TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

A computer is an electronic multi-purpose machine that is capable of accepting

data, storing data, processing data and finally outputting information through its
output devices in a form that is usable by humans.
PARTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Monitor

Speaker
Keyboard

Computer Case
(Processor inside)

CD-ROM/DVD Mouse
Drive

Printer
Floppy Disk
Drive

PARTS OF A COMPUTER

The monitor: This is a device which shows/gives the soft copy of the
data/information in the computer screen.

There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD
(liquid crystal display) monitors.

\Keyboard. It’s an input device that converts letters and other characters into
electric signals readable by the processor. It’s a device which enables a computer
user to communicate to the computer system.

Mouse. This is a handheld pointing device which is used to point, select, move
and draw object in the computer screen. Examples of mice include: codeless,
touch pad (touch tone pad), mouse stick/wired.
Printers. These are devices which gives a hard copy of the soft copy of the data
or information held in the computer. Printers are output devices that produce text
and graphics on paper. The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and
laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most popular printers for the home.
Speakers. Speakers are output devices used to play sound. They may be built
into the system unit or connected with cables.

System unit The system unit is the core of a computer system. Inside this box
are many electronic components that process information. The most important of
these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which
acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access
memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the
computer is on.

CD/DVD Drive
This a computer hardware device that reads compact discs and DVDs
Hard drive
BASIC PARTS OF A COMPUTER
Monitor
Mouse
Keyboard
System unit
CD/DVD Drive

Reasons for studying computer

• To acquire general knowledge and skills in the use of computers and

related technologies
• To use the acquired knowledge in computer studies to enhance learning
other subjects
• To understand important issues of a technology based society and exhibit
them using computers
• To acquire knowledge as a foundation for further studies in computer
technology
• To use a variety of computer technologies to assess, analyze and interpret
information
• Jobs
• Passing exams

COMPUTER MODELS

Dell, Accer, Compaq, Macintosh, IBM (International business machine), Toshiba,

Samsung, Hp, Sony, apple etc
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN COMPUTERS
• Speed: computer are quite fast in their operations in that their speed is
measured in millions instructions per second ie the computer is capable of
processing 15 million instructions per second
• Accuracy: computers are known to be accurate that they hardly make any
mistake. So for computers if wrong data is fed in it then expect wrong
information as the principle of GIGO
• Storage: for a computer to work it must have a work area or work space
where data is stored before and after processing. The space is known as
memory
• Diligence. Computers have the ability to perform the same work repeatedly
without getting bored and each time they produce consistent results without
any divergence from the previous results
• Artificial intelligence: computers are artificially intelligent as they can respond
to requests given to them and provide solutions. This is done by its
programmability ie can be taught to make decisions and functions accordingly
• Automation: computers also work automatically; they do not need to be
reminded to perform any of the instructions when executing a programmed
routine. E.g. making a routine daily alarm at specific times
• Versatility: computers can be able to do many tasks at the same time e.g.
playing music, typing a document and browsing internet at the same time
COMPUTER SPECICFICATIONS
There are several computer systems available on the market that can be
acquired as office or personal computers. However, depending on the purpose
and period for which the computer will be used then care should be taken
when choosing such a computer.
What to consider when purchasing a computer
• The computer platform. Here you consider which type of microcomputer
would you like to buy it Toshiba, Macintosh, hp or IBM
• Hard disk size. The choice of a hard disk mainly depends on several
factors i.e. the tasks that the computer will be used whether the
operations will keep on increasing requiring more memory or will be
constant.
• Display device. Currently there are two types of displays i.e. CRT and
LCD. CRT occupy bigger space and consumes a lot of power whereas
LCD are better
• Expansion slots. Expansion slots are found on desktop computers which
provide space for expansion cards (add-on-cards) that might have ports
for additional peripheral components like TV cards
• Sound Card. When planning to work with multimedia packages, especially
sound, an appropriate card has to be sought of.
 • Modems. These are used to transmit data to and from the computer.
So you have to consider whether the modem is capable of both wireless
and wire internet connection
• PC Casing. This refers to the physical structure of the box that contains
and shields the working components of a computer i.e. do you need a
tower casing or standard desktop casing
• PC case molding. Which sharp and design do you want
• Cost
Distinction between data and information
Data: These are basic facts of any event in life such as costs, prices, date time
etc (unorganized facts) e.g. a list of students in a school irrespective of their
classes, sex or age. Or
Data can be defined as the raw materials we feed into the computer to be
processed into information. E.g. typed names that have not been sorted
Information: This is data that has been turned into a more meaningful form that
would make immediate sense to any user i.e. processed data (organized facts).
E.g. formatted document etc.

Qualities of good information

• It should be complete
• It should be clear
• Should be available whenever needed
• Relevant to its purpose

Information processing cycle

The sequence of events in processing information, which includes input,
processing, storage and output.
• They are 4 stages of the information processing cycle:
• Input
• Processing
• Storage
• Output
Data is entered into the computer through input devices like the keyboard,
then it is received by the main memory (RAM) which stores it temporarily as
it awaits to be processed, it is then sent bit by bit to the central processing
unit for processing and finally it is output through the output devices like a
printer or stored on secondary storage devices like a hard disk.

SUB-TOPIC 1: World of ICT

ICT (information and communications technology - or technologies) is an
umbrella term that includes any communication device or application,
encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computers and network
hardware and software, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various
services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing ,
distance learning, Email and www etc.

ICT’s can also be defined as diverse set of technological tools and resources
used to communicate and create, disseminate, store and manage information.
These technologies include; computers, the internet, broadcasting technologies
(radio and TV) and telephones
Or
ICT refers to the technologies that provide access to information focusing
mainly on communication technologies such as internet, wireless networks, cell
phones, personal computers and other communication mediums.
Examples of old technologies before the coming of ICTs
✓ News papers
✓ Film
✓ Recordings
✓ Paper printed photographs
Examples of new technologies that came due to ict
✓ E-mail
✓ Video conferencing
✓ Internet
 ✓ Cellular phones
✓ Optical disks (CDs DVDs etc)
✓ Databases
✓ Satellites etc

Use of ICT’s in society

Business
1. Electronic Commerce: E-commerce is the use of telecommunications or the
Internet to carry out business of any type. Common examples of e-
commerce are business-to-business e-commerce, online shopping, online
banking, online stock trading etc. One of the advantages of e-commerce is
the reduction of transaction costs.
2. Translation services which are a key to a business wishing to expand
overseas are offered. A business industry which is international, translation
in terms of the written words and literature is extremely important.
Translation software is used.
3. Direct mailing is a way in which production companies send material/
product information directly to potential customers. The aim is to focus on
real customers rather than sending information to people who have very
little interest in the product.
4. Tele-marketing is often used by media companies especially sales
departments to generate appointments with potential customers. Often
electronic versions of customer database lists are purchased allowing sales
to contact potential customers directly.
5. Facilitating activities in the business sector such as manufacturing. There
has been a shift from the old production system to a new mode which is
facilitated by information and Communication technology. While the old
production and manufacturing system is energy-intensive, standardized and
departmentalized the new manufacturing system facilitated by ICT’s is
information intensive, customized, networked and integrated.
Education
1. The online learning system is another web-based application that is
revolutionalising the learning platform of education. This system
compliments the traditional face-to face teaching and learning format. In
the on-line system, students can access class notes, submit assignment
and also join a discussion group with other learners.
2. The education sector is arguably one major area that ICT’s are playing
remarkable role. These technologies are widely used in education as
teaching aids and in research; they are used to access reference materials
thus helping in facilitating learn ship and exchange of educational materials.
 3. ICT’s are helping library professionals store and manage academic
information. Libraries have migrated from the traditional Dewey cataloguing
system to an on-line system, which is a web-based cataloguing and search
application.
4. The more commonly used internet communication is email. Used around
workplaces and schools all across the world, this simple way of
communication seems a necessity in today’s society. Being able to send
and receive messages, images and files in seconds, is now one of the most
important systems of communication and without it work places, schools
and companies may not be able to function properly.
Health
▪ Medical automation by the use of ICT’s offers a great assistance in the
areas of:
▪ -Automated diagnosis
▪ -Electro-cardiogram screening and monitoring
▪ ICT’s allow for access to otherwise inaccessible and expensive foreign
expertise or labor and make it possible for hospitals in our country to use
consultants or even surgeons in another country thereby saving patients
from traveling.
▪ They support efficient exchange of information between health professionals,
they enable transfer of patient records between sites and they can improve
clinical effectiveness, continuity, and quality of care by health professionals.
▪ ICT’s offer Special Needs (for the Physically Challenged). For many people
with physical disabilities, ICTs can be extremely useful in providing access
to communication, education and open up opportunities for them. Most
telecommunications infrastructures are now being designed with the
capabilities of meeting the special needs of the physically challenged. For
instance, the Short Message Service (SMS) can be used to send and receive
messages by the hearing impaired; the voice activated dialing service can
be used by visually impaired.
Security
▪ Computers keep law and order, fight crime and offer security and defense.
Police are now able to keep databases of fingerprints which are
automatically analyzed by computers. The police use this database to keep
track of all investigations.
▪ In addition, it also holds information about criminal records and previous
convictions. When information is needed about specific criminal, information
could travel from one police station on one side of the country to another
police station on the other side of the country in a matter of seconds
thanks to the internet communication.
 ▪ Also computers based on face recognition and analysis, help the police
force in leading to arrest off traffic offenders and criminals.
▪ In defense, ICT’s such as computers are used in electronic intelligence
gathering, efficient communication, detection and tracking of targets, radar
systems warning systems and military laser guided missile systems etc.
Politics and governance
o ICT’s are used as sources for obtaining information. For example, political
candidates provide statements of their policies on their websites, and
possibly, a link to their full manifesto, free access to information on a
particular political issue is a pre-requisite for engaging in public debate,
and such debate is desirable prior to political action like mass
demonstrations.
o Participating in decision making. The most obvious way in which citizens
participate in political decision-making is when they cast their vote for their
government representative. ICTs could make the voting process more
convenient by enabling electronic voting over the Internet from anywhere.
This would also speed up vote counting.
o ICT’s are heavily used in many government ministries such as finance,
planning, education etc to store government records and improve the
efficiency within the civil services.

Leisure and entertainment

• There is entertainment information for those looking for leisure as well as
host games for youngsters.
• Computers have been programmed to play games such as prince and
chess.
• Communication industry
• Communication is possibly the most regularly used area of ICT; it is used
by millions every day. From social networks to email, Internet communication
is vital in today’s society. Social networks such as Face book and Twitter
are used by billions of people each day; the sites can be used to keep in
touch with friends and relatives, to display photos or pictures or just to
tell the world what you are up to.
• Still In communication industry, every telephones exchange today relies on
computers to switch incoming and outgoing calls.
• Railway corporations rely heavily on ICT’s to co-ordinate the movement of
their wagons and goods
• In the airline industry, computers are heavily used in air traffic control and
surveillance of air space using radar equipment as well as for reservation
purposes.
 • Shipping and cruise liner industries utilize computers to speed up cargo
handling and passenger booking.
• This has been one of the most recognized uses of the ICTs. Various
communication technologies, ranging from broadcasting to
telecommunications and to the Internet are playing effective roles in the
acquisition and sharing of information. The concepts of the 'information
revolution' and 'information society' are driven by enormous advancements
in ICTs and their application. The Internet for example, has provided
platforms for sharing information in applications such as the E-Mail and
The World Wide Web.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Implications of using ICT’s

Positives
Social
Ease of access and availability
Look at how modern ICT allows citizens today to communicate and participate
in society. We use text messaging to vote on TV shows, enter competitions and
have our opinions broadcast on national TV and radio. We use digital TV to
order goods, vote on TV shows etc

We can have access to the Internet in our social lives as well with libraries having
Internet access points and Internet cafes still being popular. Restaurants often
have Internet access points and if you have stayed in a ‘big’ hotel lately you will
find that the rooms have Internet access points for your laptop to plug into.

Information rich/information poor

There is some concern that the widespread use of computers is dividing society
into two kinds of people – the ‘information rich’ and ‘information poor’.

The information rich have easy access to computers and electronic

communications.

They get information and news from the Internet and buy the latest products
through on-line shopping.

They are able to follow computer-based learning and skills training courses at
home, and look for jobs that are advertised solely on the Internet.

They tend to find it easier to get well-paid jobs and will enjoy a more comfortable
and secure life-style.
The information poor don’t have easy access to computers and don’t have the
IT skills and confidence to take part in teleshopping, telebanking, Internet chat
and news groups. As corporations like the BBC seek public opinion on current
matters increasingly via the Internet, the voices of the information poor may not
be heard. The jobs on offer to them will be less skilled, paid less and much
more insecure.

Economic

Another less obvious effect of computers and IT on the family is the change that
banks have made to our lives. Before banks were computerized, most workers
were paid weekly and in cash, and they did not need a bank account. With the
introduction of computerization, banks started to persuade companies, government
and local authorities to pay employees by cheque. As a result, very little cash
is in circulation now compared with the 1950s and 60s because now people work
with ‘plastic money.

Political

Environmental (green computing) the study and practice of designing,

manufacturing, using, and disposing of computers, servers, and associated
subsystems—such as monitors, printers, storage devices, networking and
communications systems efficiently and effectively with minimal or no impact on
the environment.

ICT’s such as internet are used to predict and track climate changes in
agriculture, the incidence of forest fires, flood and drought patterns, the movement
of invasive species just to name a few and develop appropriate management and
adaptation strategies, and plot a course toward better environmental management.
ICT’s applications can be used to impart information directly to farmers and the
farming community. There are expert system designed to handle agricultural issues
such as water utilization and management, pest control, harvest management and
so forth.

Other positive implications of ICT

❖ Increased interactions or collaborations through emails, chat rooms, video
conferencing etc
❖ Increased inventions innovations such as wireless keyboards, wires mouse
❖ Improved and sustained quality goods and services due to automated
production
❖ Improved corporate image ie firms use ICTs to create logos and headed
letters
❖ Many IT products for the disabled are being created i.e Baillie Keyboards
❖ Increased investment opportunities in commercial telephone centers, internet
cafes, chat room
❖ Creation of jobs that require high skills e.g. IT technicians, computer
operators, website designers, software developers

Negative implications of ict

❖ Widens the gap between the information rich and the information poor
as the rich produce products faster on the market than the poor
❖ Isolates older people since they do not find it easy to learn and use
ICT gadgets very fast
❖ ICT avails people with lots of good and bad information from the
internet
❖ Increased learning instability as people are compelled to learn new
technologies that come up every now and then
❖ Reduced physical activities which in turn creates lots of health
problem e.g.. eye strain, back problems etc
❖ Erosion of individual privacy as more and more people’s private data
is being stored in databases were others can access any time
❖ Increased unemployment as less skilled people get retrenched and
their jobs taken over by more effective ITs like Robots in factories
❖ Addiction to computer usage (internet, music, Games etc) is on
increase
❖ The initial maintenance and ICT facilities is very high e.g internet
access bills
❖ Virus threats as there is easy spread of virus through networking
❖ Increased computer crimes i.e. Hacking, phishing, software piracy etc

TOPIC 2: COMPUTER MANAGEMENT

TERMS USED IN COMPUTER MANAGEMENT

File is a piece of information created by any computer software or program
e.g. a document file, music file, photo file etc.
Folder is a virtual storage area of a file, a program etc. on a computer
Icons are small graphic images or pictures that represent a file, program,
web page or a command
Desktop is the first computer screen display before any program is opened.
It consists of different icons i.e. my computer
 Booting This means starting/restarting of a computer. There are two main
ways of booting a computer i.e. cold booting and warm booting.
Cold booting is the starting of a computer from its off state from the mains.
Involves switching on a computer right from the main power supply, stabilizer
or uninterruptible power supply (UPS), the system unit and the monitor.
Warm booting is the restarting of a computer by either the restart button or
pressing the following keys together and then releasing them at the same time
Ctrl+Alt+Delete. Normally, a computer is warm booted after it hanged i.e. not
responding to any command
The booting process
The Power on Self Test (POST) is the first of several checks performed by the
PC’s ROM BIOS. These tests check that basic components of the PC are
present and working correctly. An error message or a series of beeps indicating
any hardware problems will be sounded. Normally, the PC will beep once to
inform the user that the checks were completed without a problem being
identified
File management

A folder. It’s an object that can contain multiple documents. Folders are used
to organize information.
Practical questions about a file
• Creation of a folder on a storage medium of a computer.
• Moving a folder to a desired location
• Deleting a folder
Practical questions about a file
✓ -Identifying a file
✓ -saving a file in a desired location.
✓ -using folders and sub folders to effectively categorize files
✓ Describing how to customize the desktop
✓ Explaining the major icons on the desktop
Types of files
Text files, data files, program files, directory files etc. program files store files
where as text files store text.
Associated File Associated File Extension
program extension program
Microsoft word .doc Ms power point .ppt
Microsoft excel .exl Microsoft Access .dbm
Photo .jpeg/ .png
 Importance of a file extension
❖ Helps to identify the file type
❖ To identify the software type used to prepare the document
How to recover accidently deleted work in a computer
❖ You can restore from the recycle bin
❖ Use the undo command
❖ Use recovery software
Customizing the desktop
This is the process of changing the different settings of how your computer
screen display will look like i.e. setting screen saver, changing the wall paper,
mouse pointer and setting different icons to appear on the screen
Practical questions
• How to set a screen saver
• How to set a wall paper
• How to change the mouse pointer
• How to disable some icons from being displayed on the screen
Major icons found on the desktop
When a computer starts, it displays different icons that work differently as
explained below;
• Recycle bin icon
Its an icon that represents a container for all deleted items from the
computer or this is where deleted items are stored
• My computer.
It’s the icon that represent computer hard disks i.e. local disk (D), local
disk (C)

SUB-TOPIC 1: Common Utilities

Utility programs are system programs that are used to support and enhance
the proper performance of an operating system.
Utility programs include:
Backup programs. These programs let you protect your files by making copies of
them.
Data recovery. These are programs used to restore data that has been physically
damaged or corrupted.
Data compression programs are utilities which are used to remove redundant
elements, gaps and unnecessary data from a computer’s storage space.
Debuggers. These are programs which correct errors in a computer program. A
bug is an error in a computer program and to debug means to correct errors in
a program
Defragmenters. Are programs which bring fragments of a file together for storage
in one location in the computer memory.
Anti-virus programs. These software protect your system from viruses. They
include; Mac fee, Avira, Avast etc.
Disk maintenance utilities like Norton disk doctor, scandisk etc. are programs that
detect errors on a computer disk and fix them.

SUB-TOPIC 2: Print management

• Selecting a printer
• Print a document
Models of printing
❖ Multiple page printing. This is where a user prints more than one
page of the same document on a single sheet of paper
❖ Multiple copies printing. This is where a user prints more than one
copy of the same document
❖ Handout printing. This is the mode of printing where multiple slides
are printed on one page
❖ Slide printing. This is the mode of printing where a single slide is
printed covering the whole page
TOPIC 3: COMPUTER LABORATORY CARE AND MAINTENANCE

SUB-TOPIC 1: Computer literacy

Computer literacy is the knowledge and ability to use computers and related
technology efficiently.
• Describe the booting process
• Start a computer system
• Open applications programs and using them effectively
• Assembling

SUB-TOPIC 2: Security lab environment

Areas of lab security

Safe use of computer lab
Areas of computer Lab Security
a) Physical security. While setting up lab one should consider the following
security measures.
✓ Burglar proof
✓ Security personnel
 ✓ Limiting access to computer ports where necessary
✓ Computer covers
✓ Installation of alarm systems
b) Electric power security. One should use uninterruptible power supply and
surge protectors to protect your computers from electric shocks
c) Security cameras. Install surveillance cameras/CCTV cameras that can help
to record all happenings in the Lab in the absence of the in charge.
d) Software based security. This involves the use of unique authorized logins
(IDs and passwords), prevention system softwares, antivirus, firewalls etc
e) First Aid Boxes. This provides first aid to users in the Lab in case of an
accident.
f) Air conditioner. This helps to cool the computers as they generate heat
when working
g) Fire extinguisher. This is used to put off fire in case of any accidents.
h) Installation of smoke detectors which can be used to detect smoke and
alert member before the outbreak of fire

Basic requirements for setting up a computer laboratory

UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply
❖ If the power goes off, computer equipment must keep running. Even home
computers need the time to shut down properly. Damage to devices and data
can occur when there is sudden power loss or fluctuation.
❖ UPS, or Uninterruptible Power Supplies, provides power for devices in the event
of a failure or other electrical problems.
❖ A UPS is essentially a small battery that keeps The power supply on for long
enough for You to switch off the computer safely, When there is a sudden
blackout.

Air conditioner
• Air conditioning units monitor and maintain the temperature, air distribution and
humidity in a computer room.
• An Air conditioning unit is a device used for cooling and controlling the humidity
and purity of the air circulating in a space.

Fire extinguisher
❖ Fire extinguishers are a critical component of saving property and lives in the
case of a fire emergency.
❖ Owning a fire extinguisher is a form of ensuring safety.
❖ All computer rooms need it just in case a fire starts.
 ❖ It can save our property from burning because the use of the device will help
prevent it from spreading and can even stop the flame in no time.
❖ Security camera
❖ Security cameras act as a deterrent to theft and other crimes. Cameras monitor
data centers or blind spots outside of doors.

Blower
Used to blow/remove dust that may
Have entered inside the computer

Antiglare screens
Regulate excess light from monitors
Especially CRT monitors.

Water proof covers

Protect computers from moisture,
Water and liquids.

First aid box

A first aid kit is a box or bag that contains the necessary items for providing
emergency care. It is important to have first aid kits, because they allow someone
who is injured, to be rapidly treated with basic first aid, before they can be
properly treated at the local hospital.

Reasons to keep a first aid kit: Prevent infection, Prevent excessive blood loss,
Prevent scarring, Prevent an acute injury from becoming a chronic problem and
Prevent death.

Wool carpet
The wool carpet is used to trap dust that
Enters in the computer laboratory.

Internet gateway
An internet gateway is your modem or router or any other peripheral which allows
you to access the internet.

Burglar proofing
Burglar proofing provides protection against any forced physical entry into the
Computer laboratory. Burglar proofing
Involves fitting metal grills in windows and doors.
How a computer lab can be used safely
Computer laboratories give many people access to computer programs, internet
and other resources. Lab computers are used often by people with varying degrees
of computer training. This means they are at risk from viruses, corrupt files,
spyware, malfunction etc so you have to maintain Lab computers regularly in
order to ensure that they do not crash by doing the following;
❖ Plug all your computer equipment into a surge protector to avoid power
spikes which can damage electrical equipment as well as lose user’s
data
❖ Set up a network layer firewall that will deny access to sites or programs
that don’t fit into the acceptable range
❖ Set up weekly updates or automatic updates for your lab computers i.e.
update your programs regularly
❖ Install an up-to-date anti-virus program on the computers this will
usually stop a computer from acquiring virus
❖ Install an up-to-date anti-spyware program on your computers to stop
spyware programs that install themselves onto a computer to gather
personal information
❖ Bach up your computers data on a regular basis so that if your
computers become corrupted by a virus you can return to the previous
backup to restore it
❖ Do not unplug printers, scanners and other connected machines when
the computers are on i.e. eject any USB devices before unplugging them
❖ Ask your users to always press the Ctrl+Alt+Del buttons whenever their
computers freezes rather than shutting it down with the power button
❖ Turn off all computers by selecting the shutdown option on the desktop.
A void pressing the power button to turn off computers
❖ Clean your computer lab regularly. The following are effective ways to
clean a computer lab
a) Dust computer screens using a thin soft microfiber cloth. Dedicate one
cloth to be used only on the screen
b) Use compressed air to clean out keyboards or you may use disinfectant
spray to clean your key board
c) Dust all parts that are found inside the system unit using a borrower

Computer Laboratory rules and regulations

Most institutions in Uganda have computer Labs with safety rules to follow when
using them. There are a lot of machines and other equipment items kept in the
Labs and it’s absolutely necessary to ensure that no one carries out an action
to damage the equipment. Below are some of the rules
✓ Install fire extinguishers to help in case of fire out break
 ✓ Do not bring any food or drinks near the computers
✓ Do not use external devices without scanning them for computer viruses
✓ Ensure that the temperature in the room stays cool since there are many
machines in the lab which can over heat easily
✓ Dust can affect computers so ensure that all computers are always clean

SUB-TOPIC 3: SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPUTER

Importance/reasons of/for servicing and maintaining a computer.
❖ It speeds up the computer
❖ It prevents your computer from virus attacks
❖ It prevents information loss
❖ It gives the computer long life
❖ It reduces operational costs of a business or enterprise in the long life.
❖ It reduces the CPU overheating. Terms used under computer maintenance and
servicing.

Software update. Is a freely downloaded software that provides features for

enhancement and compatibility.
Software upgrade. Is the process of replacing a product with a newer vision of
the same product.
Hardware update. Is the process of replacing a product part in a computer system
e.g. a motherboard.
Hardware upgrade. Is the process of replacing the entire hardware device with a
new one that provides better performance.
Software installation. Is the process of adding a new system or application
program for use on a computer.
Uninstallation. Is the process of deleting an already installed program from a
computer.
Trouble shooting. Is the process of identifying and fixing computer problems

The top reasons computers slow down

We are often asked to investigate why a computer is running slowly and what
can be done to make it faster. Diagnosing the reason a computer is running
slowly requires checking all of these potential causes, since the symptom alone
is not enough to differentiate or isolate the cause. This list is not
comprehensive; there are some other unusual and rare causes that will make a
computer run more slowly.
1. Insufficient RAM to run all programs in memory without swapping to the hard
drive.
Solution: compare commit charge to physical RAM and add RAM memory.

2. Bad hard drive; disk errors creating delays.

Solution: test and repair or replace the hard drive.

3. Low performance CPU.

Solution: replace a Celeron CPU with a Pentium CPU for improved performance.

4. Overheating due to failed fan or excessive dust blocking heat sink.

Solution: clean accumulated dust using compressed air.

5. Bad motherboard due to failed capacitors that are cracked, leaking or

bulging.
Solution: replace the motherboard or the system unit.

6. Memory leak; software bug causing a program to use increasing amounts of

RAM until restarted.
Solution: upgrade the software causing the excessive memory usage or restart
more frequently.

7. Wrong video driver making the display run slowly.

Solution: upgrade the video driver software in Windows device manager.

8. Low performance wireless connection due to 11mbps wireless B or distant

antenna with a weak signal.
Solution: upgrade wireless router or access point.

9. Too many add-ons or excessive toolbars in Internet Explorer or Windows

startup.
Solution: use MSconfig to remove startup programs, use add-on manager in IE7
and later to remove unused add-ons and toolbars.

10. Viruses and spyware stealing memory and processor performance.

Solution: use Malware bytes and other scanning tools to identify and remove
extraneous software.

11. Low performance hard drive with 2mb cache or 5400-rpm spindle motor:
Solution: replace hard drive with faster 8mb cache and 7200-rpm spindle motor
or SSD drive.
TOPIC 4: COMPUTER HARDWARE

It’s a general term used to describe all the various physical or tangible parts of
a computer like monitor, printer, keyboard etc
Hardware is divided into four main components:
▪ Input devices/ units
▪ Output devices
▪ Storage devices
▪ Processing unit
▪ Communication devices

Input devices. These are used to enter data into the computer.
Output devices. These bring out information to the user.
Storage devices. These are used to store information for future use.
Processing devices. These are used to manipulate data into information.
Communication devices. These are used in sending and receiving information

Input devices. These are devices that feed the computer with data and information.
They include; a keyboard, scanner, mouse, digital cameras, joy stick, smart cards,
credit card, automated Teller Machine card (ATM card), light pen, magnetic ink
character reader(MICR), optical mark reader (OCR), bar code readers, optical
character readers, touch screen, digitizer among others.
OR
These are devices used in entering data and instructions into a computer. Note
that, the input could be text (numbers, letters and formulae) images, sound etc
Data can be

Keyboard. It’s an input device that converts letters and other characters into
electric signals readable by the processor. It has a type writer area, function keys,
cursor movement keys and numerical keypad. It’s a device which enables a
computer user to communicate to the computer system.

Parts of a keyboard.
Function keys. Are usually located along the top of the keyboard. They are
labelled F1, F2 up to F12. It is used to perform specialised functions according
to the operating system used. For example pressing F1 key in most programs
starts the help menu.

Alphanumeric keys (Typing keys). This is used for text data entry. These are
labelled alphabetic letters A to Z, numbers arranged in line – 1, 2, 3, ----0 and
special symbols such as ?, ], % etc. this group also includes, Tab, Enter, Caps
lock, Space bar and back space keys.

Numeric keypad keys. These are meant to help the user to rapidly enter numeric
data and are located on the right hand side of the keyboard. The Numeric keypad
is only used when Num lock key is turned on. It consists of numbers 0 to 9,and
arithmetical signs like +(addition), * (Multiplication), - (subtraction) and / (division)

Special purpose keys. These are used in combination with others to give certain
commands to a computer. For example CTRL + ESC is used to display the start
menu. They include SHIFT, CTRL, ALT and ESC.

Cursor control (Navigation) keys. These are used to move the cursor in all
directions. They include; - Arrow keys - Page up and page down - Home and End
keys
Editing keys are used to delete and insert characters in a document. They include;
- Delete key
Insert key
Advantages of using the keyboard
• Entering data and instructions with keyboards is generally faster than pointing
devices
• Keyboards are more reliable and usually produce fewer errors than other input
devices such as voice inputs
• There is no need to buy additional equipments since computers are normally
supplied with keyboards
Disadvantages of using a keyboard
• It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly and accurately
• Typing speed is still very slow when compared with computer speed
Mouse. This is a hand held pointing device which is used to point, select,
move and draw object in the computer screen. Examples of mice include:
codeless, touch pad (touch tone pad), mouse stick.
Scanner. Is a light sensing input device that converts printed texts and graphics
into a digital form that can be further processed by the computer OR This is
advice that is used to read graphical data or information into a computer e.g.
logos, emblems, photos, pictures etc. scanners are usually used to capture
existing documents in an electronic form for further processing or incorporating
into other documents. Text and graphics can be scanned and images can be
manipulated by changing the colors, the sharpness and contrast etc.
Types of scanners
o Hand scanners. These are used in scanning small objects e.g. logos,
signatures, emblems, budges, thumb prints etc.
 o Flat bed scanner. These are heavy scanners which are used for scanning
commercial photos and pictures.

Credit card. It’s a small plastic card that allows its holder to buy goods and
services on credit and to pay at fixed intervals. It has a strip of magnetic tape
fixed on it containing coded information which is usually the owner’s code. The
card is inserted into a slot where magnetic data may be picked. Details of the
transaction are then recorded against the credit card number and the owner’s
account is credited with the transaction.
Bar code reader. Most items manufactured are labeled with a Universal Product
Code (UPC), identifying the items .the label code is terms of bars with coded
spacing and thickness. These bars contain information in code that a computer
can interpret. Most supermarkets today use this system and the codes can be
seen on every item on stock. This enables fast pricing, identification and accurate
stock tracking/taking. A bar code reader is a device used t read these codes
and send request to central computer on which the database of the organization
is stored, the central computer sends a response about the product details i.e.
its price, name, manufactured date etc.

Optical mark reader. This is a device which can detect the presence or absence
of a mark on a paper. Light is shown onto the paper and the reflected light is
detected. This device is used for reading answers to questions in an exam or
survey.

The magnetic ink character reader. This is used to read characters written using
magnetic ink. They are used in banks to read cheques and at points of sales in
shops.

The voice recognition device. This is used to recognize words from a person and
follow the instructions. An example of its use is in a computer which opens money
safe, if the correct password is said.

The joystick. It’s a device connected to a terminal with a control level that can
be moved or titled in various directions for moving the cursor to any position on
the screen. It’s commonly used in computer graphics and in playing games.

A light pen. It consists of a stylus connected by a cable to the terminal that can
sense the light from a position on the screen and convert it into an electrical
signal transmitted to the computer. It can be used to move or delete images on
the screen or to create new images.
Touch screen. With touch screen, users of computers just have to point on a
particular item they want to select from the screen using their fingers. When a
particular part is touched, the screen can sense that part and the item in that
area will be selected.

Digital cameras. These take photographs like normal cameras do. The only
difference is that digital cameras do not create an image on a film like ordinary
cameras but instead the image is stored on the camera and after downloaded
onto a computer for editing and printing.
Output Devices
These are external hardware components that transfer information from the
computer’s central processing Unit (CPU) to the computer user in either soft or
hardcopy format.

OR
An output is data that has been processed into useful form called information

Soft copy: This is the output displayed or listened to. OR: Is the un printed
digital document file.

Hard copy: This is the information recorded on a physical medium e.g. paper,
film etc

Output devices include:

❖ Monitor (VDU)
❖ Printers
❖ The loud speakers
❖ The communication channel-links the computer through telephone lines
❖ Plotters
❖ Projector

The monitor. This is a device which converts information generated by the

computer into visual information. Monitors are either based on a cathode-ray
tube (CRT) or LCD (liquid crystal Display)
Advantages of CRT monitors over LCD
- CRT has a wider view angle than the LCDs
- CRT monitors are resistant to harsh conditions like dusty conditions
- CRT monitors are cheaper than LCDs
- CRTs have a very fast response time
- CRTs are not affected by the problem of dead pixels as images are
painted on the screen
 - Etc
Disadvantages of CRT over LCDs
- CRTs consumes a lot of power than LCDs
- They consume a lot of space i.e. they are big in size
- They are not portable
Advantages of LCDs over CRTs
- They use less power than CRTs
- They are portable
- They emit less radiations than CRTs
Disadvantages of LCDs over CRTs
- LCDs has a small view angle than the CRTs
- LCD monitors are not resistant to harsh conditions like dusty conditions
- LCD monitors are expensive than CRTs
- LCDs are affected by the problem of dead pixels as images are painted
on the screen.
Factors to consider when buying a monitor
❖ Size of the screen/ monitor needed
❖ Technology used either LCD or CRT
❖ Monitor controls like brightness & display area
❖ Resolution

Printers. These are devices which gives a hard copy of the soft copy of the
data or information held in the computer.
Printers are output devices that produce text and graphics on paper. They are
connected by a cable to a PC through a special socket on the computer
referred to as a printer port.
Types of printers:
They are basically two types of printers i.e. impact and non-impact printers.

Impact printers are the ones which print by physically striking their print heads
on the printing media like paper, cloth etc. e.g. Dot matrix which print using a
set of pins on a print head, Daisy wheel which print using a wheel of
characters etc. Their print heads press the paper with the ribbon to produce
the printout.

Advantages of impact printers.

❖ They are cheap
❖ They can with stand harsh (dusty) conditions.
❖ They produce bulk work easily.
❖ They are easy to maintain.
❖ They can print on continuously paper especially dot matrix printers.
Disadvantages of impact printers.
❖ They are noisy during operation.
❖ They have a lower print resolution
❖ Their print heads normally over heat which shows the entire process
❖ They are slower in printing compared to non-impact printers
❖ They use a lot of power

Non-impact printers are the ones which print by not physically striking their
print heads on the printing media like paper, cloth etc They use chemicals,
laser or heat to produce the image. They give out high quality printouts. E.g.
laser jet which uses toner contained in toner cartridges and ink jet which uses
ink contained in ink cartridges.
Advantages of Non-Impact printers.
❖ They produce high quality work ie clear resolution.
❖ They do not produce a lot of noise
❖ They are faster than impact printers
❖ They use little power compared to impact printers
❖ They generate less heat during their operation.

Disadvantages of non-impact printers

❖ They are usually expensive
❖ They suffer from paper jam easily
❖ Replacing cartridge is expensive
❖ They are affected by dust and high temperatures
❖ They require high quality papers
❖ They cannot print on continuous papers

Factors to consider when buying a printer.

❖ The initial and maintenance costs
❖ Portability
❖ Size
❖ Amount of work to be printed
❖ Speed of a printer
❖ Availability on the cartridge on the market
❖ Range of capabilities of a printer
❖ User needs

Speaker. These are used to produce sound output. A speaker’s sound output is
measured in watts of power output. The higher the speaker’s rating, the better
the sound output.
Projectors. Projectors are used to display information for bigger audiences on
bigger screens. Data projectors are of two types;
- Liquid crystal display projectors; are projectors that use liquid crystal
technology to produce lower quality images.
- Digital light processing (DLP) projectors are projectors that use tinny mirrors
to reflect light. It can produce much better quality images in a well lit room.
NOTE: All devices that reside outside the computer system case whether input
or output are called peripheral devices.
Computer ports
USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports. This connects storage, output and input
devices.
PS/2 ports. This connects a mouse or keyboard.
Serial port. This connects modem, scanner, a mouse etc (sends and receives
data one bit at a time)
Parallel port. This is used to connect newer versions of printers and other
peripherals such as monitor. They transfer data faster than the serial port.
VGA port (Video graphics Array). This only connects monitors.
Fire wire. This connects storage, output and input. Fire wire is made to handle
more data than USB particularly audio and visual information.

Storage devices
These are devices used to store computer data either permanently or
temporarily. E.g. RAM, hard disk, flash e.t.c

A storage drive /media is a device on the system unit where storage devices
are inserted to be read and written on.
Writing data means recording data from memory to the storage device.
Reading data. Means transferring data from a storage media to computer’s
memory. Capacity is the number of bytes (characters) a storage device can
hold

Storage devices are divided into two categories;

- Primary storage device
- Secondary storage device

Primary storage device or main memory

This is a type of computer memory where data or information is stored

temporarily and if power is switch off all data is lost.
Its known as a volatile memory e.g. RAM, processor cache memory, processor
registers etc.
RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY) this is the memory that stores information
that is being processed and sends it at very fast rate to the other computer
components.

Characteristics of RAM
- It stores data temporarily
- RAM size can be changed or increased
- RAM is a read and write memory
- RAM occupies a bigger portion of the main memory (70%)
- RAM is volatile. It can easily lose its contents

Types of RAM
• Static RAM
• Dynamic RAM

Effects of increasing RAM

• Boost in performance. Increasing RAM can have a big impact on
productivity especially in a networked environment where several PCs
may resource like printers etc
• Faster web surfing. No matter how fast your internet connection is, a
memory upgrade can help your browser display pages faster
• Smoother multitasking. Memory upgrade is essential for smooth
multitasking as it does not use the hard disk to run programs.
• More efficient video editing. Because video files are very large, you will
not only need a bigger hard disk but also need a bigger RAM to
quick up processing
• Efficient networking: a memory upgrade is essential for efficient
networking. The server as well as individual PCs can be upgraded to
lend more benefits for everyone.
Functions of RAM
❖ To store data and instructions awaiting processing.
❖ To store instructions which are being obeyed or whose parts have been obeyed
by the computer.
❖ To store intermediate results of computer working before they are
communicated to their recipients.

ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)

This is a programming chip where all the system information is kept at the time
of manufacturing. It keeps in built instructions entered at the time of
manufacture e.g. Basic input output system (BIOS) such instructions are called
firmware.
We can only read the content in ROM as many times as desired but does not
allow modifications
Types of ROM
a). PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory). This is basically a blank ROM
chip that can be written to, but only once. E.g. CD-R that allows writing on then
only once.
b). EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory ) this is just like PROMs
for
Processor cache memory. Stores data and transfers it at a lightening fast
speed so that it can be processed by the cores in the processor. Cache
memory holds a less space (12MBs) than RAM (4GBs) but RAM has a less
speed of 800Mhz while cache memory can operate at 2.4Ghz.
Processor registers. These are the smallest of all primary storage devices. They
hold around 32 to 62 bits; however processor registers are the fastest primary
storage device.
They are primarily used by the processor to handle calculations used to
operate the programs.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RAM AND ROM

RAM ROM
It is volatile It is nonvolatile (content cannot be
lost even when the computer is off)
Is read and write Is read only
It offers temporary storage It offers permanent storage
Its size can be increased Its size may not be increased (i.e.
fied)
Its contents are user define Its contents are defined by the
manufacturer
It occupies a bigger portion of main It occupies a smaller portion of the
memory (70% main memory (30%)

NOTE: Firm ware are instructions and information which is recorded

permanently by the manufacturers

OTHER TYPES OF MEMORIES

Buffer. Is a region of memory that is used to temporarily hold data while it is
being moved from one place to another.
Virtual memory. Is the kind of memory storage where the operating system
allocates a portion of storage (usually on the hard disk) to function as
additional RAM or in the absence of RAM.
Cache memory. Is the memory that stores data/files temporarily that is
automatically registered for on the web page.
Cache memory is meant to enhance memory performance. Cache memory is
closer to the CPU than the main memory RAM.
Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor (CMOS) Is the memory used to
store configuration information about the computer which includes;
❖ Current date and time
❖ Password
❖ Amount of memory

Flash Memory: Is mainly used in cellular phones and its non-volatile

Secondary storage device

Secondary storage device or auxiliary storage devices are devices used to store
information/data permanently even when power is switched off (its non-volatile)
Examples
❖ Hard disks
❖ Floppy diskette
❖ Compact disk
❖ Digital versatile disks
❖ Flash disk
❖ Memory cards

Types of secondary storage devices

1. Magnetic secondary storage devices
2. Solid state secondary storage devices
3. Optical secondary storage devices

Magnetic secondary storage devices

Hard disk. Is a permanently fitted storage device in a computer. The hard disk
is usually fitted in the hard disk drive.
The hard disk capacity is in gigabytes and access to data is much faster. Hard
disks are internal or external.

Advantages of hard disks

❖ Data stored on internal hard disk is secure since it cannot be misplaced –
❖ Access time to data on hard disk is very fast and convenient
❖ Their data life is long compared to other storage devices
 ❖ They store large amounts of information

Disadvantages of hard disks –

❖ Any virus attack may cause heavy data loss
❖ The hard disk may fail due to violent shaking and vibration
❖ Hard disks are very expensive to buy compared to other storage devices
❖ Transfer of data from one machine to another may be difficult since some are
internally fixed.
❖ Hard disks expand & contact with change in temperature and this may cause
data loss.

NOTE: Hard disk partitioning/ disk slicing is the creation of one or more
regions on a hard disk so that each region separately.
Reasons for disk portioning
❖ To provide space for data backups access
❖ To safeguard specific information from unauthorized
❖ To speed up computer operations.

Magnetic tapes. Is a flexible plastic ribbon on which data can be written on

using magnetic process.
Magnetic tapes are sequentially accessed i.e. to access information at the end
of the tape, it needs to read the entire tape which may take some time.

Advantages of using magnetic tapes

❖ They are light and easy to carry
❖ They are relatively cheap
❖ They store large amounts of data of up to 1 telabyte. (1000 GB)

Disadvantages of magnetic tapes

❖ Data quality gradually reduces with time
❖ Environmental factors like dust and moisture can spoil data/information on it
❖ It is time consuming since records are accessed sequentially.

Floppy disk/diskettes: Is a removable storage device that is made up of thin

circular plastic disk with a magnetic coating.
Diskettes are random access capacity. The common one has a storage capacity
of 1.44MB.

ADVANTAGES
❖ It is easy to transport (portable)
❖ They were cheap to buy
 ❖ Data access took shorter time (Random Access)

Disadvantages
❖ They have limited space of up to 1.44MB
❖ They were prone to virus attacks and this caused data loss
❖ Environmental factors like dust, temperature and sunlight could spoil the
information stored
(b)

Optical Storage devices: These are electro – mechanical units coated with high
reflective material.
Data is written on the disk by focusing it on a high power laser beam.
These include;
CD –R or CD (Compact disk Read memory) This is a compact disk which can
be written to only once and can be read many times. The data on this disk
cannot be erased.
CD – RW (Compact disk Re – writable) This is an erasable compact disk that
can be written to multiple times. CD R and CD – RW have a standard storage
capacity of 700MB (MEGA BYTES)

DVD – R (Digital Versatile Disk) Data on this disk cannot be erased once written
on its storage capacity is 4.7GB

DVD – RW This is similar to CD – RW except that it has a storage capacity of

up to 4.7GB.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPACT DISKS

❖ They have high storage capacity of 700MB
❖ They are portable hence transfer information easily
❖ They are resistant to virus attacks
❖ They are relatively cheap compared to other storage devices
❖ Their data life is nearly 100% reliable if it has no scratches.

DISADVANTAGES
❖ To record data on a CD one needs a CD writer
❖ Their average access time is slower compared to hard disk
❖ Their destruction rate is high since a single scratch may render it useless.
Solid state storage devices (SSS) Is a type of computer storage device made
from silicon microchips. SSS store data electrically instead of magnetically.

These include;
(i) Memory cards: These are micro storage cards mainly used in small digital
devices like mobile phones, digital camera and personal computer.
(ii) Flash Disk: This is a small external pen – like storage device that can store
all data types it connects through the USB ports Etc

Precautions taken in keeping diskettes

▪ Don’t fold, spindle or mutilate a disk.
▪ Don’t place a diskette near a magnetic field such as near a radio
speaker, on top of your CPU case or near electric motor etc.
▪ Don’t expose a diskette to direct sunlight for long periods.
▪ Keep a diskette away from intensive heat.
▪ Always keep it in its jacket so that the exposed surface is covered.
▪ Don’t drop it on a hard surface e.g. on the floor.
▪ Don’t drop water on the exposed surface of the diskette.
▪ Don’t expose it an X-ray.
▪ Don’t insert or remove it from its drive when the drive active light is on.
▪ Don’t force it into its drive. It should slip in with little or no resistance.
▪ Don’t write labels directly on it. Use a felt pen.

Differences between hard and floppy disk

Hard disk floppy disk
• Stores more information stores less information
• Metallic plastic
• Fixed flexible
• Reads information faster it is slow
• Exposed to less risks exposed to more risks

MEMORY MEASUREMENTS
Memory in computers is measured basing on the basic operations of a
computer. A computer operates in the binary system of measurement. I.e. 0’s
and 1’s

A bit is a value of either a 1 or 0 (on or off).

Byte: One byte is eight binary digits (bits), such as 1111001.
A Kilobyte is 1,024 bytes. The smallest file stored on a smartphone, tablet or
PC is typically four kilobytes (4KB) in size.
A Megabyte is 1,048,576 bytes or 1,024 Kilobytes
A Gigabyte is 1,073,741,824 (230) bytes. 1,024 Megabytes, or 1,048,576
Kilobytes.
A Terabyte is 1,099,511,627,776 (240) bytes, 1,024 Gigabytes, or 1,048,576
Megabytes.
Terabyte (TB): There are 1024GB in one terabyte (TB)
1000 bytes = 1 kilobyte
1000 kilobytes = 1MB.
1000MB = 1GB
1000GB = 1TB.

Processing device
This is the heart of the computer where the entire processing takes place. It is
sometimes referred to as the brain of the computer. It is the center of activities
in the computer hence referred to as Central Processing Unit.
The microprocessor does the following:
o Carries out commands to make the hardware components perform
actions
o Processing data. This involves performing logical instructions such as
comparing and performing mathematical instructions such as adding and
subtracting.

A CPU comprises of the following parts;

a. The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): performs calculations and decisions
b. The control unit: coordinates processing steps
c. The registers (temporary storage): small storage area

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):

This is the component in the CPU, which handles all the arithmetic and logic
operations of the computer system. It is actually the calculator of the computer
system.

The arithmetic operations include;

❖ Addition
❖ Multiplication
❖ Division
❖ Subtraction
Logical operation is the ability of a computer to compare two quantities or
numbers to determine which is greater or equal or less than the other.

The control unit

This is a component of the CPU which governs all activities within the
computer.
It interprets instructions stored in the main memory and gives instructions to
relevant parts of the computer system.
The control unit also performs the machine cycle.

Functions of the control unit are −

❖ It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.
❖ It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
❖ It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
❖ It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.

Machine cycle
This is a series of operations performed to execute a single program
instruction. The machine cycle consists of four steps namely;
❖ Fetch
❖ Decode
❖ Execute
❖ Store
 Fetch

Store Decode

Execute
The CPU performs the following steps for each instruction;
1) The control unit fetches (GETS) the instruction from memory.
2) The control unit decodes the instruction and directs that the necessary
data can be moved from memory to the arithmetic logic unit. These first
two steps together are called instruction time or I-time.
3) The arithmetic logic unit execute the arithmetic and logical instruction.
That is the ALU is given control and performs the actual operation on
the data.
4) The ALU stores the result of this operation in memory or in a register.
Step 3 and 4 are together called Execution time or E-time

The registers
This is the component which stores instructions temporarily in the CPU while
awaiting handling by the (ALU).

Computer peripheral Device interfaces

There are five different kinds of port in a system unit. The ports are :
• Serial Port
• Parallel Port
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port.
• Firewire Port
• Special Purpose Ports
SERIAL PORT
 A serial port is a socket on a computer used to connect a
modem, data acquisition terminal or other serial devices via a
slow-speed serial interface.
A serial port is used to connect a device to the system unit
by transmitting data one bit at a time. Earlier PCs used the
serial port for the mouse, and earlier Macintosh models used the serial port to
attach a printer.
Today, the serial port is a legacy interface, having been superseded by the USB
bus. An example of a serial port is the COM (communication) port.
PARALLEL PORT
A parallel port is a socket on a computer used to connect a
printer or other parallel devices via the computer's parallel
interface.
Unlike a serial port, a parallel port is an interface that
connects devices by transferring information more than one bit
at a time. Originally, parallel ports were developed as an alternative to the
slower speed serial ports. Many printers connect to the system unit using a
parallel port.
This parallel port can transfer eight bits of data (one byte) simultaneously
through eight separate lines in a single cable. An example of a parallel port is
the printer port.
USB PORT
A USB port is a socket on a computer or peripheral devices
into which a USB cable is plugged in. A USB port, short for
universal serial bus port, can connect up to 127 different
peripherals together with a single connector.
It's used to connect all kinds of external devices, such as
external hard drives, printers, mouse and scanner. It can transfer data to a
speed of 12 megabits per second.
USB ports began to appear on PCs in 1997, and Windows 98 was the first
Windows to support it. Within a few years, the USB became popular for
connecting nearly every external peripheral device. Now that it is replacing the
serial and parallel ports on a PC, at least four USB ports are standard on
every computer.
SPECIAL PURPOSE PORTS
There are three special purpose ports, which are MIDI port, SCSI port and IrDA
port.
MIDI port
 It is designed to connect the system unit to a musical
instrument, such as an electronic keyboard.

SCSI port
It is a special high-speed parallel port used to attach
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers..

IrDA port
Some devices transmit data via infrared light waves. For these
wireless devices to transmit signals to a computer, both the
computer and the

TOPIC 5: COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software is a general term used to describe the various programs, languages or

routines that control the operations of a computer in solving a given problem.
OR
Is a set of instructions that guide a computer on what to do.
OR
These are programs used in directing a computer in solving problems and
overseeing operation.
OR
It’s the software that instructs the hardware on what to do and how to do it.
OR
Software can also be described as a sequence of logical instructions stored in
memory that a computer executes in the processing of data.

Program. This is a series of step-by-step instructs that provide solutions and tell
the computer what to do. They are logical arranged set of programming statement.

Software is broadly divided into (types of software):

o System software and
o Application software
 Characteristics of software
o Software does not ware out
o Its intangible
o Scalability
o Cheap
o User-friendly
o Doesn't wear out
o Labour intensive
o Hackable
o Upgradable

System software
These are programs which control and support all other computer programs and
the hardware.
They manage the computer system resources and ensure efficient running of the
computer.
Types of System software:
• The operating system
• Software development tools (programming languages, compilers,
interpreters)
• The utilities (utility software)

Operating system
This is a software that coordinates all activities among the computer software
and hardware devices.
These are programs that manage the computer resources.
Op supervises and manages the different activities that take place in the computer
like the way the software uses the hardware.
The operating system ensures that the computer operates in a systematic reliable
manner.
Examples of operating systems; Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows NT (New
Technology), Windows 98, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10 (Latest version),
Linux, Unix, Windows ME (Millennium), DOS, Windows 3X, Windows 95

Types of operating system

Single programming operating system: This is operating system that can run one
program at ago. e.g. MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), CP/M (Control
program for microcomputers), XENIX, PC-DOS (Personal computer operating
system).
Multiple programming operating system: This is can run a number of programs
at the same time. e.g. UNIX, Zenix, Novel Netware, Ms-windows.
Functions of operating system
❖ Hardware management. It enables a computer to communicate with peripheral
devices such as a printer, mouse etc. it controls all the input/output devices and
the flow of data or information e.g. telling the monitor to display the results.
❖ Software management. It provides a mechanism for initiating processes that include
programs such as Microsoft word and Microsoft Power Point.
❖ Data management. It manages files stored on a hard disk and other mass storage
devices. It also performs file management tasks like renaming and deleting.
❖ It provides memory space to programs for execution.
❖ Coordinates the flow of data between the various application programs and users.
❖ Provides services for obtaining data.
❖ It helps in multi-programming.
❖ It enables booting a computer.
❖ Sometimes they have in-built system utilities like debuggers and defragmenters
which help in the maintenance of disks.
❖ It helps in mediating between the computer user and the computer system in
order to help the user to interact with the computer hardware to obtain results.
❖ It coordinates all activities in the various parts of the computer.
❖ It alerts the user and reports errors.
❖ It manages resources such as the CPU and memory.
❖ It manages multi-tasking (doing many tasks at once e.g. printing, inputting and
processing) and multi-programming (a technique of having more than one program
in the main/ primary storage which programs may be running or are being
processed at the same time). For example, having a word document and excel
spreadsheet open at the same time.
❖ Ensures automatic update of time and date on the computer
❖ It determines the interface of the desktop. Some operating systems are command
based and thus require one to type in commands (e.g. DOS) while others use
graphics / pictures (e.g. windows XP)
❖ Controls system security by maintaining the use of passwords. A password is a
set of system before further access is permitted.

Multitasking, Multithreading, Time-sharing, Multiprogramming, Multiprocessing

❑ Multitasking
▪ A processing activity that allows a user to run more than one
application at the same time
❑ Multithreading
 ▪ A processing activity that is basically multitasking within a single
application
❑ Time-sharing
▪ A processing activity that allows more than one person to use a
computer system at the same time

❑ Multiprogramming
▪ Is the execution of two or more programs on a multi user
operating system.
❑ Multiprocessing
▪ This is done by two or more computers or processors linked
together to perform or work simultaneously.

Programming Languages:
This is a means of communicating with the computer.

Categories of programming languages

1) Low level programming languages
2) High level programming languages

LOW LEVEL PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

These are binary languages that are closely related to the computer processor.
They are written in binary format of 0s and 1s
Examples of low level languages
1) Machine code/ object code programming language
2) Assembly language

Machine language
This is written in binary format i.e. in 0s and 1s

Characteristics
❖ It is very difficult to learn to human beings
❖ Programs are likely to have errors
❖ It is easily understood by the processor

An example of a machine code instruction on a 16 – bit machine is 1000 000

000 1001

Assembly language
This is a language inverted to simplify machine code language

Characteristics
❖ It closely looks like machine code language.
❖ It is easier to understand that the machine code
❖ It uses few English abbreviations or words e.g. SUB for subtract, FNO for first
number

HIGH LEVEL PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

These are languages that use English words aimed at making programming
much easier.

Advantages
❖ These were introduced as an improvement for assembly language
❖ They make programming much easier due to use of English words
❖ Less time is spent to write a length program

Disadvantages
❖ The language cannot easily be understood by the processor.

LANGUAGE PROCESSORS/TRANSISTOR
These are programs that are used to translate high level languages into low
level languages and vice versa.
These include;
❑ Interpreter
▪ A language translator that translates a program line by line at a
time into machine code
❑ Compiler
▪ A language translator that converts a complete program into
machine language to produce a program that the computer can
process in its entirety
❑ Assemblers
▪ These translate assembly instructions into machine code.
❑ Linkers
▪ These combine compiled programs and determine where the
program will be located in memory.

Software Development Tools

These are system programs that assist in the preparation of a program and
translate into machine code for execution. Examples include; language translators,
compilers, assemblers, editors, debug aids.
 Utility software
These are system programs used to support, enhance or expand programs in a
computer system. They can also be defined as software tools that are used to
carry out organization and maintenance activities e.g. deleting of unwanted
materials, deleting those programs which cause the computer to work abnormally
etc.
They are generally programs which perform tasks related to maintenance in your
computer’s health, hardware and data. They include:
▪ File management programs

▪ Disk management programs

▪ Memory management programs

▪ Data recovery programs

▪ Backup programs

▪ Data compressor

▪ Anti-virus programs

▪ Backup up programs. These ones let you protect your files by making
copies of them.
▪ Data recovery programs. These are used to restore data that has been
physically damaged or corrupted.
▪ Data compression programs. These are utilities which are used remove
redundant elements, gaps and unnecessary data from a computer’s storage
space. Due to very large sizes of files used in multimedia (graphics, sound
and video files) data compression is used to reduce the storage space
required. There are two major types of data compression, lossy and lossless.
▪ Lossy compression involves a certain loss of accuracy in exchange for
great compression.
▪ Lossless compression achieves compression by removing redundant data
elements and does not achieve as much compression (1:4). An example is
WINZIP.
▪ Debuggers. These are programs which correct errors in a computer program.
▪ A bug is an error in a computer program and to debug means to correct
errors in a program.
▪ Defragmenters
▪ These are programs, which bring fragments of a file together for storage
in one location in the computer memory.
▪ Disk maintenance
 ▪ Disk maintenance utilities like Norton disk doctor, scandisk etc. These
programs detect errors on a computer disk and fix them like checking for
bad clusters on a hard disk or diskette and marking faulty ones as bad
cluster.

Virus protection programs (Anti-virus programs)

This is anti-virus software which protects your system from viruses.
A virus is a piece of computer code or program that is hidden within an existing
program.
It overwrites or attaches itself to programs or data and destroys or corrupts data.
A virus interferes with the normal running of a useful computer program.
Anti-virus programs can be used to detect and remove viruses from your system
and any other storage media. Examples of anti-viruses include; central point anti-
virus, Mac fee, Norton anti-virus, Avast etc.

Computer viruses
These are computer programs which silently replicate (reproduce) themselves on
storage media without the computer user realizing it.

A computer virus is a program designed to harm or cause harm on an infected

computer.

Its spreads through e-mail attachments, portable devices, websites containing

malicious scripts and file downloads.

Types of computer viruses

Sometimes virus hide in different places on the computer and in the process,
perform various damages to the computer. They include;
File virus. This type of virus hides in program files, especially those files which
have extension. EXE and COM.
Boot sector viruses. These viruses hide in the boot sector of a disk. This particular
sector contains important information about the disk’s logical setup.
Partition sector viruses. These hide in the primary sector of a hard disk. This
area is where programs which start a computer are stored. When a virus gets to
this area, it at times changes the programs it finds there. In the end, this may
cause a computer not to start
Macro Viruses: These viruses infect the files created using some applications or
programs that contain macros such as doc, pps, xls and mdb. They automatically
infect the files with macros and also templates and documents that are contained
in the file. They hide in documents shared through e-mail and networks.
Web Scripting Virus: Most web pages include some complex codes in order to
create an interactive and interesting content. Such a code is often exploited to
cause certain undesirable actions. They mostly originate from the infected web
pages or browsers.
Multipartite Virus: These type of viruses spread in many different ways. Their
actions vary depending on the OS installed and presence of certain files. They
tend to hide in the computer’s memory but do not infect the hard disk.
FAT Viruses

These lardy viruses attack the file allocation table (FAT) which is the disc part
used to store every information about the available space, location of files,
unusable space etc.

Worm

This program is very similar to a virus and has the ability to self-replicate
leading to negative effects on your computer.

Worm Viruses Include:

❖ lovgate.F
❖ sobig.D
❖ trile. C
❖ PSWBugbear.B
❖ Mapson

Trojans

Trojans can illegally trace important login details of users online. For example
E-Banking is very common among users, therefore, vulnerability of tracing your
login details whenever your PC is working without any strong powerful antivirus
installed.

Email Virus

This is a virus spread via an email. Such a virus will hide in an email and when
the recipient opens the mail.

Sources of computer viruses

❖ Freeware and share. When infected software is installed on computer, it will

automatically get infected.
❖ Contaminated diskettes
❖ Computer games especially. Games downloaded from the internet
❖ Updates of software distributed via networks
Symptoms of computer viruses
❖ Executable files changing size for no obvious reason.
❖ Program taking longer than usual load
❖ Unusual error messages occurring more frequently

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 ❖ Programs and files disappearing mysteriously
❖ Access lights turning on for non referred devices
❖ Computer indicating that storage devices are full when there is still enough space

Ways of keeping computer virus programs out of your computer

▪ Using special virus detection program. These programs analyze every

program and every disk that is inserted into the computer to make sure
that it is not caring any virus. Example of such programs include Norton
anti-virus tool kit, Dr. Solomon’s anti-virus tool kit etc.
▪ Avoid external disks especially diskettes as they may be carrying a virus. If
you have an anti-virus program, first check your disks before using them.
▪ You have to be careful when downloading programs (freeware, shareware,
computer games etc.) from the internet as some of the programs contain
viruses.
▪ Perform a virus scan on your computer at least once a week and also
other storage media like your diskettes, backup tapes etc.
▪ Always remember to update your anti-virus software. Every day, new viruses
are created and the designers of these virus programs first look at the
available anti-virus programs so that they can create a strange virus which
can bypass those programs.

Functions of system software

The three major functions of system software are allocating system resources,
monitoring system activities, and disk and file management.

1. Allocating system resources: The system resources are time, memory, input,
and output. The time in the CPU is divided into time slices. The time slices
is measured in terms of milliseconds. Based on the priority of tasks the
time slices are assigned. Memory is also managed by operating system.
Disk space is the part of main memory. The data flow is controlled by
operating system.
2. Monitoring system activities: The system security and system performance
is monitored by system software. System performance includes response
time and CPU utilization. System security is a part of operating system.
Multiple users can’t access without the security code or password.
3. File and disk management: The user needs to save, copy, delete, move
and rename the files. The system software will handle those functions. Disk
and file management is the technical task.
2. Application software

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These are programs designed to solve specific problems of the user.
Application software is designed to perform the practical problems experienced in
life.

Application software includes most of the types of programs we use every day
to get our computerized work done. Application programs are widely used in our
society for entering and editing text (word processing), for entering and
manipulating numerical data (spread sheets and other business programs), and
for record keeping (database management programs). These types of programs
are sometimes referred to as general purpose applications.

Characteristics of application programs

❖ They are user friendly i.e. users find them easy and flexible to use
❖ Their output is directly displayed on the screen
❖ They benefit the computer user more than the computer itself
❖ The computer can do with or without them
❖ They are menu driven i.e. commands are easily got under menus

Application package: This is a user software program designed to accomplish a

given task.
Software suite (Integrated software): This refers to the collection of individual
applications sold as a single package.

Application software is divided into two: i.e. off-shelf and Bespoke (custom-made)
software/Tailor made application software.

Off-shelf( Packaged, General purpose, ) application software

These are already made programs bought ‘off-the shelves’ from a software shop
or vendor.
It can also be defined as software that is ready-made and available to lots of
people. You usually pay a license fee to use it

Off- shelf application software can further be divided into Horizontal market
applications (common applications you can find on every office computer) and
vertical market applications also known as specialized application programs.

Horizontal market software

These are software tools that are useful to almost any one in any job. These
are programs you can find on almost every computer in every office. They include;
o Spreadsheets used for organization and analysis of data in tabular form.

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 o Word-processors used to produce text documents that are professionally
laid out.

o Presentation software used for creating presentations to show to customers

or staff
o Databases used for keeping customer records, sales records, appointments
system
o Desktop publishing packages used for creating leaflets, posters, business
cards
o Graphics packages for manipulating images that can be used at home,
school or a business
o Web design application used for creating personal or business web sites
o Communication software among others.

Vertical market (specialized applications)

It consists of programs developed for a specific industry. Examples include
Computer Aided Designs (CAD), Bakery recipes, Bridge analysis, airline ticketing,
airplane wing structure, robots swivel control, electronic testing etc.

Advantages of off the shelf software

❖ They are usually provided with extensive documentation to help the user.
❖ They are easy to use and are suitable for people with little or no computing
knowledge.
❖ They are appropriate for a large variety of applications.
❖ They are relatively low priced since they are sold in large numbers.
❖ They are readily available.
❖ They can be customized.
❖ They have less errors.

Disadvantages of off the shelf software

❖ The package may allow only clumsy solution to the task at hand.
❖ Some packages need developing for example databases so require thorough
knowledge that is quite expensive.
❖ The user has to provide documentation for the particular application
created.
❖ It is easy to forget commands to use the package especially if it is not
used frequently.

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Examples of off the shelf software include:
❖ WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE
❖ SPREAD SHEET SOFTWARE

Bespoke (custom-made) software/Tailor made application software.

Bespoke software is written especially for you, to meet your specific business
requirements.

This is a software made/designed for a specific user or organisation for a specific

job. E.g.
- A factory may require a software to run a robot to make cars; however it may
be the only factory making cars in the whole world, so the software required
would have to be made specifically for that factory.
- For military, they may need a missile

The advantages of bespoke (custom-made) software

are:
• Tailored to you. The software is developed and built to meet your specific
requirements, ensuring that you get software that works exactly how you
need it to and delivers the results you want.
• More flexible. A bespoke system can evolve over time to match your
changing requirements.
• No per-user fees. If you own the software, you won’t have to extra per-user
fees as your business grows.
• Not tied in. You own the intellectual property, so you are not tied to a
specific vendor that could potentially disappear at any time.

• Competitive advantage. As your competitors won’t have the same software, it

could give you a competitive edge. An effective software package can make
a company work more efficiently, improve their performance and have a
positive impact on customer satisfaction levels.

The disadvantages are:

• Higher initial costs. It will cost more at the beginning, as you have to pay
the development costs.
• Takes longer. Depending on the size and complexity of the software, it
may take months or even years to develop.

Forms of software

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Freeware: This is a software provided at no cost to users e.g. most of the
applications on phones like whatsapp.

Shareware: This is a software that is distributed free for a trial period and
payment is required for using the software beyond the trial period.

Public domain software: This is free software donated for public use with no
copyright restrictions. For example parliament news, newspapers.

Open source software: This the software which is given to the public and are
free to edit, change and modify.

User interfaces

Command line interface. (command driven) :These accept commands in form of

special word letters. Examples are; DOS which contain commands like copy and
rename for copying the file and changing the name for files respectively.

The commands accept and execute by part of the O/S called command
processor/ command line interpreter.

Command driven software is more flexible than menu driver software but it is
more difficult to learn.

The user must be having the knowledge of available commands of what they
do and the rules governing how they must be typed.

Therefore they are used by experienced user other than beginners and they
tend to be used by technical people such as computer operators, programmers,
and technicians. –

Graphical user interface (GUI). It is the one which allows the user to use
menus and visual images such as icons, buttons, and other graphic objects to
enter commands in the computer.

Advantages of GUI.

❖ It is user friendly because it is easy to learn and use.

❖ There is no need to memorize/ type any command.
❖ It is similar for other application.

Disadvantages

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 ❖ It normally requires a larger memory and a faster processor.
❖ It also occupies more disk space to hold the file and different functions.

NOTE: Icons refer to small pictures representing programs installed in the

computer

TOPIC 6: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Data communications refers to the transmission of digital data between two or

more computers.

ELEMENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

❖ Sender
❖ Receiver
❖ Transmission media
❖ Protocol
❖ Message
❖ Communication software

Sender: This is a device that initiates an instruction or message to be sent.

Receiver: This is a device that receives the message from the sender.
Message: This is data/ information/ content to be transmitted over the
transmission media.
Transmission media: This is a communication path/ channel through which data
signals are sent. E.g. the physical (cables) or wireless (radio, micro waves. E.g.
cables, hub/switch, router, Ethernet, bridge.
Protocol: Is a set of rules and standards that govern the electronic
communication. Communication device or signal converter (which can be done
by the help of modem): This is a device that converts data or instructions from
the sending device into signals that can be carried by a transmission media to
the receiver
• In data communication four basic terms are frequently used. They are
• Data: A collection of facts in raw forms that become information after
processing.
• Signals: Electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
• Signaling: Propagation of signals across a communication medium.

51
 • Transmission: Communication of data achieved by the processing of
signals.

DATA COMMUNICATION TOOLS

These are tools used in sending and receiving information.

Electronic mail: This facilitates the sending and receiving of messages across
the globe. This is achieved by the use of devices like computers and phones.

Instant messaging (IM) :This is a form of communication over the internet that
offers an instant transmission of messages from the sender to the receiver.
This facilitates real time sending and receiving of messages.

Advantages of instant messaging

❖ It is cost saving since it can be done without paying for domestic or
international call charges.
❖ Messages are sent in real time and response is instantaneous.
❖ Files and pictures can be sent.

Disadvantages of instant messaging (IM)

❖ There is a possibility of the spread of computer viruses.
❖ They are often used for rumour mongering
❖ It is prone to hackers who can gain access to confidential information in the
computer.

Skype :This is a tool/ service that facilitates face to face interactions between
distant people.

News group/ chat rooms: This is a tool/ service that facilitates people to
discuss and exchange information on a vast array of topics and share
information.

Advantages
❖ It provides an opportunity to create new friends
❖ It creates ideas that may not rise in classrooms
❖ It improves the typing skills for people since it is text based
❖ It helps people with hearing problems to communicate easily over the internet
❖ It is a recreational activity for spending leisure time

Disadvantages

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 ❖ It encourages rumour mongering
❖ It presents an opportunity for cyber bullying and sending un wanted messages
❖ There are high chances of being cheated or corned

Data Transmission Modes

There are three ways for transmitting data from one point to another.

Simplex: is a mode of transmission where data flows in only one direction

between the two communicating devices e.g. broadcast on radio, TV and
transmission between keyboard and the monitor, fire alarms.

Half-duplex: is a mode of transmission where data signals can flow in both

directions but not at the same time. E.g. walkie talkie communication well known
as radio calls.

Full-duplex: is a mode of data transmission where data signals can flow in both
directions at the same time. E.g. telephone communication.

Use of full-duplex line improves the efficiency as the line turn-around time
required in half-duplex arrangement is eliminated. Example of this mode of
transmission is the telephone line.

Digital and Analog Transmission

Data is transmitted from one point to another point by means of electrical

signals that may be in digital and analog form.
In analog signal, the transmission power varies over a continuous range with
respect to sound, light and radio waves.

53
On the other hand a digital signal may assume only discrete set of values
within a given range. Examples are computer and computer related equipment.
Analog signal is measured in Volts and its frequency in Hertz (Hz).

Analog Signal

Digital signal

Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

Data transmission through a medium can be either asynchronous or

synchronous.
In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted character by character as you
go on typing on a keyboard.

On the other hand, in the synchronous mode, the saved data is transmitted
block by block. Each block can contain many characters. Synchronous
transmission is well suited for remote communication between a computer and
related devices like card reader and printers

Communication media /Transmission Media

The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver.

Classes of transmission media

54
Types of data transmission media Data transmission media is divided into two
categories
❖ Physical/guided transmission media
❖ Wireless/unguided transmission media

Physical/guided/wired transmission media

Is a transmission media in which signals are directed to a specific path using
cables/wires.
These include; -
❖ Twisted pair cables
❖ Coaxial cables –
❖ Fiber optic cables

Twisted pair cables

These are cables made up of two wires twisted together to reduce
electromagnetic interferences/noise.
There are two types of twisted pair cables
1) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables –
2) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables

Application
1) It is mainly used in telephone networks
2) They are used in Local Area Networks (LAN) for connecting personal computers.

Causes of electromagnetic Interference (EMI) / electric noise

❖ Lightening sparks
❖ Radio signals
❖ Motor vehicles
❖ Radiators

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NOTE: STP cables are most suitable for environments which are electronically
noisy because they protected by the shields.

Coaxial cables
This cable has a central copper core which is made up of a solid wire.
It is very effective at carrying analog signals at high frequencies.

Coaxial cables are mostly as back bones to connect two or more separate
LANs because of their high band width.

Advantages
❖ It has a large band width of up to 1GBPS
❖ It can carry voice, data and video simultaneously.
❖ It is more resistant to radio and electromagnetic force than twisted
❖ It is stable even under data traffic (loads)

Disadvantages
❖ They are relatively expensive to buy and install as compared to twisted pair
❖ Coaxial cables are thick and thus hard to work with

Fiber optic cables

Signals are transmitted in a transparent plastic inform of light signals for long
distances. It is normally used as a back bone to interconnect networks.
It is normally used through under seas.

Advantages
❖ It transmits data at a very high speed
❖ It supports high band width
❖ They have lower attenuation thus transfer data for long distances
❖ It is smaller and lighter than copper cables hence better for space limited
situations
❖ It is resistant to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and eavesdropping.

Disadvantages
❖ It is very expensive to buy and manage
❖ It is very complex to configure
❖ A cable broken is very difficult to repair
❖ Installation of cables is difficult

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NOTE:
Attenuation: Is a gradual diminishing in the strength of a signal
Is the reduction in the signal strength as it moves along a transmission media.
Band width: Is the maximum amount of data

Unguided media
This is a data transmission media where there is no physical connection
between the communicating devices. Usually the transmission is sent through
the atmosphere.
Examples include: microwaves, satellites, Bluetooth,

Satellite transmission

These receive micro wave signals from earth based communication facilities
(satellite dishes), amplify them and re-transmit the signals to the communication
facilities. The earth based stations use large shaped antennas to transmit and
receive data from satellites.

The transmission to the satellite is called uplink and the transmission from the
satellite is called a downlink.

NOTE: The communication satellites are placed in orbits about 50,000km above
the earth.

Application of communication satellites

❖ It is used for TV broad casts

❖ It is used in radio broad casts
❖ It is used in paying and global positioning system

Advantages of satellite

❖ Lots of data can be sent simultaneously

❖ It allows high quality broad band communication across continents.
❖ It covers a very large geographical area of data communication

Disadvantages

❖ The fee to launch a satellite is extremely expensive

❖ The infrastructure needed to access satellite communication is also expensive
❖ Most users do not have control over the satellite

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 ❖ There is high level of dependences most people cannot afford owning private
satellites

Bluetooth: This facilitates one to one wireless connection in a short distance

e.g. mobile phone, laptops.

Infrared waves: These transmit data in a line of sight e.g. TV remote.

Radio waves: These transmit signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves. It

transmits data in a wide area e.g in a country.

Advantages of wireless communication

❖ It is cheaper to configure since it does not require cables

❖ It can easily be installed in remote and rugged areas at a low cost
❖ It can span (spread) to large geographical area
❖ It is easily scalable (can easily be changed to cover a large area)
❖ It is flexible since devices can be moved around without losing access to the
network

Disadvantages of wireless communication

❖ Relatively difficult to establish.

❖ The initial cost of acquisition and installation is very high.
❖ They are easily interfered by electro-magnetic interferences from lightening and
sun.

Factors affecting Data Transmission

❖ Virus infection in the transmitting devices

❖ Communication protocol used (set of rules used) or duplex
❖ Amount of traffic on the network at a time (band width)
❖ The device transmission speed/rate

Other terms used in data communication

Node: This is a device connected on the network

Link: This is a connection between adjacent nodes.

Path: This is an end – to – end route within a network

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Packetizing: This is the act of dividing messages into fixed length packets prior
to transmission over a network’s communication media.

Routing: This is determining the shortest and fastest path for sending and
receiving messages

Multiplexing This is the ability of a communication channel to transmit two or

more different signals as one. An example is a TV which sends graphics, sound
and text data at the same time as one signal.

Session: This is a communication dialog between network users.

Network: Is the interconnected group of computers and communication devices.

Broadband transmission: In broadband transmission, an analog signal is sent

over the transmission medium using particular frequency.

Base band: It is a digital signal that is generated and applied to a transmission

medium directly without modulation. The signal takes the form of voltages of
different magnitudes applied to the medium.

Communications processors
Modems
It is a modulator/demodulator.
The modem converts digital signals from a computer to analog signals
(modulation) for transmission over telephone lines, and vice versa
(demodulation).

Modulation is the process of converting digitized data into analog form for a
carrier wave.

Demodulation transforms data transmitted in analog form back into digital form
for computer storage and/or processing. Modems modulate and demodulate
computer data for transmission on telephone lines.

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 • Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted
over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A
modem converts between these two forms.
Multiplexer
• Multiplexing is carrying multiple signals/messages on one
medium/channel. E.g multiple TV stations in air medium, FM radio
broadcasting.Each separate signal is called a channel.
•

Front end processor

• A computer that handles communications processing for a mainframe.
• It connects to the communications lines on one end and the mainframe
on the other.
• It transmits and receives messages, assembles and disassembles packets
and detects and corrects errors.
• It is sometimes synonymous with a communications controller, although
the latter is usually not as flexible.

A duplexer is a device that allows bi-directional (duplex) communication over a

single channel.
• It is a switching device used in radar to permit alternate use of the same
antenna for both transmitting and receiving
• They allow transmission and receiving on the same antenna at the same
time and reject unwanted signals
• In radar and radio communications systems, it isolates the receiver from
the transmitter while permitting them to share a common antenna.
Encoder
• An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software program, algorithm
or person that converts information from one format or code to another,
for the purposes of standardization, speed, secrecy, security, or saving
space by shrinking size.
Decoder
• A decoder is a device which does the reverse of an encoder, undoing
the encoding so that the original information can be retrieved. The same
method used to encode is usually just reversed in order to decode.
• Decoding is necessary in applications such as data multiplexing

EXTRANET
• An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology and the
public telecommunication system to securely share part of a business's

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 information or operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or
other businesses. An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's
intranet that is extended to users outside the company. It has also been
described as a "state of mind" in which the Internet is perceived as a
way to do business with other companies as well as to sell products to
customers.
Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN)
ISDN is an international standard for the digital transmission of both voice and
data. Using ISDN lines, data can be transmitted over one or more separate
channels.

• Asynchronous Transfer Mode technology consists of electronic packet

switches to which computers can connect

COMPUTER NETWORKING

What is a Network?

A network consists of two or more computers/computing devices that are

linked in order to share resources, exchange files, or allow electronic
communications.

The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines,

radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

The three basic types of networks include: LAN, MAN and WAN.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

A network is said to be Local Area Network (LAN) if it is confined relatively to a

small area.

It is generally limited to a building or a geographical area, expanding not more

than a mile apart to other computers.

LAN configuration consists of:

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 ▪ A file server - stores all of the software that controls the network, as well
as the software that can be shared by the computers attached to the
network.
▪ A workstation - computers connected to the file server (Mac or PCs). These
are less powerful than the file server
▪ Cables - used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.

Types of LANs / Network models

❖ Peer-to-Peer
❖ Client/Server

Peer-to-Peer

This is a group of interconnected computers where computer act as both a

client and serve. However, they do not have a file server or a centralized
management source (See fig. 1).

In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all have the
same abilities to use the resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer
networks are designed primarily for small to medium local area networks.
AppleShare and Windows for Workgroups are examples of programs that can
function as peer-to-peer network operating systems.

Fig. 1. Peer-to-peer network

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Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

❖ Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.

❖ Computers communicate easily
❖ Users can manage their own resources
❖ They do not require network administrator
❖ It is appropriate in case of small networks
❖ It is easy to maintain

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:

❖ It lacks security due to absence of the server

❖ It is not appropriate for bigger networks
❖ There is no central administration
❖ Computers with shared resources suffer from sluggish performance
❖ It provides a limited number of connections for shared resources

Client/Server

This is a network that consists of a central computer (server) on which other

computers (clients) are connected. (See fig. 2).

The file servers become the heart of the system, providing access to resources
and providing security. Individual workstations (clients) have access to the
resources available on the file servers.

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 Fig. 2. Client/server network

Advantages of a client/server network:

❖ It ensures high security network through access controls installed on the

server
❖ It is easy to solve network problems
❖ It is easy to solve network problems
❖ It is easy to install a software since it is installed on only the server
❖ It is easier to monitor system performance on the server
❖ It offers reliable centralised storage and file sharing

Disadvantages of a client/server network:

❖ It is expensive to set up
❖ It involves extra expenses for living a network administration
❖ If the server fails, the entire network will not work
❖ It requires an expensive, more powerful hardware for the server machine..

Client-server model

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METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic areas, such as cities.
Often used by local libraries and government agencies often to connect to
citizens and private industries

WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connects larger geographic areas, such as London,
the UK, or the world. In this type of network dedicated transoceanic cabling or
satellite uplinks may be used.

Advantages of computer Networks

❖ File sharing Computer networks allow file sharing and remote file access
❖ Resource sharing Computer networks allow resources like printer, modem to be
shared Low set up costs Shared resources mean reduction in the hardware costs
for setting up a network.
❖ Work group computing; this allows for interactive team work.
❖ Increased storage space More than one computer on the network share files and
thus storage capacity gets resolved to a greater extent.
❖ Centralized administration This reduces the number of people needed to manage
the devices and data on the network, thus reducing cost to the company.
❖ Software upgrade is easily done since it is done on the server only

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 ❖ It enables online learning/e-learning, electronic connection
❖ It facilitates easy communication through e-mail

Disadvantages of computer Networks

Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the
initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software
are expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician.

Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a computer network requires

considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to
find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.

File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than
any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may
come to a halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to
necessary programs and files.

Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize
the inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable
can stop the entire network.

• Server faults stop applications being available

• Network faults can cause loss of data.
• Network fault could lead to loss of resources
• User work dependent upon network
• System open to hackers
• Decisions tend to become centralised
• Could become inefFicient
• Could degrade in performance
• Resources could be located too far from user

Networking Hardware

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and

other equipment needed to perform data-processing and communications within
the network.

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This section provides information on the following components:

❖ File Servers
❖ Workstations
❖ Network Interface Cards
❖ Switches
❖ Repeaters
❖ Bridges
❖ Routers

File Servers
A file server is a dedicated computer or device within a network that provides a
centralized location for storing, managing, and sharing files among connected clients.

Network Interface Cards

The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the
network and the computer workstation.

Fig. 1. Ethernet card.

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Switch

A concentrator is a device that provides a central connection point for cables

from workstations, servers, and peripherals.

Hub

A network hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers

and devices in a Local Area Network (LAN), acting as a central point for data
transmission.

Repeaters

The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it.

Bridges
A network bridge is a device that connects multiple network segments, allowing them to
function as a single network.

Routers

A router translates information from one network to another. Routers select the
best path to route a message, based on the destination address and origin.
The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough
to know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.

Hub

It is a device that contains multiple ports that enables more then one computer
to interconnect on the network.

Gateways

A gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to wide area
networks or internet.

Internetworking

Connection of two or more distinct (separate) computer network segments via a

common routing technology.

There are at least three forms of internetworks which are;

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 1) Intranet
2) Extranet
3) Internet

Intranet: These are internal corporate networks that use the infrastructure and
standards of the internet and the World Wide Web.

One of the greatest consideration of internet is the security, making sure that
sensitive company data accessible of intranets is protected from the outside
world. The means of doing this is a security system called a firewall.

Firewall is a system of hardware and software that blocks unauthorized access

to a network.

Extranets: These are extended intranets connecting not only internal personnel
but also selected customers, suppliers and other strategic offices.

Internet: It is a global system of interconnected computer networks.

TOPIC 7: INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB

Internet

It’s the global interconnection of computers to share information and data.

Internet is an arrangement of connected computers, which lets the computer

users all over the globe exchange data.

Connecting to the Internet

Requirement

❑ A computer or PDA or cell phone

❑ An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
❑ A modem (modulator/demodulator) for dial-up services or a NIC
(Network Interface Card) for DSL/Cable services

Connection Types
◼ LAN
◼ WLAN
◼ Dial-up Services

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 ◼ Broadband Services
◼ WAN
LAN (Local Area Network)

◼ A network of computers that are in the same physical location, such as

home or building
◼ Usually connected using Ethernet
❑ A standard on how computers communicate over a shared media
(cable)
WLAN (Wireless LAN)
◼ Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)
❑ A wireless technology that connects computers without cables
◼ Access Point (AP)
❑ A device (base station) that connects wireless devices together
❑ Usually connected to a wired-network
◼ ESSID (Extended Service Set ID)
❑ A “name” for the AP, eg. mobilenet
◼ Hotspot
❑ The area covered by wireless access points

Dial-up Services

◼ Modem
❑ Modulator/demodulator
❑ A device that converts analog signal to digital (modulation) and
vice versa (demodulation).
◼ ISDN
❑ Integrated Services Digital Network

◼ xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

❑ A technology that provides digital data transmission over unused
frequencies on traditional telephone lines.

◼ Cable

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 ❑ A technology that provides digital data transmission over cable TV
infrastructure
◼ Satellite
❑ A technology that provide digital data transmission over satellites
❑ Need a satellite dish

State the advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet

Advantages of the Internet:

❖ Communication: By sending an e-mail, we can contact a person who is
physically present thousand miles away within the fraction of a second’s
time.

❖ E-commerce is the idea that is implemented for any form of business

transactions that entails transmission of data from one corner of the
world to another. E-commerce has become a fantastic option through
which you can shop anything.

❖ Online Chat: There are many ‘chat rooms’ on the web.

❖ Downloading Software: This is one of the most happening and fun things
to do via the Internet.
❖ Online learning. It facilitates long distance learning.

❖ Entertainment. A wide variety of entertainment including video games,

music, movies, chat room, news and others can be accessed through the
Internet.

❖ The biggest benefit offered by the Internet is information. It functions as

a valuable resource of information. You can find any type of information
on any subject with the help of the search engines like Yahoo and
Google.

❖ Formation of communities. Internet helps in formation of communities or

forums. Here a number of people can participate in different types of
debates and discussions express their views and gather valuable
knowledge.

❖ A variety of other advantages offered via Internet, include: job searching,

online banking, buying movie tickets, hotel reservations and consultation
services etc.

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Disadvantages of the Internet:
❖ Pornography: This is a very serious issue concerning the Internet,
especially when it comes to young children.
❖ Spamming: This refers to sending unsolicited e-mails in bulk, which serve
no purpose.

❖ Virus threat. Virus is a program that interrupts the usual operation of

your personal computer system. PCs linked to the Internet have high
probability of virus attacks and as a result of this your hard disk can
crash, giving you a lot of trouble.

❖ Theft of personal details while using the Internet, there is high probability
that your personal details like name, address and credit card number
may be accessed by con artists and used for fraudulent purposes.

EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATION/ INTERNET PROTOCOLS

IP Internet Protocol (IP) is an address that uniquely identifies each computer on

the internet.
Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a protocol suite
that determines how computers connect, send and receive information on the
internet. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) refers to the Hypertext authority
system which transmit text, data, images, sound and multimedia file types
across a network.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a set of rules by which an HTML
document is transferred over the web.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) enables file sharing between hosts. OR FTP is an
internet standard that allows users to upload and download files with
computers
Key functions of FTP are:
❖ To promote sharing of files (computer programs and or data)
❖ To encourage indirect or implicit (via programs) use of remote computers.
❖ To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among hosts.
❖ To transfer data reliably and efficiently.

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a method of accessing electronic

mail bulletin board messages that are kept on a mail server.
The Post Office Protocol (POP) is designed to allow a workstation (PC) to
dynamically access a mail drop on a server host.

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Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a protocol designed to transfer
electronic mail reliably and efficiently. SMTP is a mail service modeled of the
FTP file transfer server. SMTP transfers mail messages between systems and
provides notification regarding incoming mail.

Internet communication services

❖ World wide Web (WWW)
❖ E- mail
❖ Mailing Lists
❖ Chat Rooms
❖ Instant Messaging (IM)
❖ News Groups
❖ Internet Forums / Message boards
❖ Provides Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
❖ E-commerce
❖ E-banking
❖ E-Learning
❖ E-publishing

EXAMPLES OF INTERNET CONNECTION SERVICES

(i) Email
Is the process of sending and receiving messages across the internet or other
computer networks.

(ii) Chat rooms

This is any technology ranging from real-time online chat over instant
messaging and online forums to fully immersive graphical social environment.

(iii) Mailing lists

This is a group of subscribers to an organization, thus the organization uses
this list to send material to multiple recipients.

(iv) News groups

These are discussion groups/ forums within the Usenet system for messages
posted from different locations.

(v) Internet forums/ message boards

These are online discussion sites where people hold conversations in the forms
of posted messages. In this case messages are temporarily archived.

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(vi) Instant Messaging (IM)
This is a set of communication technology used for text-based communication
between two or more participants over the internet or other types of networks.

(vii) VoIP
VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol) refers to the communication protocols,
technologies, methodologies and transmission techniques involved in the delivery
of voice communications and multimedia sessions over the Internet Protocol
network (IP)
OR
VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol) is a method for taking analog audio signals
and converts them into digital data that can be transmitted over the internet.

TERMS USED IN INTERNET

URL
This is an acronym for Uniform Resource Locator. It is the global address of a
website and other resources on the World Wide Web (WWW).
It is a string of characters that specify the address of a web page.

Uploading
This is the process of transferring files (Text, Audio, Video, Graphics and Sound)
from one computer system to another or to a storage device or the internet.

Downloading
This is the process of retrieving or bringing copies of files (Text, Audio, Video,
Graphics and Sound) over to your computer or storage device from another
location such as the internet.

Surfing
This is the process of accessing Data from the internet.

Online meetings
This is where people who are far away can chat virtually using services such as
video conferences, Skyping, etc

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO A SLOW INTERNET SPEED

❖ Quality of ISP: Some ISPs provide slow connections because of outdated
technology. Age of the computer set used: Computers with outdated
technology (old processors) slow down the connection speed of internet.

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 ❖ Type of communication medium used: Physical transmission medium is
slow compared to Wireless
❖ Distance of broadcasting services: If far away from the computers.
❖ Type of browsers: Some browsers may be using outdated technology.
❖ Weather: Prevailing bad weather conditions may affect internet speed.

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

This is a company that supplies connections to the internet, including offering
services related to the internet.

EXAMPLES OF ISPs IN UGANDA TODAY

1) Uganda Telecom Limited
2) Mobile Telecommunications Network (MTN)
3) Airtel Uganda
4) Smile Telecom

SERVICES PROVIDED BY INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS (ISPs)

❖ Internet access
❖ Domain name registration
❖ Web hosting
❖ Providing customized e-mail addresses
❖ Access to software tools
❖ Provide fire walls
❖ Manage internet traffic e.g. By use of dedicated lines
❖ Provide backup storage of data.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A SUITABLE ISP

❖ Initial connection cost
❖ The subscription fees for the services
❖ The available band width
❖ Authenticity
❖ Additional value services such as web hosting, firewalls, backup storage of
data Experience in the internet field

Email Services

Electronic mail (e-mail) is the process of sending and receiving messages over
the internet

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Those are much like postal letters, except that they are delivered much faster
than snail mail when sending over long distances, and are usually free.

EXAMPLES OF EMAIL SOFTWARE

❖ Gmail
❖ Yahoo mail
❖ Hotmail
❖ Ovimail

FEATURES OF THE ELECTRONIC MAIL

1) Enable people to send many copies of the same message to many

people
2) The mail is sent instantly
3) Enables attachments
4) Indication for read and unread messages
5) Sent box for storing sent mails
6) Outbox for storing outgoing mails Inbox for storing incoming mails

How to create an e-mail

1) For example on yahoo Mail

2) Open your browser
3) Type in the address space http/www.yahoo.com
4) Click on Go
5) Click on sign up or create New Account to begin filling the sign up form.
6) Enter the details required and click create new account
7) Go to inbox of the alternative e-mail account you have used and verify
your account.
8) And you are ready to go

How to send an e-mail

1) Open yahoo mail

2) On the main yahoo mail box page, click new button
3) The compose page opens
4) Enter the address you want to send ebmungasa@yahoo.com; you can
enter more than one e-mail address separating them with commas to
send to many people at once.

Here're some advantages of email:

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• Cost .Email is cheap: recent studies have show that businesses can save
large amounts of money using e-mail, in lieu of long-distance phone calls
and postal deliveries.
• Time .Email will reach its destination across the world in a few seconds as
opposed to days or even weeks with the postal service.
• Convenient .Email doesn't worry about crossing time zones or that
colleagues are not in their offices to take telephone calls.
• Email can be sent to groups of people at the same time. This facilitates
collaborative working and efficient dissemination of information.
• Doesn't use any paper (good for the environment).
• Can attach large documents and other files with a click of a button (and
without using up resources like paper).

Disadvantages of emails:

• User has to open email website or email program to read the message. If
you do not login un read the message can remain unread for ever.
• Socially, writing a letter and talking over phone is thought to bring you
closer to the recipient compared to writing an email through a computer.
• A lot of unwanted emails from spammers can fill your email inbox and
important emails may not get delivered.
• Email attachments can bring virus into your computer if not scanned by
network or virus program on your computer.
• Emails cannot really be used for official business documents.
• Less hand-writing practice.
• Can be bad for your eyes if you spend too long sending e-mails on your
computer.
• Messages may be misinterpreted easily.

Components of an e-mail

Address or To
This is where the address of the person whom you are sending the message
must be typed. E.g. siraji1987@learnonline.ac.ug to mean the massage is for
siraji belonging to learnonline which is an academic institution (ac) of Uganda
(Ug)

The subject
This is where you type subject or theme of your document e.g. Inquiry,
Application to someone.

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CC.
Carbon copy: here you type the addresses of those to whom you are sending
carbon copies. They can be as many addresses for cc as you wish only are
separated by commas e.g. Ronnie@yahoo.com,opio@goodwillenc.co.ug,
siraji3rk@yahoo.com.
BCC
Blind carbon copies: here you type the addresses as in cc, but the recipients
will not know whether the other has received the copy.
Attachment:
This is a textual, graphical, audio or video file that accompanies an email. It
can be downloaded by the recipient for use
Parts of an email

mukeeretonny@gmail.com
User name Domain name Domain
type
Separator

User name: This specifies the identity of the recipient of the email
@: This at symbol acts as a separator between the user name and the domain
name Domain name: This identifies the domain that hosts the email account
Dot(.): This separates the domain name and domain type
Domain type: This specifies the category of the domain.

DOMAIN NAME
This is a unique name that denotes a company, an organization, society or
group on the internet.

TYPES OF DOMAIN NAMES

Com
Commercial business e.g. www.microsoft.com or www.mountofolivescollege.sc.ug
Org
Nonprofit Organization e.g. www.ngo.org
Edu
Education e.g. www.ncsu.edu or www.duke.edu
Net
Networking organization e.g. www.earthlink.net
Gov

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Government agency e.g. www.epa.gove or www.whitehouse.gov
Mil
Military e.g. www.army.mil or www.navy.mil

Netiquettes

Refers to the do's and don'ts of online communication Or rules and regulations
governing online communication

Here are some of the Best Rules of Netiquette

▪ Refrain from personal abuse. You may express robust disagreement with
what someone says, but don't call them names or threaten them with
personal violence.
▪ Don't spam. That is, don't repeatedly post the same advertisement for
products or services. Most sites have strict and specific rules about who is
allowed to post ads and what kind of ads they are.
▪ Write clearly and succinctly. On a site that has many non-native English
speakers, avoid using slang they may not understand.
▪ Remember that your posts are public. They can be read by your partner,
your children, your parents, or your employer.
▪ Stay on-topic, especially when you're new. Don't post about football in a
hair-care forum or about hair care in a gardening forum!
▪ Don't expect other people to do your homework for you. If you're looking
for technical help, for example, don't ask questions you could easily answer
yourself by reading the manual or online help provided with the product.
▪ Do not post copyrighted material to which you do not own the rights. Sites
vary in how strict they are about this, but as well as facing the possibility of
legal action by the rights holder, you may also get the site sued.
▪ The site's owner, perhaps assisted by one or more moderators, has the final
say in enforcing the rules.
▪ DON'T TYPE IN ALL CAPS: It hurts our eyes. It makes people think you are
shouting at them. It's okay to type in caps to accentuate a word or two, but
please don't do it all the time everywhere you go.
▪ Treat others as you would like to be treated. This rule is an oldie but a
goodie and can get you through just about any situation, online or off!
▪ Respect Others' Copyrights: There are wonderful things online, information
for everyone on just about any topic! However, these things have copyrights
and licenses. Copying the works of someone else without permission or
saying it is your own will not only ruin your online reputation, but could
land you with hefty fines and lawsuits!

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Web browser

Is a software tool or program that allows you to navigate through the web.

Or it’s an application software that allows users to access/connect to the

internet or

It’s a tool that allows you to view web pages and interact on the internet.

Examples of web browsers include: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Internet

Explorer, Opera, and Safari, Konqueror, Flock , etc.

Search engine. It’s a program or web site that can be used to search for
keywords on web pages throughout the World Wide Web.

A web search engine is a type of website that helps computer user find specific
information on the Internet.

Search engines include: Google, Yahoo!, Ask.com, Forestle, Bing and Alta Vista.

Searches for information from the Web

Uses search engine syntax.

The World Wide Web

(Abbreviated as WWW commonly known as the web) is a system of interlinked
hypertext documents accessed via the Internet.

Or it’s a vast collection of linked documents held on computers all over the
world and is accessible via the internet.

Website

Web site is the location of a web domain name in a computer somewhere on

the internet.

Types of Websites

Static-Content: A static-content site, as implied by the name, does not change

the way it looks and behaves based upon any visitor profile or
interaction. Every page looks the same to every visitor.

In static Websites, the information does not change, and the same information
is displayed to all visitors.

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Mostly coded in HTML so easier to build.

Most commonly used for simple sites.

Updating is difficult.

Cannot do complex tasks, such as providing user interactivity.

Dynamic-Content: Dynamic website pages are able to accept input data (fill-in
forms) and store that information in a database on the server, allowing a visitor
to create a user profile and personalized experience.

In Dynamic Websites, the information may change at any given time and
according to the visitor. Mostly built in scripting languages like Javascript, and
can be more difficult to build.

Used for large sites with a lot of content, sites that need extensive updates,
use real time services (e.g. online stores), and/or require automatic changes
(e.g. blogs). Updating is easy.

Can do complex tasks, allowing for user interactivity and providing customized,
personalized information

Personal Websites

A platform for individuals to provide information about themselves, promote

themselves, create an online CV and/or portfolio, keep in touch with family and
friends, share photos and videos, expand hobbies and interests, and express
thoughts and ideas.

Commercial/Business Websites

A platform for companies or organizations to provide information about

themselves, market and/or sell their products and/or services, and provide
customer support

Informative Websites

These are dedicated to providing information. They may include news websites,
online encyclopedias, educational websites, and websites providing topic-specific
information like sports data, medical information, weather reports, stock market
quotes and analysis, and TV guides.

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Search Engines/Directories

These are search engines index material on the web and automatically respond
to a search query with links to relevant websites.

Directories list businesses by different categories and/or locations.

Wikis

A wiki is a specialized form of content-managed web site designed to support

the easy collaborative creation of web pages by groups of users.

Wikis differ from blogs and other cms options in that wikis allow all users to
change the content of the wiki pages, not just to post comments about the
content.

Examples of wiki are Wikipedia online, encyclopedia can be publicly accessible

and edited by any user.

Blogs

Web logs, or blogs, are the most popular, inexpensive, and widespread form of
web content management. Blog software such as Blogger, Roller, or WordPress
allows nontechnical users to combine text, graphics, and digital media files
easily into interactive web pages.

Blog – online journal used to express ideas/opinions

E-Commerce website – platform to sell products online

Forum – promotes discussions among people with mutual interests

Media-Sharing Website – where people can share pictures, videos, music, etc.

Review Websites – where people can write and/or view reviews of products,
services, etc.

Social Networking Website – where people can meet, interact and share multi-
media.

Webmail – provides e-mail services

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Internet and World Wide Web terms

Web site is the location of a web domain name in a computer somewhere on

the internet.
Web page is a document on the web site. A web is composed of a web page
or collection of related web pages. A web page is a document on the www that
can include text, pictures, sound, and video.
Home page. This is the first page you see at a web site, it acts like a title
page of a book. It identifies the web site and contains links to other pages at
the site.
Browsing. With internet, it means searching for particular/ specific items.
Surfing means moving from place to place on the internet searching for topics
of interest.
Site name: is the name of a web site.

Web pages: contain formatted text, graphics, sound, animation and video
allowing point and click.

A webpage is a document, typically written in plain text interspersed with

formatting instructions of Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML, XHTML).

Telnet: a terminal emulation protocol that allows a user to log onto a remote
device.

FTP (file transfer protocol) is an internet standard that allows users to upload
and download files with other computers.

TCP/IP is a set of protocols or rules that have been developed to allow

computers to share resources across a network.

TCP/IP manages the transmission of data by breaking it up into packets. The

protocol defines how to break the message into packets, providing routing
information for massage delivery, reassemble the message at the receiving end.

Hyperlink: colored and underlined text or a graphic that you click to go to a

file, a location in a file, an HTML page on the www.

Website is an electronic page that has links with other pages and contains
information.

Websites are the places where the information is stored in internet.

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Web site address: is a unique name given to the web site to communicate and
collect the information.

Web browser is a tool (piece of software) that allows you to view and interact
on the internet. Internet explorer, Netscape, Mozilla Fire fox, Opera, Apple's
Safari, and Google Chrome etc are web browsers.

Transmission control protocol/internet protocol TCP/IP. It’s a set of protocols

or rules that have been developed to allow computers to share resources
across a network

Webmaster: is the person responsible for developing web pages and maintaining
a website.

URL is an address that uniquely identifies a location on the internet. A URL

for a www site is preceded with http://

Examples of URL.

http//unebuganda.co.ug

HTML (Hypertext Mark-Up Language) is a set of formatting codes used to

create hypertext or www based text files.

Hperyperlink. Coloured and underlined text or a graphic that you click to go to

a file allocation in a file,

Green computing

Also called green technology, is the environmentally responsible use of

computers and related resources.

Green computing, also called green technology, is the environmentally

responsible use of computers and related resources.

Advantages:

❖ Reduced energy usage from green computing techniques translates

into lower carbon dioxide emissions, stemming from a reduction in the
fossil fuel used in power plants and transportation.

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 ❖ Conserving resources means less energy is required to produce, use,
and dispose of products.
❖ Saving energy and resources saves money.
❖ Green computing even includes changing government policy to
encourage recycling and lowering energy use by individuals and
businesses.
❖ Reduce the risk existing in the laptops such as chemical known to
cause cancer, nerve damage and immune reactions in humans.

Disadvantages:

❖ Green computing could actually be quite costly.

❖ Some computers that are green may be considerably underpowered.
❖ Rapid technology change

Cloud computing

Cloud computing is typically defined as a type of computing that relies on

sharing computing resources rather than having local servers or personal
devices to handle applications.

In cloud computing, the word cloud (also phrased as "the cloud") is used as a
metaphor for "the Internet," so the phrase cloud computing means "a type of
Internet-based computing," where different services — such as servers, storage
and applications — are delivered to an organization's computers and devices
through the Internet.

Cloud computing is comparable to grid computing, a type of computing where

unused processing cycles of all computers in a network are harnesses to solve
problems too intensive for any stand-alone machine.

TOPIC 8: SYSTEM SECURITY, ICT ETHICAL ISSUES AND EMERGING

TECHNOLOGIES

COMPUTER SECURITY
Security is quality or state of being secure to be free from danger.
It applies to any vulnerable and valuable asset, such as a person, dwelling,
community, nation, or organization.

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Computer Security refers to techniques of ensuring that information /data
stored in computers cannot be read or compromised by any individuals without
authorization.
A computer is secure if you can depend on it and its software to behave as
intended.

This is also known as cyber security and it covers all processes and
mechanisms by using computer based equipment. Information and services are
protected from unintended or unauthorized access, change or destruction.

Computer security also includes protection from unplanned events and natural
disasters.

Note: A computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss
or damage to a computer hardware, software, data and information.
In order to understand the techniques of securing a computer system, it’s
important to first understand the various types of attacks that can be made
against it.

Security deals with both guarding against external threats as well as authorized
users as potential intruders. Both data and physical (hardware) security must be
adequately secured.

Goals of Computer Security

Computer security therefore aims at achieving the following;
Privacy: this involves keeping private documents private using encryption,
password and access controls.
Integrity: The data and applications should be safe from modification without
owner’s consent.
Authentication: This ensures that people using the computer are authorized
users of the computer system.
Availability: the data and information should be available when needed by
authorized users.
Confidentiality: The information must just be accessible to the authorized
people.
Reliability: Computers should be able to work without having unexpected
problems.

A computer crime is any illegal act involving a computer. Cybercrime refers to

online or internet-based illegal acts.

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Computer security risks include;
1) Internet and network attacks
2) Unauthorized access and use of computer systems. Hardware and software
theft
3) Information theft and information piracy
4) System failure.

Internet and network attacks

Information transmitted over networks has a higher degree of security risk than
information kept on a company’s premises.

On a vast network such as the Internet with no central administrator, the risk is
even greater.
Below are the most common and most damaging forms of security threats to
Internet users and site operators:
❖ Malicious code,
❖ Unwanted programs,
❖ Phishing and identity theft,
❖ Hacking and cyber vandalism
❖ Credit card fraud/theft,
❖ Spoofing (pharming) and spam (junk) Web sites,
❖ Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks,
Sniffing, insider attacks,
❖ Poorly designed server and client software.

(a).Malicious Code:
Every unprotected computer is susceptible to the attack from malicious code.
Malicious code (also called malware) includes a variety of threats such as;
❖ Viruses,
❖ Worms,
❖ Trojan horses,
❖ Bots, etc.

VIRUS
A virus is a piece of software that can replicate itself and infect a computer
without the permission or knowledge of the user. A virus can only spread when
it is transmitted by a user over a network or the Internet, or through removable
media such as CDs or memory sticks.

TYPES OF COMPUTER VIRUSES

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Trajan horse: These are malicious programs that enter a system or network
under the disguise of another program.
Stealth virus: This is a virus type that disguises itself by redirecting commands
around itself to avoid detection.
Computer worm: This is a malicious programs that auto replicates or is capable
of multiplying itself there by using up all the available memory space.
Polymorphic virus: This is a kind of virus which changes form/ hides from the
antivirus software or it will encrypt itself to avoid detection.
Retro virus: This kind of virus directly attacks or bypasses the antivirus software
installed on the computer.
Time bomb: This is a time of a virus that lies dormant until a certain date or
time or for a period of time and cause harm to the computer system when
triggered. OR This is a malicious program that is programmed to detonate at a
specific time and release a virus into the computer system or network.
Logic Bomb: This is a malicious software that is triggered with time.

WAYS THROUGH WHICH COMPUTER VIRUSES ARE SPRAED

❖ By use of a removable storage device such as flash disk, memory card which
Has been contaminated.
❖ Through an email attachment.
❖ Through downloading content on the internet from un trusted sites/ sources.
❖ As part of another program
❖ From pirated software (Demo/ trial version software i.e. software without a
product key/ license key)
❖ Through infected proprietary software

SYMPTOMS OF VIRUS INFECTION IN A COMPUTER SYSTEM

❖ Programs on your computer system start to load slower.
❖ They computer system mysteriously shuts itself down or starts itself up and
there is a great deal of unanticipated disk activity.
❖ You mysteriously loose access to a disk drive or other system resources
because the virus has changed the setting on the device to make it un-useable.
❖ Your system suddenly does not reboot or give you unexpected error messages
during start up.
❖ Program sizes change from the installed versions
❖ Unusual files appear on your hard drive or files start to disappear from your
system. Your web browser, word processing application or other software begins
to exhibit unusual operating characteristics. Screens or menus may change.

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(b).Unwanted Programs:
These are programs on the internet that install themselves on a computer
without the user’s consent. They include;

Adware
It is a program that displays an online advertisement in a banner or pop-up
window on Web pages, email, or other Internet services.

Browser parasite
It is a program that can monitor and change the settings of a user’s browser.

Spyware
It is a program placed on a computer without the user's knowledge that
secretly collects information about the user e.g. email address, instant
messages, etc.

(c).Phishing and Identity Theft:

Phishing is any deceptive (misleading/false), online attempt by a third party to
obtain confidential information for financial gain.
Some phishing email messages ask you to reply with your information; others
direct you to a phony Web site, or a pop-up window that looks like a Web site,
that collects the information.

(d). Hacking and Cyber vandalism:

A hacker is an individual who intends to gain unauthorized access to a
computer system.
Some hackers are satisfied merely by breaking into the files of an e-commerce
site. Others have more malicious intentions and commit Cyber vandalism,
intentionally disrupting, defacing, or even destroying the site.

(e). Credit Card Fraud/Theft:

Theft of credit card data is one of the most feared occurrences on the
Internet.
Fear that credit card information will be stolen frequently prevents users from
making online purchases.

(f). Spoofing (Pharming) and Spam (Junk) Web Sites:

Spoofing a Web site is also called “pharming,”
It involves redirecting a Web link to an address different from the Intended one,
with the site masquerading as the intended destination.
Spoofing:

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Spoofing is a technique intruders use to make their network or Internet
transmission appear legitimate to a victim computer or network.

Types of spoofing
E-mail spoofing;
This occurs when the sender’s address or other components of the e-mail
header are altered so that it appears the e-mail originated from a different
sender.
IP spoofing;
This occurs when an intruder computer fools a network into believing that its IP
address is associated with a trusted source.
Perpetrators of IP spoofing trick their victims into interacting with the phony
Web site.
For example, the victim may provide confidential information or download files
containing viruses, worms, or other malware.

Spam Web sites are the sites that promise to offer some product or service,
but in fact are a collection of advertisements for other sites, some of which
contain malicious code.

(g). Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks:
A denial of service (DoS) attack is an assault whose purpose is to disrupt
computer access to an Internet service such as the Web or e-mail.

It may involve Perpetrators using an unsuspecting computer to send an influx of

confusing data message or useless traffic to a computer network.

The victim computer network eventually jams, blocking legitimate visitors from
accessing the network.

DoS attacks typically cause a Web site to shut down, making it impossible for
users to access the site.

(h).Sniffing:
Sniffer is a type of eavesdropping (spying) program that monitors information
traveling over a network.
When used legitimately, sniffers can help identify potential network trouble-
spots, but when used for criminal purposes, they can be damaging and very
difficult to detect.

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Sniffers enable hackers to steal proprietary information from anywhere on a
network, including email messages, company files, and confidential reports.

(i).Back Doors and Insider Attacks:

Back door is a program or set of instructions in a program that allow users to
bypass security controls when accessing a program, computer, or network.

Once perpetrators gain access to unsecure computers, they often install a back
door or modify an existing program to include a back door, which allows them
to continue to access the computer remotely without the user’s knowledge.

How backdoors are installed into the computers

Some warms leave back doors, which have been used to spread other worms.

Programmers often build back doors into programs during system development
which help them save development time because the programmer can bypass
security controls while writing and testing programs.

A computer repair technician may install a back door while troubleshooting

problems on a computer. Insider attacks

We tend to think the security threats to a business originate from outside the
organization.

In fact, the largest threats to business institutions come from insiders.

Normally organizations tend to allow employees access to privileged
information, and in the presence of sloppy internal security procedures, they
may cause severe damage.

(j). Poorly Designed Server and Client Software:

Many security threats prey on poorly designed server and client software,
sometimes in the operating system and sometimes in the application software.

Given their complexity and design objectives, all operating systems and
application software have vulnerabilities or (flaw) weaknesses that hackers can
exploit.

Defense against Internet and network attacks

Install a firewall;
Firewall refers to either hardware or software that filters communication packets
and prevents some packets from entering the network.

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The firewall controls traffic to and from servers and clients, forbidding
communications from untrustworthy sources, and allowing other communications
from trusted sources to proceed.

Route information through a proxy server

Proxy servers are software servers that handle all communications originating
from or being sent to the Internet, acting as a spokesperson or bodyguard for
the organization. Large companies often route all their communications through
a proxy server.

Proxies act primarily to limit access of internal clients to external Internet

servers, although some proxy servers act as firewalls as well.

Install intrusion detection software;

To provide extra protection against hackers and other intruders, large
companies may use intrusion detection software to identify possible security
breaches.
Intrusion detection software automatically analyzes vulnerabilities, identifies any
unauthorized intrusions, and notifies network administrators of suspicious
behavior patterns or system breaches.

Set of honey pots.

A Honey pot is a vulnerable computer that is set up to entice an intruder to
break into it.

Some large organizations such as Yahoo, AT&T use honey pots so that they
can analyze any attack being perpetrated.

These computers, which appear real to the intruder, actually are separated
safely from the organization’s network.

Honeypots allow the organization to learn how intruders are exploiting their
network and also attempt to catch perpetrators who have been doing damage
elsewhere on their network.

UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS AND USE OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or network without permission,
e.g. an employee using a company computer to send a personal e – mail.

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Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or
possible illegal activities.

A hacker refers to someone who accesses a computer or network illegally.

Some hackers claim the intent of their security breaches is to improve security.

A cracker:
Cracker accesses a computer or network illegally but has the intent of
destroying data, stealing information, or other malicious action.
Both hackers and crackers have advanced computer and network skills.

Script Kiddie:
A script kiddie has the same intent as a cracker but does not have the
technical skills and knowledge.

Script kiddies often are teenagers that use prewritten hacking and cracking
programs to break into computers.
Corporate Spies:
They have excellent computer and network skills and are hired to break into a
specific computer and steal its proprietary data and information.

Unethical Employees:
They break into their employers computers for a variety of reasons.
Some simply want to exploit a security weakness. Others seek financial gains
from selling confidential information.
Disgruntled employees may want revenge.

Cyber-extortionist:
A Cyber-extortionist is someone who uses email as a vehicle for extortion.
These perpetrators send a company a threatening email message indicating
they will expose confidential information, exploit a security flaw, or launch an
attack that will compromise the company's network - if they are not paid a
sum of money.

Cyber terrorist:
A Cyber terrorist is someone who uses the Internet or network to destroy or
damage computers for political reasons.

The extensive damage might destroy the nation's air traffic control system,
electricity generating companies, or a telecommunications infrastructure.

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Cyber terrorism usually requires a team of highly skilled individuals, huge sums
of money, and several years of planning.

Prevention of unauthorized access

Unauthorized access is prevented through use of access controls.

Definition
An Access control is a security measure that defines;
Who can access a computer
When the users can access the computer
What actions the users can take while accessing the computer.
Access control is normally implemented using a two phase process; i.e.

Identification
This is the phase which verifies whether the user is a valid one.

Authentication
This is the phase which verifies that the user is really the one he or she claims
to be.

Methods of identification and authentication

❖ User names and passwords
❖ Possessed objects
❖ Biometric devices
❖ Callback systems

User names and Passwords;

A user name, or user ID, is a unique combination of characters that identifies
one specific user.

A password is a private combination of characters associated with the user

name that allows access to certain computer resources or to a network.

Most multiuser (networked) systems require that users correctly enter a user
name and a password before they can access the data, computer, or a
network.

NB: Some Web sites use a CAPTCHA [Automated Public Turing test to tell
Computers and Humans Apart (CAPTCHA)] to further protect a user’s password.

A CAPTCHA is a program to verify that user input is not computer generated.

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A CAPTCHA displays a series of distorted characters and requires the user
enter the characters correctly to continue using the Web site.

Characteristics of a good password

❖ Should be easy to remember but not too obvious.
❖ Should be longer, at least eight characters.
❖ Should have a combination of mixed case letters and digits.
❖ Should be easy to type without looking at the keyboard.

AVOID
❖ Using your name, birthday, ID card number or telephone number.
❖ A password of all digits or all the same letter.
❖ Safeguarding your password
❖ Do not share your password with others
❖ Do not write down your password
❖ Change your password frequently

Possessed Objects
A possessed object is any item that one must carry to gain access to a
computer or computer facility.
Examples of possessed objects
❖ Badges,
❖ Cards,
❖ Smart cards,
❖ Key, etc.

These objects are often used in combination with Personal Identity Numbers
(PINs)

A personal identification number (PIN) is a numeric password, either assigned by

a company or selected by a user.

Biometric devices
A biometric device authenticates a person’s identity by translating a personal
characteristic, such as a fingerprint, into a digital code that is compared with a
digital code stored in the computer verifying physical or behavioral
characteristics.

Examples of biometric devices

A finger print scanner .This captures curves and indentations of a finger print.

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A hand geometry system. .This measures the shape and size of a person’s
hand.
A face recognition system. This captures a live face image and compares it
with the stored image
A voice recognition system. This device compares a person’s live speech with
their stored voice pattern.
A signature verification system. This device recognizes the shape of a
handwritten signature of a person.
An iris recognition system .It reads patterns in the tiny blood vessels in the
back of the eye, which are as unique as a fingerprint.

Advantages of biometric devices

❖ Personal characteristics are unique to persons hence give reliable information.
❖ These characteristics cannot be lost, forgotten or misplaced.
❖ They cannot be copied, duplicated or stolen as the case with possessed objects.

Disadvantages of biometric devices

❖ Most of the devices are too expensive.
❖ A finger print scanner might reject a legitimate user if the user cuts his or her
finger.
❖ Hand geometry readers can transmit germs.
❖ A signature might not match the one on file when the person is nervous.
❖ A voice recognition system might reject a legitimate user with a sore throat.

Callback systems
A callback system connects a user to a computer only after the computer calls
the user back at a previously established telephone number.

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE THEFT

Hardware theft
This is the act of stealing computer equipment.

Vandalism
This is the act of destroying computer equipment.

Prevention of hardware theft

❖ Use physical access controls such as locked doors and windows.
❖ Use cables to lock the equipment to desk, cabinet or floor.
❖ Install alarm systems to warn you in case of any intrusion

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 ❖ Use passwords, possessed objects and biometric devices.
❖ Install surveillance cameras to help you in easy monitoring of the hardware.
❖ Software theft

Forms of software theft;

Physical stealing of the media (e.g. floppy diskette, CD ROM e.t.c) that contains
the software

Software piracy
This is the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software.

SYSTEM FAILURE
This is a prolonged malfunctioning of a computer that can cause hardware,
software, data or information loss.

Causes of system failure

❖ Aging hardware
❖ Natural disasters (such as fires, floods, storms or earthquakes etc)
❖ Electrical power variations. These can cause loss of data or equipment (in case
of fire outbreaks)
❖ A single power disturbance can damage multiple systems in a computer network

Forms of power disturbances

a. Noise
This refers to any unwanted signal which is mixed with the normal voltage
entering the computer.

b. Under voltage
This is a situation which occurs when the electrical supply drops below the
normal value (e.g. Below 220V in Uganda)

Over voltage (power surge)

It is a situation which occurs when the incoming electrical power increases
significantly above the normal voltage.

Brown out
Is a prolonged under voltage

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Black out
Is a complete power failure

Spike
Is a momentary over voltage that occurs when the increase in power last for
less than one millisecond.

NB: A surge protector such as Uninterruptible Power Supply is needed to

protect the computer equipment against these disturbances.

COMPUTER ETHICS
Computer ethics are moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and
information systems.

It encompasses the following areas;

1) Unauthorized access and use of computer systems.
2) Software piracy
3) Information privacy
4) Intellectual property rights
5) Codes of conduct
6) Unauthorized access and use of computer systems.

Definitions;
Unauthorized access is the use of a computer system or a network without
permission of the owner.

Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or illegal
activities.

These activities include;

An employee using a company’s computer to send personal email without
permission from the managers.

Gaining access to a bank’s computer and perform unauthorized money transfer.

Software piracy
This refers to the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software.
This may involve duplicating someone’s movie, song, book, etc, without his/her
permission.

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NB: Whenever a consumer purchases a software, he/she is only provided with
a license agreement which gives him/her the right to use the software.

Types of license agreements

Single user or end user license agreement

This is the most common license agreement provided to individual users after
purchasing a software.

This agreement gives a user a right to;

❖ Install the software on only one computer
❖ Make one copy for backup.

However, with such an agreement, a user cannot;

❖ Install the software on a network
❖ Give away copies of the software to other users.
❖ Rent or lease the software.

Software site license

This agreement gives the consumer the right to install the software on multiple
computers at a single site.

This site may be a school computer laboratory, a company’s computer

laboratory, etc.

Network site license

This allows network users to share a single copy of the software which resides
on the network server.

Dangers (risks) associated with software piracy

❖ It increases the chance of spreading computer viruses because pirated software
in most cases is a target for spreading viruses.
❖ The consumer cannot receive any technical support for the software from the
manufacturer.
❖ It becomes expensive in the long run for all the illegal users.

Reasons why software piracy has persisted

❖ Legal protection for software doesn’t exist
❖ Laws for prohibiting software piracy are rarely enforced.

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 ❖ Most buyers believe that they have a right to copy the software they have paid
for.

Information privacy
Privacy is the moral right of individuals to be left alone, free from surveillance
or interference from other individuals or organizations, including the state.

Information Privacy refers to the right individuals, companies or organizations

have to deny or restrict the collection and use of information about them.

Online tracking devices

These are methods used by online advertisers, online communities and online
businesses to keep track of their visitors’ behavior. They include;

A cookie is a small text file that a Web server stores on your computer that
allows a site to track the actions of its visitors.

E-commerce, Webcasting, and other Web applications often rely on cookies to

identify users and track information about viewers, customers, and subscribers.

NB; although the cookie resides on an individual’s hard drive, it does not
interact with other information store on the system.

Uses of cookies
❖ Web sites that allow for personalization often use cookies to track user
preferences. On such sites, you may be asked to fill in a form requesting
personal information, such as your name, postal code, or site preferences.
❖ A news Web site, for example, might allow users to customize their viewing
preferences to display certain stock quotes. Your preferences are stored in
cookies on your hard disk.
❖ Many Web sites use cookies to store users' passwords, so they do not need to
enter it every time they log in to the Web site.
❖ Online shopping sites generally use session cookies to keep track of items in
your shopping cart. This way, you can start an order during one Web session
and finish it on another day in another session. Session cookies usually expire
after a certain time, such as a week or a month.
❖ Some Web sites use cookies to track how regularly you visit a site and the Web
pages you visit while at the site.
❖ Web sites may use cookie to target advertisements. Your interests and browsing
habits are stored in the cookie.

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Spyware and Adware
Spyware is a program placed on a computer without the user's knowledge that
secretly collects information about the user.

Spyware can enter a computer as a virus or as a result of a user installing a

new program.

Adware is a program that displays an online advertisement in a banner or pop-

up window on Web pages, email, or other Internet services.

Web bug, is another type of spyware hidden on Web pages or in email

messages in the form of graphical images.

Web businesses use Web bugs to monitor online habits of Web site visitors.

Spam
Spam is an unsolicited (unrequested) email message or newsgroup posting sent
to many recipients or newsgroups at once. Spam is Internet junk (unwanted)
mail.

The content of spam ranges from selling a product or service, to promoting a

business opportunity, to advertising offensive material.

Types of spams
Spim
This is a spam sent instant messaging

Spit
This is a spam sent via VoIP

How to get rid of spams

❖ Some email programs have built-in settings that allow users to delete spam
automatically. Users also can sign up for email filtering form their Internet
service provider.
❖ Email filtering is a service that blocks email messages from designated sources.
These services typically collect the spam in a central location that users can
view at any time.
❖ Using an anti-spam program that attempts to remove spam before it reaches
your inbox.

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NB: The disadvantage of email filters and anti-spam programs is that sometimes
they remove valid email messages. Thus, users should review the contents of
the spam messages periodically to ensure they do contain valid messages.

Phishing
Is a scam (a trick) in which a perpetrator sends an official looking email that
attempts to obtain your personal and financial information.

A phishing filter is a program that warns or blocks you from potentially

fraudulent or suspicious Web sites.

Pharming
Is a scam in which a perpetrator sends an official looking message that
requests you to type a Web address in the Web browser, and then redirects
you to aphony

Web site that looks legitimate which requests you enter confidential information.

Employee Monitoring
Employee monitoring involves the use of computers to observe, record, and
review an employee’s use of a computer, including communications such as e-
mail messages, keyboard activity, and Web sites visited.

Content Filtering
Content filtering is the process of restricting access to certain material on the
Web.

Many businesses use content filtering to limit employees’ Web access. These
businesses argue that employees are unproductive when visiting inappropriate or
objectionable Web sites.

Some schools, libraries, and parents use content filtering to restrict access to
minors.

Methods used to ensure privacy to data and information

i) Encryption
Encryption is the process of transforming plain text or data into cipher
(unreadable) text that cannot be read by anyone other than the sender and the
receiver.

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Or

It is the process of covering readable data into unreadable characters to

prevent unauthorized access.
The receiver needs an encryption key in order to regain the original data sent
over a communications channel.

Methods of encrypting data

Transportation; this involves switching the order of the characters.
Substitution; this involves replacing characters with other characters.
Expansion insertion; this involves inserting characters between other characters.
Compaction; this involves removing characters and storing them elsewhere. NB:
An encryption key is a formula used to decrypt encrypted data back into its
original format.

Types of encryption keys;

Private key encryption
With this key, both the sender and the recipient use the same secret key to
encrypt and decrypt the data.

Public key encryption

With this key, a public key encryption software generates both the private key
and the public key.

The sender uses the receiver’s public key to encrypt the message and the
receiver uses his or her private key to decrypt the message.

Information accuracy
Millions and millions of information reside on websites of certain organizations.

But in some instances, the website providing access to information may not be
the one which created it.

Some of the information on these websites may not be 100% accurate.

Therefore, it is always good to evaluate and analyze the information provided
on a web page before using it.

TRADEMARK RIGHTS

ii) Intellectual property rights

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Intellectual property (IP) refers to unique and original works such as ideas,
inventions, art, writings, processes, company and product names, and logos.
Intellectual property rights are the rights to which creators are entitled for their
work.

(iii). Copyright
Is the protection given to the author of an original piece, including “literary,
dramatic, musical, artistic and certain other intellectual works,” whether the work
has been published or not

A copyright gives authors and artists exclusive rights to duplicate, publish and
sell their material. These material may be songs, movies or books.

However, governments of some countries have come up with copyright laws

which usually give the public a fair use to copyrighted material. iii. A trademark

A trademark protects a company’s logos and brand names

CODES OF CONDUCT
A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps to determine whether a
specific action is ethical or unethical.

Recognizing that individuals need specific standards for the ethical use of
computers, a number of computer-related organizations have established IT
codes of conduct, which helps determine whether a specific computer action is
ethical or unethical;

Some of the IT codes of conduct include:

1) Computers may not be used to harm other people
2) Users may not interfere with other users’ work.
3) Users may not meddle in other people’s files
4) Computers may not be used to steal
5) Computers may not be used to bear false witness
6) Users may not copy or use software illegally.
7) Users may not use other resources without authorization
8) Users may not use others’ output
9) Users shall consider the social impact of programs and systems they design.
Users should always use computers in a way that demonstrates consideration
and respect for other people.

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NETIQUETTE
Netiquette refers to the dos and don'ts of online communication.

It includes the following.

1) Communicate effectively; be short and precise.
2) Observe before participating in any discussion.
3) Don’t participate in flame wars. Flame wars are nasty exchange of messages.
4) Use other people’s work with their permission.
5) Do not spam especially when doing business. Spamming is when a person sends
out unsolicited messages to a large number of people.
6) Protect your privacy, security and well-being; avoid unnecessary give away of
usernames and passwords.
7) Avoid downloading pornography from the internet.
8) Avoid using a company’s account to join discussion groups.

ICT EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

Emerging technology is defined as a media that is coming into view or
existence or coming into commonality.

Its innovative technology that is reshaping the nature of education.

Technologies are transforming classrooms into more engaging collaborative and
productive learning environments.

There are 6 major emerging technologies and these include;

Blog; this is a web based journal in which items are posted on a regular basis
and displayed in reverse chronological order.

It allows the writer (Blogger) to post ideas using conversational language for
many to read and each entry includes a link to leave a comment.

The contents of each blog differ depending on the interests and styles of the
author.
RSS (Really Simple Syndication) This is an XML based format designed for
sharing headlines and other web context.
It’s a time saving way to receive news and informational updates from a
number of sites in a central location.

Simply put, think of RSS as your own personal wire service.

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Podcast This is an audio file (usually in MP3 format) posted on the website so
that others may listen to it. Podcasts are automatically delivered over the
internet using either RSS or atom syndication. Subscriptions to podcasts are
usually free.

Wikis This is a website that allows a user to easily create and edit pages. The
characteristics that set Wikis apart from other web based forums and
discussions is that they may be authored and edited at any one time.

Some of the advantages of Wikis include;

❖ It supports students’ collaboration.
❖ It allows flexibility, ease of use and low barriers

Handheld Appliance (PDAs-Personal Digital Assistants)

This is a small low cost, highly versatile mobile computer. I
t’s a device that can store data, share files with computers, displays graphs
and images and rapidly exchanges information.

Robotics
This is a science or study of the technology associated with the design,
fabrication, theory and application of robots.

Other emerging technologies include;

❖ Digital Video
❖ Distance Education
❖ Social networking
❖ Tablet computers
❖ Virtual world
❖ Interacting white board technologies.

Qn. Distinguish between artificial intelligence and digital forensics

❖ Artificial intelligence. A major feature of the fifth generation computers. It
enables computers to behave and mimic like human beings.
❖ Applications of artificial intelligence
❖ Game playing
❖ Speech recognition
❖ Understanding natural language. Computers can be trained to learn and take
instructions using natural language

Digital forensics.

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A branch of investigative science around material found in digital devices, often
in relation to computer crime like hacking, cracking, spamming etc.

Branches of digital forensics

❖ Mobile device forensics. Related to recovery of digital evidence or data from a
mobile device.
❖ Network forensics. Concerned with monitoring and analysis of computer network
traffic, both local and WAN/internet for the purpose of gathering information,
evidence collection or crime detection.
❖ Database forensics. Related to forensic study of databases and their metadata.
Investigations use database contents, log files and in-RAM data to build a time-
line or recover relevant information.

THE FUTURE OF COMPUTERS

The ever-increasing need for faster and efficient computers is constantly
creating technological advances that can be considered amazing.

The following is expected to happen to computers and to the lives of people in

future;
❖ Computers are expected to increase in the processing speed, memory and
storage capacity.
❖ Computers are being taught how to think like human beings. They are expected
to think and reason like human beings in years to come.
❖ People are developing natural question and answering systems.
❖ Computers will become much easier to use by almost all people all over the
whole world.
❖ There will be an increase in the use of expert systems, advanced robotics and
autonomous systems.
❖ The internet will continue to expand and change in several ways.
❖ New multimedia is expected to be developed.
❖ There will be an increase in the use of virtual reality.
❖ More users are expected to connect to the internet. It will become universal.
Learning will become possible at anytime, anywhere around the world. There
will be reductions in physical movements. Workers will have to conduct much of
their businesses from home.
❖ There will be less use of physical cash. There will be an increase in the use of
electronic fund transfers (EFTs) and E – money.
❖ There will be less use of manual document systems to store information in
most organizations.

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 ❖ Most ordinary jobs like secretariat, store keeping etc, are likely to phase off.
This will finally lead to a great increase in unemployment and loss of jobs.

Online Storage is a browser-based application that allows you to store and

access your important files, safely and securely — online.

Much like a folder on your hard drive, Online Storage allows you to back up
your files and stores them in a safe place for you.

Advantages Online Storage

❖ Data storage saving: By storing your data online you are reducing the burden of
your hard disk, which means you are eventually saving disk space.
❖ World Wide accessibility: This is the main advantage of online data storage. You
can access your data anywhere in the world. You don’t have to carry your hard
disk, pen drive or any other storage device.
❖ Data safety: You cannot trust your HDD and storage device every time because
it can crash anytime. In order to make your data safe from such hazards you
can keep it online.
❖ Security: Most of the online storage sites provide better security.
❖ Easy sharing: you can share data with your friends’ faster, easy and secure
manner.
❖ Data recovery: online data storage sites provide quick recovery of your files and
folders. This makes them more safe and secure.
❖ Automatic backup: you can even schedule automatic backup of your personal
computer in order to avoid manual backup of files.

Disadvantage of online storage

❖ Improper handing can cause trouble: You must need your user-id and password
safe to protect your data as if someone knows or even guess your credentials,
it may result in loss of data. Use complex passwords and try to avoid storage
them in your personal storage devices such as pen drive and HDD.
❖ Choose trustworthy source to avoid any hazard: There are many online storage
sites out there but you have to choose the one, on which you can trust. You
can always refer the list of free online data storage sites, which I shared above
❖ Internet connection sucks!! To access your files everywhere the only thing you
need is internet connection. If you don’t get internet connection somewhere then
you will end up with no access of data even though it is safely stored online.

How to secure data on online storage.

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 ❖ Pick a good password. All Cloud services require a master password to get
into your files, so make it a good one, something that is pretty long. When it
comes to passwords, longer is better. True, it can be a hassle to remember a
strong password but it’s an even bigger hassle to have your information stolen.

❖ Don’t reuse your passwords. The password you choose to access the Cloud
should be unlike any other password you use. If a hacker gets access to your
Facebook password which also happens to be your email password, they will not
only have a clear view of where you hold financial accounts, but they will be
able to reset all of your passwords without your knowledge.

❖ Don’t share your passwords. Even with a trusted friend, sharing your password is
never a good idea. The more people who know your password, the more likely
it is to be spread around. Your password is the lock to your information, don’t
let more people in than need be there.

❖ Back up your data. The same way you back up your computer’s hard drive,
back up your Cloud data. There are some companies that offer a small amount
of storage free of cost. Take advantage of this and make sure you have your
most important data backed up in case of an unexpected loss.

Examples are
❖ Cloud storage
❖ Dropbox
❖ Open Drive
❖ SpideOak
❖ ZumoDrive
❖ One drive

GREEN COMPUTING.
Green computing, green IT or ICT Sustainability, refers to environmentally
sustainable computing or IT.

Green computing is environmentally responsible use of computers and related

resources.

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Green computing involves the implementation of energy-efficient central
processing units (CPUs), servers and peripherals as well as reduced resource
consumption and proper disposal of electronic waste (e-waste).

To promote Green IT concepts at all possible levels, the following 4

concepts/approaches are employed;

a) Green Use: This means minimizing the electricity consumption of computers

and their peripheral devices.
b) Green Disposal: This means remaking an existing computer or appropriately
disposing off/recycling unwanted electronic devices.
c) Green design: Designing energy efficient computers, servers, printers and
other digital devices.
d) Green Manufacturing: This means minimize waste during manufacturing of
computers and other sub systems to reduce the environmental impact of
these activities

Goals of green computing

❖ Reduce the use of hazardous materials,
❖ Maximize energy efficiency during the product's lifetime,
❖ Promote the recyclability or biodegradability of malfunctioning products and
factory waste.
❖ The work habits of computer users and businesses can be modified to minimize
adverse impact on the global environment.

Measures intended to promote green computing

❖ Conserving resources means less energy is required to produce, use and
dispose of products
❖ Saving energy and resources saves money.
❖ Green computing even includes changing government policy to encourage
recycling and lowering energy use by individuals and business.
❖ Reduce the risk existing in the laptops such as chemical known to cause cancer,
nerve damage and immune reactions in humans.
❖ Using other power alternatives like Solar energy
❖ Replacing of CRT Monitors with LCD monitors.
❖ Repairing computers instead of buying new ones.
❖ Use of less energy consuming devices and resources
❖ Promoting recyclability. Promoting proper disposal of e-waste.

CAREERS IN THE ICT INDUSTRY

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Many people today are employed in various organizations because of their
association to the computer world.

Information and communication technology (ICT) has created new job titles such
as computer operators, computer technicians, system analyst, computer
programmers, software engineer, Information systems manager, data base
administrator, computer trainer, web administrator, computer graphics designers
and network administrator.

This section explains some responsibilities of these professionals who are

generally called information technology workers.

Data entry
This is a job that requires one with the basic computer skills of managing
computer skills.

One has to take information from a hard copy and enter it into an electronic
format or taking electronic data and entering into a database for easy sorting
and locating.

Computer operator.
Some of the responsibilities of a computer operator include;
1) Entering data into the computer for processing.
2) Keeping up-to-date records (log files) of all information processing activities.

Computer technician.
Given that computers require regular maintenance, upgrading as well as
emergency repairs, demand for computer technicians continues to grow as
more people computerize their workplaces and homes.

Some of the responsibilities of a computer technician are;

1) Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
2) Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
3) Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printer modems,
storage media devices are in good working condition.
4) In developed countries, technicians help hardware engineers in designing
and crating some computer components such as storage devices,
motherboards etc.

System analyst and designer

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This is a person who methodically examines an information system and
considers improving it when required basing on various data flow models. At
the end of the analysis, a report has to be delivered to a responsible party for
scrutiny and examination.

Note: system analysts is a person who is responsible for analyzing a

company’s needs or problems then designs and develops a computer based
information system.

A good analyst is one who has at least the following attributes;

1) Good problem solving skills and creativity, i.e. must have wide experience
in solving problems.
2) Good communication skills: The analyst must be able to communicate
clearly and precisely both in writing and in speech. He/she must be able
to talk to different groups of people e.g. managers, operators, attendant
and general public.
3) Must have business knowledge: the analyst must clearly understand the
environment for which the system is being developed.
4) Technical knowledge: A system analyst must be well trained in relevant
areas of computer science such as hardware, software programing
knowledge.

Some of the responsibilities of a system analyst include:

❖ Reviewing the current manual or redundant information system and
making recommendations on how to replace it with a more efficient one.
❖ Working with programmers to construct and test the system.
❖ Coordinating training for users of the new system.

Computer programmer
This is a person whose responsibility is to write, execute as well as debug
(remove errors) the source code of a given software program.

Large organizations such as insurance companies, banks, manufacturing firms

and government agents hire programmers to work together with system analysts
in order to:
1) Develop in house application programs or system programs.
2) Customize commercial application packages to suite the organization needs.
3) Install, test, debug, and maintain programs developed or customized for the
organization.

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Computer engineer.
Computer and electronic engineers are coming up with new and more efficient
technologies in information and communication technology almost daily.

Since computers are electronic devices, hardware designers must be good in

electronic engineering in order to be able to:
1) Design and develop computer components such as storage devices,
motherboards and other electronic components.
2) Determine the electrical power requirement of each component.
3) Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
4) Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer controlled devices
such as robots.

Web administrator/webmaster.
This is a person whose responsibility is to effectively manage and control a
company’s website.

Internet is one of the areas of information and communication technology that

has drawn the interest of most people. Thus people are able to exchange
messages, search for information and do business through the internet.

A web administrator is responsible for:

❖ Developing and testing websites.
❖ Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the website to meet new
demands by the users.
❖ Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing the security
measures.
❖ Downloading information needed by an organization or institution from internet
websites.

Computer graphics designers and 3D Animation

In publishing, skilled graphics designers and typesetters are required in order to
design graphical objects and professional publications.

Such people may get employed in publishing houses to typeset books,

newspapers and magazines. 3D animation for movies, software programs,
games etc.

Self-employment.

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Self-employment can be achieved by using a computer or other ICT devices
such as mobile phones to start bureau services, internet services, consultancy
services and computer hardware and software vendor business.

Network administrator.
This is a person responsible for configuring and maintaining the day today
operation of a computer network. Typically, a network administrator assigns
user accounts and passwords, establishes security levels and monitors system
to prevent unauthorized access and attacks.

A network administrator is a specialist whose responsibilities are to:

❖ Set-up a computer network.
❖ Maintain and enforce security measures on the network.
❖ Monitor the use of network resources.
❖ Maintain and troubleshoot network related problems.

Data Processing manager

This is a person responsible for overseeing activities as well as setting
procedures followed in the data processing department.

Computer sales representatives.

Computer sales representative should have good knowledge in information and
communication technology.
This would help them to analyze customer needs and advice accordingly. A
good computer salesman needs to be self-confident, persuasive and proficient
in business communication.

Database administrator
This is a person who develops and maintains a database of a company as well
as designing and implementing policies essential for ensuring its security and
integrity.

Quality Assurance (QA)

This is job requires that an employee tastes out all features of a product or
use ability issues. Security Expert. This requires one to taste and find
vulnerabilities in a system hardware or software programs.

Hardware Designer
This is a person who designs different hardware, circuit designs, embedded
systems, firmware etc. It’s a job that requires you to design and create
complete hardware packages or portions of hardware assistance.

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