser.
File : applet.html
<html>
<body>
<applet code="First.class" width="300" height="300">
</applet>
</body>
</html>
Simple example of Applet by appletviewer tool:
To execute the applet by appletviewer tool, create an applet that contains
applet tag in comment and compile it. After that run it by: appletviewer
First.java. Now Html file is not required but it is for testing purpose only.
//First.java
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.Graphics;
public class First extends
Applet
{
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
g.drawString("welcome to applet",150,150);
} }
/* <applet code="First.class" width="300" height="300"> </applet> */
Displaying Graphics in Applet
java.awt.Graphics class provides many methods for graphics
programming.

142
Commonly used methods of Graphics class: APPLET
 public abstract void drawString(String str, int x, int y): is used to
Notes
draw the specified string.
 public void drawRect(int x, int y, int width, int height): draws a
rectangle with the specified width and height.
 public abstract void fillRect(int x, int y, int width, int height): is
used to fill rectangle with the default color and specified width and
height.
 public abstract void drawOval(int x, int y, int width, int height): is
used to draw oval with the specified width and height.
 public abstract void fillOval(int x, int y, int width, int height): is
used to fill oval with the default color and specified width and
height.
 public abstract void drawLine(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2): is used
to draw line between the points(x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
 public abstract boolean drawImage(Image img, int x, int y,
ImageObserver observer): is used draw the specified image.
 public abstract void drawArc(int x, int y, int width, int height, int
startAngle, int arcAngle): is used draw a circular or elliptical arc.
 public abstract void fillArc(int x, int y, int width, int height, int
startAngle, int arcAngle): is used to fill a circular or elliptical arc.
 public abstract void setColor(Color c): is used to set the graphics
current color to the specified color.
 public abstract void setFont(Font font): is used to set the graphics
current font to the specified font.
Example of Graphics in applet:
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.*;
public class GraphicsDemo extends Applet
{
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
g.setColor(Color.red);
g.drawString("Welcome",50, 50);
g.drawLine(20,30,20,300);
g.drawRect(70,100,30,30);
g.fillRect(170,100,30,30);
143
PROGRAMMING
g.drawOval(70,200,30,30);
IN JAVA
g.setColor(Color.pink);
NOTES g.fillOval(170,200,30,30);
g.drawArc(90,150,30,30,30,270);
g.fillArc(270,150,30,30,0,180);
}}
File : applet.html
<html>
<body>
<applet code="GraphicsDemo.class" width="300" height="300">
</applet>
</body>
</html>
Displaying Image in Applet
Applet is mostly used in games and animation. For this purpose image is
required to be displayed. The java.awt.Graphics class provide a method
drawImage() to display the image.
Syntax of drawImage() method:
public abstract boolean drawImage(Image img, int x, int y, ImageObserver
observer): is used draw the specified image.
Get the object of Image:
The java.applet.Applet class provides getImage() method that returns the
object of Image. Syntax:
public Image getImage(URL u, String image)
{
}
Other required methods of Applet class to display image:
 public URL getDocumentBase(): is used to return the URL of the
document in which applet is embedded.
 public URL getCodeBase(): is used to return the base URL.
Example of displaying image in applet:
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.*;
public class DisplayImage extends Applet
{
Image picture;

144
 public void init( ) APPLET
{
Notes
picture = getImage(getDocumentBase( ),"so.jpg");
}
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
g.drawImage(picture, 30,30, this);
}}
In the above example, drawImage() method of Graphics class is used to
display the image. The 4th argument of drawImage() method of is
ImageObserver object. The Component class implements ImageObserver
interface. So current class object would also be treated as ImageObserver
because Applet class indirectly extends the Component class.
File : applet.html
<html>
<body>
<applet code="DisplayImage.class" width="300" height="300">
</applet>
</body>
</html>
EventHandling in Applet
As we perform event handling in AWT or Swing, we can perform it in
applet also. Let's see the simple example of event handling in applet that
prints a message by click on the button.
Example of EventHandling in applet:
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class EventApplet extends Applet implements ActionListener
{
Button b;
TextField tf;
public void init( )
{
tf=new TextField();
tf.setBounds(30,40,150,20);
b=new Button("Click");
145
PROGRAMMING
b.setBounds(80,150,60,50);
IN JAVA
add(b);add(tf);
NOTES b.addActionListener(this);
setLayout(null);
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
{
tf.setText("Welcome");
}}
In the above example, we have created all the controls in init() method
because it is invoked only once.
File : applet.html
<html>
<body>
<applet code="EventApplet.class" width="300" height="300">
</applet>
</body>
</html>
AWT And Event Handling
Java AWT (Abstract Windowing Toolkit) is an API to develop GUI or
window-based application in java. Java AWT components are platform-
dependent i.e. components are displayed according to the view of
operating system. AWT is heavyweight i.e. its components uses the
resources of system.
The java.awt package provides classes for AWT api such as TextField,
Label, TextArea, RadioButton, CheckBox, Choice, List etc.
Java AWT Hierarchy
The hierarchy of Java AWT classes are given below.

146
Container APPLET
The Container is a component in AWT that can contain another
Notes
components like buttons, textfields, labels etc. The classes that extends
Container class are known as container such as Frame, Dialog and Panel.
Window
The window is the container that have no borders and menu bars. You
must use frame, dialog or another window for creating a window.
Panel
The Panel is the container that doesn't contain title bar and menu bars. It
can have other components like button, textfield etc.
Frame
The Frame is the container that contain title bar and can have menu bars. It
can have other components like button, textfield etc.
Useful Methods of Component class
Method Description

public void add(Component c) inserts a component on this

component.
public void setSize(int width,int sets the size (width and height)
height) of the component.

public void defines the layout manager for

setLayout(LayoutManager m) the component.

public void setVisible(boolean changes the visibility of the

status) component, by default false.
There are two ways to create a frame in AWT.
 By extending Frame class (inheritance)
 By creating the object of Frame class (association)
Simple example of AWT by inheritance
import java.awt.*;
class First extends Frame
{
First(){
Button b=new Button("click me");
b.setBounds(30,100,80,30);// setting button position
add(b);//adding button into frame
setSize(300,300);//frame size 300 width and 300 height
147
PROGRAMMING
setLayout(null);//no layout manager
IN JAVA
setVisible(true);//now frame will be visible, by default not visible
NOTES }
public static void main(String args[])
{
First f=new First();
}
}
The setBounds(int xaxis, int yaxis, int width, int height) method is used in
the above example that sets the position of the awt button.

Simple example of AWT by association

import java.awt.*;
class First2
{
First2( )
{
Frame f=new Frame( );
Button b=new Button("click me");
b.setBounds(30,50,80,30);
f.add(b);
f.setSize(300,300);
f.setLayout(null);
f.setVisible(true);
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
First2 f=new First2();
}
}

148
Java Event Handling APPLET

Changing the state of an object is known as an event. For example, click Notes
on button, dragging mouse etc. The java.awt.event package provides many
event classes and Listener interfaces for event handling.
Event classes and Listener interfaces:
Event Classes Listener Interfaces

ActionEvent ActionListener

MouseEvent MouseListener and MouseMotionListener

MouseWheelEvent MouseWheelListener

KeyEvent KeyListener

ItemEvent ItemListener

TextEvent TextListener

AdjustmentEvent AdjustmentListener

WindowEvent WindowListener

ComponentEvent ComponentListener

ContainerEvent ContainerListener

FocusEvent FocusListener
Following steps are required to perform event handling:
 Implement the Listener interface and overrides its methods
 Register the component with the Listener
For registering the component with the Listener, many classes provide the
registration methods. For example:
Button
public void addActionListener(ActionListener a)
{
}
MenuItem
public void addActionListener(ActionListener a)
{
}
149
PROGRAMMING
TextField
IN JAVA
public void addActionListener(ActionListener a)
NOTES {
}
public void addTextListener(TextListener a)
{ }
TextArea
public void addTextListener(TextListener a)
{
}

Checkbox
public void addItemListener(ItemListener a)
{
}
Choice
public void addItemListener(ItemListener a)
{
}
List
public void addActionListener(ActionListener a)
{
}
public void addItemListener(ItemListener a)
{
}
EventHandling Codes:
We can put the event handling code into one of the following places:
 Same class
 Other class
 Annonymous class
Example of event handling within class:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
class AEvent extends Frame implements ActionListener
{

150
TextField tf; APPLET
AEvent( )
Notes
{
tf=new TextField();
tf.setBounds(60,50,170,20);
Button b=new Button("click
me");
b.setBounds(100,120,80,30);
b.addActionListener(this);
add(b);
add(tf);
setSize(300,300);
setLayout(null);
setVisible(true);
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
{
tf.setText("Welcome");
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
new AEvent();
}
}
public void setBounds(int xaxis, int yaxis, int width, int height); have been
used in the above example that sets the position of the component it may
be button, textfield etc.

2) Example of event handling by Outer class:

import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
151
PROGRAMMING
class AEvent2 extends Frame
IN JAVA
{
NOTES TextField tf;
AEvent2( )
{
tf=new TextField();
tf.setBounds(60,50,170,20);
Button b=new Button("click
me");
b.setBounds(100,120,80,30);
Outer o=new Outer(this);
b.addActionListener(o);//passing outer class instance
add(b);add(tf);
setSize(300,300);
setLayout(null);
setVisible(true);
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
new AEvent2();
}}
import java.awt.event.*;
class Outer implements ActionListener
{
AEvent2 obj;
Outer(AEvent2 obj)
{
this.obj=obj;
}
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
{
obj.tf.setText("welcome");
}
}
3) Example of event handling by Annonymous class:
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
class AEvent3 extends Frame

152
{ APPLET
TextField tf;
Notes
AEvent3( )
{
tf=new TextField();
tf.setBounds(60,50,170,20);
Button b=new Button("click
me"); b.setBounds(50,120,80,30);
b.addActionListener(new ActionListener( )
{
public void actionPerformed( )
{
tf.setText("hello");
}
};
add(b);
add(tf);
setSize(300,300);
setLayout(null);
setVisible(true);
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
new AEvent3();
}}
Review & Self Assessment Question
1. What is Applet?
2. Define life cycle of Applet?
3. Describe hierarchy of Applet?
4. What is AWT?
5. What is Java Event Handling?
6. What is Java AWT hierarchy.

Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey
153
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA UNIT-10 SWING
NOTES
Contents
 Introduction to swing
 Difference between awt and swing
 Java foundation classes
 Hierarchy of java swing class
 Review & self assessment Question
 Further Readings
Java Swing tutorial is a part of Java Foundation Classes (JFC) that is used
to create window-based applications. It is built on the top of AWT
(Abstract Windowing Toolkit) API and entirely written in java.
like AWT, Java Swing provides platform-independent and lightweight
components.
The javax.swing package provides classes for java swing API such as
JButton, JTextField, JTextArea, JRadioButton, JCheckbox, JMenu,
JColorChooser etc.
Difference between AWT and Swing
There are many differences between java awt and swing that are given
below.
No. Java AWT Java Swing
1) AWT components are platform- Java swing components
dependent. are platform-independent.

2) AWT components are heavyweight. Swing components

are lightweight.

3) AWT doesn't support pluggable look and Swing supports pluggable

feel. look and feel.

4) AWT provides less components than Swing provides more

Swing. powerful componentssuch
as tables, lists,
scrollpanes,colorchooser,
tabbedpane etc.

5) AWT doesn't follows MVC(Model View Swing follows MVC.

Controller) where model represents data,
view represents presentation and
controller acts as an interface between

154
 model and view. SWING

JFC
The Java Foundation Classes (JFC) are a set of GUI components which
simplify the development of desktop applications. Notes

Hierarchy of Java Swing classes

The hierarchy of java swing API is given below.

Commonly used Methods of Component class

The methods of Component class are widely used in java swing that are
given below.
Method Description

public void add(Component c) add a component on another

component.
public void setSize(int width,int height) sets size of the component.

public void setLayout(LayoutManager m) sets the layout manager for the

component.

public void setVisible(boolean b) sets the visibility of the

component. It is by default
false.

155
PROGRAMMING
There are two ways to create a frame:
IN JAVA
 By creating the object of Frame class (association)
NOTES  By extending Frame class (inheritance)
We can write the code of swing inside the main(), constructor or any other
method.
Simple Java Swing Example
IN simple swing example where we are creating one button and adding it
on the JFrame object inside the main() method.
import javax.swing.*;
public class FirstSwingExample
{
public static void main(String[ ] args)
{
JFrame f=new JFrame( );//creating instance of JFrame
JButton b=new JButton("click");//creating instance of JButton
b.setBounds(130,100,100, 40);//x axis, y axis, width, height
f.add(b);//adding button in JFrame
f.setSize(400,500);//400 width and 500 height
f.setLayout(null);//using no layout managers
f.setVisible(true);//making the frame visible
}
}

Example of Swing by Association inside constructor

We can also write all the codes of creating JFrame, JButton and method
call inside the java constructor.
import javax.swing.*;
public class Simple

156
{
SWING
JFrame f;
Simple( )
{
f=new JFrame();//creating instance of JFrame
JButton b=new JButton("click");//creating instance of JButton Notes

b.setBounds(130,100,100, 40);
f.add(b);//adding button in JFrame
f.setSize(400,500);//400 width and 500 height
f.setLayout(null);//using no layout managers
f.setVisible(true);//making the frame visible
}
public static void main(String[ ] args)
{
new Simple();
}
}
The setBounds(int xaxis, int yaxis, int width, int height)is used in the
above example that sets the position of the button.
Simple example of Swing by inheritance
We can also inherit the JFrame class, so there is no need to create the
instance of JFrame class explicitly.
import javax.swing.*;
public class Simple2 extends JFrame
{//inheriting JFrame
JFrame f;
Simple2( )
{
JButton b=new JButton("click");//create button
b.setBounds(130,100,100, 40);
add(b);//adding button on
frame setSize(400,500);
setLayout(null);
setVisible(true);
}
public static void main(String[ ] args)
{ new Simple2(); }}
157
PROGRAMMING
IN JAVA Review & Self Assessment Question
NOTES 1. What is swing in java .
2. What is Java Foundation classes?
3. What are the difference between Java AWT and Java Swing ?
4. Define hierarchy of java swing classes.
5. What is panel in swing ?

Further Readings
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey
Bibliography
Programming in Java by Herbert Schildt
Programming in Java by Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates
Programming in Java by Harimohan Pandey
Programming in Java by C Xavier
Programming in Java by O S Swift

158
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