Course Title: Introduction to Research Methods

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 CHAPTER -1: THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
1.1. What is Research?
• Research is an organized inquiry carried out to provide information
for the solution of a problem.
• Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to
questions.
• An organized, systematic, data based on critical, objective,
scientific enquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken
with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.
• The role and salient characteristics of marketing research may be
described by the Acronym RESEARCH.
– R: recognition of information needs
– E: effective decision making
– S:systematic and objective
– E:exude or disseminate information
– A: analysis of information
– R:recommendations for action
– C:collection of information
– H: helpful to managers.

Qn: is research a means to an end or an end by it-Self?

• Information is often required to solve a specific problem to
minimize risk and uncertainty which makes research a means to end
(applied research).
• Research can also be used to increase knowledge or understanding.
This makes research an end in itself (Basic research).

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1.2. What are the basic Features of Scientific Research?

• Scientific research is concerned with observed facts systematically classified, and

includes trustworthy methods to discover truths.
• This method of inquiry is a very important aspect of science.
• Observation, hypothesis & verification are the three important
components of scientific enquiry.

1.3. Characteristics of Scientific Methods

Two general traits characterize the scientific method:

1. Validity: is the characteristic used to describe research that measures

what it claims to measure For example, to measure TV-viewing audiences
people meter–mechanical device is put on TV sets to determine when they
are turned on.

2. Reliability: is the characteristic of a research methodology that allows it

to be repeated again and again by any researcher–always with the same
results.
• Scientists working in their laboratories control all aspects of their
experiments and report them in detail so that other scientists can
attempt the same study and confirm the results.
1.4. Types/Classification /Categories of Researches

There are different categories of research:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical:
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.

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 • Analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use
facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.

2. Basic Research/Pure Research/Fundamental Research vs applied

research
• Basic research: The investigation of problems to further and
develop existing Knowledge.
• It is mainly concerned with generalization and formulations of
theories.
• Gathering information and acquiring knowledge for knowledge‗s
sake is termed basic research.
• Applied Research: Research done with the intention of applying the
results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being
experienced in the organization.
• Has a practical problem solving emphasis, although the problem
solving is not always generated by negative circumstances.
• Problem solving based as it is conducted to reveal answers to specific
questions related to action, performance, or policy needs.
• Undertaken to solve a specific problem.
• Attempts to solve specific management problems.

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3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
• Quantitative Research: Based on the measurement of quantity or
amount.
• Applicable to phenomenon that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

• Is important in behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying

motives, interests, personality and attitudes of human beings.
• The qualitative research serves as the foundation for the
quantitative phase of the research project because it provides the
researcher with first-hand knowledge of the research problem.
• Armed with this knowledge, the researcher‘s design and execution of
the quantitative phase is invariably superior to what it might have
been without the qualitative phase.
• In some cases, a qualitative phase is applied after a Quantative
study to help the researcher understand findings in the quantitative
phase.

4. Conceptual Vs. Empirical Research

Conceptual Research
• Related to some abstract idea or theory.
• Philosopher‘s thinkers generally use it to develop new concepts or to
interpret existing ones.

Empirical Research
• Data based, coming up with conclusions that are capable of being
verified, by observation or by experiment.
• The researcher should collect enough that to prove or disprove his
hypothesis.

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1.5. A good research should have the following qualities:
– The purpose of the research is clearly defined.
– The research process is presented in detail.

– The research design thoroughly planned.

– High ethical standards should be applied
– Limitations should be frankly revealed.
– Adequate analysis should be made for decision makers‘ needs.
– Findings should be presented unambiguously.
– The Conclusions should be justified.
 Generally qualities of a good research
1. Good research is systematic
2. Good research is logical
3. Good research is empirical
4. Good research is replicable

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CHAPTER-2: THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• A research proposal is an activity that incorporates decisions made
during early research-project planning phase of the study including
management –research questions hierarchy and exploration.
• A research proposal is a work plan, outline, prospectus, statement of
intent, draft plan.
• A proposal is an individual‘s or a company‘s offer to produce a
product or render a service to a potential buyer or sponsor.
2.1. Purpose of Research Proposal
• The purpose of a research proposal is to:
• Present the management question to be researched and its
importance.
• Discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related
management questions.
• Suggest the data necessary for solving the management questions and
how the data will be gathered, treated, and interpreted.
2.2. Types of Research Proposals

Proposals can be internal or external.

 Internal Proposals
• Internal proposals are more succinct than external ones.
• An internal proposal is done for the corporation by staff specialist or
by the research department of the firm.
• It is a memo from the researcher to management outlining the
problem statement, study objectives, research design, and schedule
enough to start an exploratory study.

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  External Proposals

• An external proposal is either solicited or unsolicited.

• The proposal is likely competing against others for a contract or
grant.
• An unsolicited proposal has the advantage of not competing against
others but the disadvantage of having to speculate on the ramification
of a problem facing the firm‘s management.
• The writer of the unsolicited proposal must decide to whom the
document should be sent.
• The external summary of an external proposal may be included
within about project management and the facilities and special
resources.
• Complexity Level of a Proposal

There are two general levels complexity.

– Management proposal (Internal and external )
– Student proposals (Term Paper, Master‘s Thesis & Doctoral
dissertation )
2.3. Structure of Internal & External Proposals

i. Executive Summary
• Allows a busy manager or sponsor to understand quickly the thrust of
the proposal.
• It is essentially an informative abstract, giving executives the chance
to grasp the essentials of the proposal without having to read the
details.
• The goal of the summary is to secure a positive evaluation by the
executive who will pass the proposal on to the staff for a full
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 evaluation.
ii. Problem Statement

• It should convince the sponsor to continue reading the proposal.

• It should capture the reader‘s attention by stating the management
dilemma, its background and consequences, and the question starts
the research task.
• It should include any restrictions or areas of the management
question that won‘t be addressed.

iii. Research Objective

• Lays out exactly what is being planned by the proposed research.
• In a descriptive study, the objectives can be stated as the research
question.
• The research questions can be further broken down into investigative
questions.
• If the proposal is for a descriptive or causal study, then the objectives
can be restated as a hypothesis.
• The objective naturally flows from the problem statement, giving the
sponsor specific, concrete, achievable goals.

iv. Literature Review

• Examines recent research studies, company data, or industry reports
that acts as a basis for the proposed study.
• Discussion of literature should move from a comprehensive
perspective to more specific studies that are associated with your
problem.
• If the problem has a historical background, begin with the earliest
references.

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 • Avoid the extraneous details of the literature, do a brief review of the
information, not a comprehensive report.
• Emphasize the important results and conclusions of other studies, the
relevant data and trends from previous research, and particular
methods or design that could be duplicated or should be avoided.
• Discuss how the literature applies to the study you are proposing,
show the weaknesses or faults in the design , discussing how you
would avoid similar problems.
• If your proposal deals solely with secondary data, discuss the
relevance of the data and the bias or lack of bias inherent in it.

V. Importance / Benefits of the Study

• Allows describing explicit benefits that will accrue from your study.
• The importance of ―doing the study now‖ should be emphasized.
• If you find it difficult to write, then you will have probably not
understood the problem adequately.
• Return to the analysis of the problem and ensure , through
additional discussions with your research team or
• By the reexamination of the literature, that you have captured the
essence of the problem.
• It requires you to understand what is most troubling to your sponsor.
• It is more important to the unsolicited external proposal.

Vi. Research Design

• The design module describes what you are going to do in technical
terms.
• It should include so many subsections as needed to show the phases
of the project.

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 • Provide information on your proposed design for tasks such as
sample selection and size, data collection method, instrumentation,
procedures, and ethical requirements.
• When more than one way exists to approach the design discuss the
methods you rejected and why your selected approach is superior.

Vii. Data Analysis

• With smaller projects, the proposed data analysis would be included
within the research design section.
• For large-scale contract research projects and doctoral thesis a
separate brief section of data analysis is appropriate.
• Describe your proposed treatment and the theoretical basis for using
the selected techniques.
• Assure the sponsor that you are following correct assumptions and
using theoretically sound data analysis procedures.

Viii. Nature & Form of Results

• The sponsor should be able to go back to the problem statement and
research objectives and discover that each of the goals of the study
has been covered.
• One should also specify the types of data to be obtained and the
interpretations that will be made in the analysis.
• If the data are to be turned over to the sponsor for proprietary
reasons, make sure that this is reflected.
• Alternatively, if the report will go to more than one sponsor, that
should be noted.
• It also contains the contractual agreement telling the sponsor exactly
what types of information will be received.

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 • Statistical conclusions, applied findings, recommendations, action
plans, models strategic plans, and so forth are ………forms of
results.

ix. Qualification of Researchers

• It should begin with the principal investigator.
• It is also customary to begin qualifications with the highest academic
degree held.
• Experience in carrying out previous research is important, especially
in the corporate market place, so a concise description of similar
projects should be included.
• Complete curriculum vitae information is often placed in an appendix
for review by interested sponsors.

X. Budget
• The budget should be presented in the form the sponsor requests.
• The budget should be no more than 1-2 pages.
• The budget statement in an internal research proposal is based on
employee and over head costs.
• The budget presented by an external research organization is not just
the wages or salaries of their employees.
• The budget section of an external proposal states the total fee payable
for the assignment.

Xi. Schedule
• schedule should include the major phase of the project, their time
tables, and the milestones that signify completion of a phase.
• Major phase may be:
• Exploratory interviews
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 • Final research proposal
• Questionnaire revision
• Field interviews
• Editing & coding
• Data analysis , and
• Report generation
• You can use Gant chart.

Xii. Facilities & Special Resources

• Often projects will require facilities or resources that should be
described in detail.
• A contract exploratory study may need specialized facilities for focus
group sessions.
• Computer assisted telephone or other interviewing facilities may be
required.
• Alternatively , your proposed data analysis may require
sophisticated computer algorithms , and therefore, you need access
to an adequate system .
• The proposal should carefully list the relevant facilities and resources
that will be used.

Xiii. Project Management

• This section shows the sponsor that the research team is organized in
a way to do the project efficiently.
• A master plan is required for complex projects to show how the phase
will be brought together.
• Tables and charts are most helpful in presenting the master plan.
• The type and frequency of progress reports should be recorded

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XiV. Bibliography
• For all projects that require literature review, a bibliography is
necessary.
• Use the bibliographic format required by the sponsor.

Appendices glossary
• A glossary of terms should be included whichever there are many
words unique to the research topic and not understood by the general
management community.
• This is a simple section consisting of terms and definitions.
• Also, define any acronyms that you use, even if they are defined
within the text.

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CHAPTER-3: THE RESEARCH PROCESS: PROBLEM
DEFINITION
The research process includes a number of practical steps which may
include the following.
– Define The Research Problem,
– Establish The Research Objectives,
– Develop Hypothesis And Research Questions,
– Identify Information Types And Sources
– Determine Research Design,
– Prepare and Present The Final Research Report
– Determine Sample Plan And Size
– Qualitative methods
– Quantitative methods
– Development of measurement scales
– Development of data collection designs (Questionnaire)
– Collecting Data
– Analyze Data
3.1. Defining the Problem and Determining Research
Objectives
 The Need For Research
• To establish the need for research, all organizations should monitor
their surrounding environments on a continuous basis using a
monitoring system.
• The primary objective of a monitoring system is to bring operating
information to management. Such information allows management:

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 • To evaluate whether their current operating information results in
meeting performance objectives.
• If proposed legislation has an impact on consumer spending or other
r industry interests,
• Whether changes in consumer values and lifestyles are occurring, or
if new strategies are being implemented by competitors
3.2. Differences between Managers & Researchers
– Organization Position (line vs. Staff)
– Responsibility(to make profit Vs to generate profit)
– Training(General Decision Making Vs. Technique Application)
– Disposition Toward Knowledge (Wants Answers to questions
Vs. Wants To Ask Question)
– Involvement (Pragmatic Vs. Scholarly)
– Use of Research (Highly Involved , Emotional Vs. Detached ,
Unemotional)
– Research Motivation (Political Vs. Nonpolitical )
– Research Motivation (To Make Symptoms Disappear Vs. To
Find The Truth )

3.3. Research Problem:

• It is defined as providing relevant, accurate, and unbiased
information that managers can use to solve their Management
problems.

Defining a problem involves:

– Specifying the symptoms
– Itemizing the possible causes of the symptoms, and

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 – Listing the reasonable alternative courses of action that the
manager can undertake to solve the problem.

There are two types problems with which a research must contend:
– The Management Problem and
– The Research Problem
• Poor problem definition can expose research to a range of
undesirable consequences, including incorrect research design s and
inappropriate or needlessly expensive and collection, assembly of
incorrect or irrelevant data, and poor choice of the sample selection.
• It is critical that the management problem be defined accurately and
fully.

There are eight assessment areas that help the researcher properly define the
Management problem.

 Assess the background of the company , Product , and Market

• Understand the decision maker‘s circumstances, objectives, and
resources
• Specify actions that may alleviate the problem
• Identify the manager‘s assumptions about the consequences
• Assess the adequacy of information on Hand
3.4. Specify Research Objectives

• A good way of setting research objectives is to ask, ―what

information is needed in order to solve the problem?‘
• A key aspect of the research objectives step is the specification of the
specific types of information useful to the managers as they look for
a solution to the management problem at hand.

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 • Research objectives address information gaps that must be closed in
order for the manager to go about resolving the current problem.
• Generally, the researcher prepares an itemized listing of the
information objectives agreed upon by the manger as essential for
this purpose.
• Each research objectives must be precise, detailed, clear and
operational.
• For example:
• The research objective: ―compare the demographic
profiles of Hilton Hotel customers to Non-Hilton Hotel
customers using age, sex, education, and annual family
income.‖
• To be precise: means that the terminology is
understandable to the commercial manager and that it
accurately captures the essence of each construct to be
researched.
– Detail is provided by including the four demographic measures
of age, sex, education, and annual family income.
– Clear objective: there is no doubt as to what will be researched
and how the information will be presented to the manager.
– Operational: it implies specific measurement scales and
statistical analysis.
3.5. Hypothesis

1. Null hypothesis is a statement in which no difference or effects are

expected. If the null hypothesis is not rejected, no changes will be
made.

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 – The null hypothesis is a proposition that states a definitive,
exact relationship between two variables.
– It states that the population correlation between two variables
is equal to zero or that the difference in the means of two
groups in the populations is equal to zero or the difference in
the means of two groups in the population is equal to zero( or
some definite number).
– In general, the null statements are expressed as no (significant)
relationship between two variables or no (significant)
difference between two groups.

2. Alternative Hypothesis: is a statement that some difference or effect is

expected. Accepting the alternative hypothesis will lead to changes in
opinions or actions.

3.5.1. Directional and Non-Directional Hypothesis

– Directional Hypothesis (DP)
• DH is refers to those hypothesis that deals with
relationships between two variables or comparing two
groups.
• In stating such hypothesis terms such as positive,
negative, more than, less than, and the like are used.
• Non directional Hypothesis (NDH)NDH are those that do no
postulate a relationship or difference, but offer no indication of the
direction of these relationships or differences.
• In other words, though it may be conjectured that there would be a
significant relationship between two variables, we may not be able to
say the relationship would be positive or negative.

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 – Parametric tests: hypothesis –testing procedures that assume
that the variables of interest are measured on at least an
interval scale.
– Nonparametric test: hypothesis testing procedures that
assume that the variables are measured on a nominal or ordinal
scale.

The following steps are involved in hypothesis testing:

– Formulate the null hypothesis H and the alternative
0

hypothesis H
A.

– Select an appropriate statistical technique and the

corresponding test statistic.
– Choose the level of significance, α.
• Determine the sample size and collect the data .Calculate the value of
the test statistics.
• Determine the probability associated with the test statistics under the
null hypothesis using the sampling distribution of the test statistics.
Alternatively, determine the critical values associated with the test
statistics that divide the rejection and non-rejection regions.
• Compare the probability associated with the test statistics with the
level of significance specified. Alternatively, determine whether the
test statistics has fallen into the rejection or the non-rejection region.

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CHAPTER-4: RESEARCH DESIGN
4.1. Research Design

It is a framework for conducting the marketing research project. It specifies

the details of the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed
to structure and /or solve marketing research problems.

A Research design is the specification of procedures for collecting and

analyzing the data necessary to help identify or react to a problem or
opportunity, such that the difference between the cost of obtaining various
levels of accuracy and the expected value of the information associate d
with each level of accuracy is maximized.
• A Research Design is the detailed blueprint used to guide a research
study toward its objectives.
• Research design requires the specification of procedures. These
procedures involve decisions on what information to generate, the
data collection method, the measurement approach, the object to be
measured, and the way in which the data are to be analyzed.
• The data are to be collected to help identify or react to a problem or
opportunity. All data collected should eventually relate to decisions
faced by management.
• The information has value. Information acquires values as it helps
improve decisions.
• The varying levels of accuracy of information can be generated in
response to the same problem. Information accuracy is affected by
the occurrence of a number of potential errors.

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• The goal of applied research design is not to generate the most
accurate information possible.
 Research Design Can Be Classified Into Two:
• Exploratory Research And
• Conclusive Research
• Exploratory research is one type of research design, which has as
its primary objective the provision of insights into and
comprehension of the problem situation confronting the researcher.
• Exploratory research could be used for any of the following purposes
of gain background information.

– Exploratory Research is most commonly unstructured,

informal research that is undertaken to gain background
information about the general nature of the research problem.
– By unstructured we mean that exploratory research does not
have a formalized set of objectives, sample plan, or
questionnaire.
– Exploratory research is aimed at gaining additional
information about a topic and generating possible hypothesis to
test.
• Exploratory research is systematic, but it is very flexible in that it
allows the researcher to investigate whatever sources he or she
desires and to the extent he or she feels is necessary in order to gain a
good feel for the problem at hand.
• Exploratory research is the initial step in the overall research
design framework.

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 • It should, in most instances, be followed by descriptive or causal
research.
• For example, hypothesis developed via exploratory research should
be statistically tested using descriptive or causal research.
• Exploratory research in the form of secondary data analysis and focus
groups was conducted to identify the social causes that Ethiopian
businesses should be concerned about.
• Then a descriptive cross-sectional survey was undertaken to quantify
the relative salience of these causes.
• It is not necessary to begin the survey research design with
exploratory research.
• It depends upon the precision with which the problem has been
defined and the researcher‗s degree of certainty about the approach to
the problem.
• A research design could well begin with descriptive or causal
research.
• Although exploratory research is generally the initial step, it need
not be.
• Exploratory research may follow descriptive or causal research.
• Exploratory research may provide more insights to help understand
these findings.
4.2. Methods of Conducting Exploratory Research

A variety of methods are available to conduct exploratory research. These

include:

a) Secondary Data Analysis

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 – Secondary data analysis refers to the process of searching for
and interpreting existing information relevant to the research
problem.
– Data that have been collected for some other purposes.
– Libraries and internet are full of secondary data, which
includes information found in books, journals, magazines,
special reports, bulletins, newsletters, and so on.
– An analysis of secondary data is often the ―core‖ of
exploratory research.

b) Experience surveys
• Experience survey refers to gathering information from those thought
to be knowledgeable on the issues relevant to the research problem.

c) Case analysis

Case analysis refers to a review of available information about a former

situation (s) that has some similarities to the present research problem.
• There are few research problems that do not have some similarities to
some situation in the past

d) Focus groups
• Focus groups are groups of people brought and guided by a
moderator through an unstructured, spontaneous discussion for the
purpose of gaining information relevant to the research problem.
• The moderator should ensure the discussion is ―focused ―on some
general area of interest.

e) Projective Techniques.

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 • Projective techniques seek to explore hidden consumer motives for
buying goods and services by asking participants to project
themselves into a situation and then to respond to specific questions
regarding the situation.
 Conclusive Research: Research designed to assist the decision
maker in determining, evaluating, and selecting the best course of
action to take in a given situation.
• it is typically more formal and structured than exploratory research.
• It is based on large, representative samples, and the data obtained are
subjected to quantitative analysis.
• The findings from the research are considered to be conclusive in
nature in that they are used as input into managerial decision-making.
• Conclusive research can be either descriptive or causal.
• A Descriptive Research is a type of conclusive research that has as its
major objective the description of something-usually market
characteristics or functions.
• Provides answers to questions such as who, what, where, when and
how, as they are related to the research problem.
• Typically, answers to these questions, are found in secondary data or
by conducting surveys.

4.3. Descriptive research is conducted for the following reasons:

• To describe the characteristics‘ of relevant groups, such as
consumers, salespeople, organizations, or market areas.
• To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population
exhibiting a certain behavior.
• To determine the perceptions of product characteristics‘.

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 • To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated.
• To make specific predictions.
• Descriptive Research can be further classified into cross-sectional
and longitudinal research.

a) Cross-Sectional Designs
• A type of research design involving the collection of information
from any given sample of population elements only once.

i. Single cross-sectional design

• A type of research design involving the collection of information
from any given sample of population elements only once.
• In this type of design only one sample of respondents is drawn from
the target population, and information is obtained from this sample
only once.

ii. Multiple-cross-sectional design:

• A cross sectional design in which there are two or more samples of
respondents, and information from each samples is obtained only
once.
• Often, information from different samples is obtained at different
times over long intervals.
• It allows comparisons at the aggregate level but not at the individual
respondent‘s level.
• Because a different sample is taken each time a survey is conducted,
there is no way to compare the measures on individual respondents
across surveys. For example cohort analysis.

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 – A cohort analysis: is a multiple cross-sectional design
consisting of a series of surveys conducted at appropriate time
intervals.
– The cohort refers to the group of respondents who experience
the same event within the same time interval.
• The term cohort analysis refers to any study in which there are
measures of some characteristics‘ of one or more cohorts at two or
more points in time.
• Cohort analysis is also used to predict changes in voter opinions
during political campaigns.

b) Longitudinal Designs
• A type of research design involving a fixed sample of population
elements that is measured repeatedly on the same variables.
• The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a series of
pictures which, when viewed together, portray a vivid illustration of
the situation and the changes that are taking place over time.
• Longitudinal data are used for tracking markets.

4.4. Relative advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal and cross-

sectional design
S/N Evaluation Criteria Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design
1 Detecting change - +
2 large amount of data collection - +
3 Accuracy - +
4 representative sampling + -
response bias + -
Note: A + indicates a relative advantage over the other design, whereas a – indicates a relative
disadvantage.

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 4.5. Causal Research
• A type of research where the major objective is to obtain evidence
regarding cause –and effect (causal) relationships.
• Causality may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms
of conditional statements in the form of ―if X, then Y.‖
• These,‖ if-then‖ statements become our way of manipulating
variables of interest.
• Causal Research is Appropriate for the Following Purposes:
• To understand which variables is the cause (independent variables)
and which variables are the effect (dependent variables) of a
phenomenon.
• To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal
variables and the effect to be predicted.

4.6. Differences between Exploratory and Causal Research

S.N Factors Exploratory Causal

1 Objective  to provide insights and  to test specific hypothesis and
understanding examine relationship

2 Characteristics  Information needed is defined  Information needed is clearly

only loosely. defined.
 Research process is flexible  Research process is formal
and unstructured. and structured.
 Sample is small and non-  sample is large and
representative. representative
 analysis of primary data is  Data analysis is quantitative.
qualitative

3 Findings/Results Tentative Conclusive

4 Objective to provide insights and to test specific hypothesis and

understanding examine relationship

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 4.6. A Comparison of Basic Research Design

S/N Factors Exploratory Descriptive Causal

1 Objective  discover ideas and  describe market  determine cause
insights characteristics or and effect
functions relationships
2 Characteristics  Flexible  Marked by the prior  Manipulating of
 Versatile formation of one or more
 often the front end specific hypothesis. independent
of total research  preplanned and variables.
design structured design  control of other
mediating
variables

3 Methods  expert surveys  secondary data  experiments

 pilot surveys (analyzed
 secondary data quantitatively)
(analyzed  surveys
quantitatively)  panels
 qualitative  observational and
research other data
4 Objective  discover ideas and  describe market  determine cause
insights characteristics or and effect
functions relationships
5 Characteristics  Flexible  Marked by the prior  Manipulating of
 Versatile formation of one or more
 often the front end specific hypothesis. independent
of total research  preplanned and variables.
design structured design  control of other
mediating
variables

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 CHAPTER 5- SAMPLING

• Sampling is the process of using a small or parts of a larger

population to make conclusions about the whole population.
• Sampling is one of the components of research design.

Sampling design involves several basic questions:

• Should a sample be taken?
• If so, what process should be followed?
• What kind of sample should be taken?
• How large it should be?
• What can be done to control and adjust for non-response
errors?
4.1. Types of Sampling

Sampling technique can be broadly classified into two broad categories:

Probability and Non-probability sampling.

A) Probability sampling techniques vary in terms of sampling efficiency.

• Sampling efficiency is a concept that reflects a trade-off between
sampling cost and precision. Precision refers to the level of
uncertainty about the characteristics being measured.
• Precision is inversely related to sampling errors but positively
related to cost.
• The greater the precision the greater the cost and most studies require
a trade –off.
 Probability sampling techniques includes the following:

1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

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 • SRS is a probability sampling technique in which each element in the
population has a known and equal probability of selection. Every
element is selected independently of every other element and the
sample is drawn by a random procedure from a sampling frame.
• To draw a simple sample, the researcher first compiles a sampling
frame in which each element is assigned a unique identification
number.
• Probability of selection = sample size
Population Size
 Advantages of SRS
• It embodies the requirements necessary to obtain a probability sample
and there for to derive unbiased estimates of the population‗s
characteristics.
• It guarantees that every member of the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected in to the sample; the resulting
sample, no matter what the size, will be a valid representation of the
population.

2. Systematic Sampling (SS)

• SS is a probabilistic sampling technique in which the sample is
chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every
th
point and then picking every i elements in succession from the
sampling frame.
th unit
• A ss involves selecting every n after a random start.
• To use systematic sampling the researcher decides on a ―skip
interval‖, which is calculated by dividing the number of names on the
list by sample size.

31
 Skip interval ( I) = Population list size
Sample size
• For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a
sample of 1000 is desired.
• In this case, the sampling interval, I, is 100. Random number
between 1 and 100 is selected.
• If, for example, this number is 23, the sample consists of elements
23,123, 233, 423, 523, and so on.
 Prerequisites of Systematic Sampling
• A prerequisite for applying systematic sampling is that the units in
the population can be ordered in some way:
• Some examples are presented below:
• Records that are ordered in a file.
• Names that are ordered alphabetically in a telephone directory.
• Houses that are ordered along a road.
• Customers who walk one by one through an entrance, and so on.
 Advantages
• It has “economic efficiency” (can be applied with less difficulty.)
• The method is simple, but probably the most important advantage is
that a frame is not always needed.
• The method can therefore be used, for instance, to interview a sample
of persons passing by a corner during a particular day.
• The units in the sample will be spread evenly over the ordered
population.
• It can be accomplished in a shorter time period than can simple
random sampling.

32
 • It has the potential to create a sample that is almost identical in
quality to samples created from simple random sampling.

3. Stratified Sampling(SrS)
• SrS is a probability sampling technique that uses a two-step process
to partition the population into sub populations, or strata. Elements
are selected from each stratum by random procedures.
• The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
in that every population elements should be omitted.
• Next, elements are selected from each stratum by random procedures,
usually SRS.
• Technically, only SRS should be employed in selecting the elements
from each stratum.
• In practice , sometimes systematic sampling and other probability
sampling procedures are employed
• Stratified sampling differs from quota sampling in that sample
elements are selected probabilistically rather than based on
convenience or judgment.
• A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase precisions
without increasing cost.
• Stratified sampling can be further divided into two:

a) Proportionate
– In proportionate stratified sampling the size of the sample
drawn from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of
that stadium in the total population.

b) Disproportionate:

33
 – in disproportionate stratified sampling , the size of the sample
from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of the
stratum and to the standard deviation of the distribution of
the characteristics of interest among all the elements in that
stratum.
• Advantages
• Stratified random sampling can give higher precision with the same
sample size, alternatively, the same precision with a smaller sample.
• Stratified sampling can also give separate results for each stratum.
• Stratified sampling can also simplifies data collection.

Disadvantages
• A complete frame is needed.
• Depending on the allocation principle applied, additional
information, such as knowledge of standard deviations and costs,
may be needed for each stratum.

4. Cluster Sampling
• It is a probability sampling in which the population is divided into
sub-groups, each of which represents the entire population.
• In cluster sampling,
• First, the target population is divided into mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulations
called clusters.
• Then, a random sample of clusters is selected based on a
probability sampling technique such as simple random
sampling.

34
 • For each selected cluster, either all the elements are
included in the sample or a sample of elements is drawn
probabilistically.
• There are three types of cluster sampling:
• One -stage sampling
• Two -stage sampling
• Multistage sampling
• Area sampling is a common form of cluster sampling in which the
clusters consist of geographic area such as counties, housing tracts,
blocks, or other area descriptions.
• In one–stage area sampling, the researcher samples blocks and then
all the households within the selected blocks are included in the
sample.
• Two or multi-stage are sampling, the researcher samples blocks,
and then samples households within the selected blocks.

Advantages
• cluster sampling is that we do not need a complete frame of the
secondary sampling units. (We do not need a frame of the clusters,
however.)
• in many kinds of cluster sampling such as area sampling is the
geographical concentration of the units to be interviewed.

5. Sequential Sampling
• A probability sampling technique in which the population elements
are sampled sequentially, data collection and analysis are done at
each stage, and a decision is made as to whether additional elements
should be sampled.

35
 • Data collection and analysis are done at each stage, and decision is
made as to whether additional population elements should be
sampled.
• At each stage, this rule indicates whether sampling should be
continued or whether enough information has been obtained.
• Sequential sampling has been used to determine preferences for two
competing alternatives.

6. Double Sampling
• A sampling technique in which certain population elements are
sampled twice.
• In the first phase, a sample is selected and some information is
collected from all the elements in the sample.
• In the second phase, a subsample is drawn from the original sample
and additional information is obtained from the elements in the sub
sample.
• The process may be extended to three or more phases, and the
different phase may take place simultaneously or at different times.
• Double sampling can be useful when no sampling frame is readily
available for selecting final sampling units but when the elements
of the frame are known to be contained within a broader sampling
frame.
• Non-Probability Sampling Techniques
• The critical difference between probability and non-probability
sampling methods is the mechanics used in the sample design.
• With non-probability sampling method, selection is not based on
probability.

36
 • In other words you can‘t calculate the probability of any one person
in the population being selected into the sample.
• Still each non-probability sampling method strives to draw a
representative sample.

B) Non -Probability Sampling Methods

• The non-probability sampling methods include the following:

1. Convenience Sampling
• A non-probability sampling technique that attempts to obtain a
sample of convenient elements.
• The selection of sampling units is left primarily to the interviewer.
• Examples of convenience sampling includes:
• Use of students , church groups , and members of social
organizations
• Convenience samples are not recommended for descriptive or
causal research , but they can be used in exploratory research for
generating ideas, insights, or hypothesis
• Convenience samples can used for focus groups , pretesting
questionnaires , or pilot studies.
• Even in these cases, caution should be exercised in interpreting the
results.
• Nevertheless, this technique is sometimes used even in large surveys.

2. Judgment Sampling
• A form of convenience sampling in which the population elements
are purposely selected based on the judgment of the researcher.
• The researcher uses his or her judgment or that of some other
knowledgeable person to identify who will be in the sample.
37
 • Subjectivity enters in here, and certain members of the population
will have a smaller chance of selection than will others.
• The researcher exercising common examples of judgment sampling
include :
• judgment or expertise , chooses the elements to be included in the
sample , because he or she believes that they are representative of
the population of interest or are otherwise appropriate.

3. Referral Samples/Snowball Samples

• Respondents are asked for the names or identities of others like
themselves who might qualify to take part in the survey.
• A non-probability sampling technique in which an initial group of
respondents is selected randomly.
• Subsequent respondents are selected based on the referrals or
information provided by the initial respondents.
• This process may be carried out in waves by obtaining referrals from
referrals.
• A major objective of snowball sampling is to estimate characteristics
that are rare in the population.

Advantages of snow ball sampling

– It substantially increases the likelihood of locating the desired
characteristics in the population.
– It also results in relatively low sampling variance and costs.

4. Quota Samples
– A non-probability sampling technique that is a two-stage
restricted judgmental sampling.

38
 – The size of the quotas is determined by the researcher‘s belief
for the relative size of each class of respondent.
• The first stage consists of developing control categories or quotas of
population elements.
• In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience sampling.
• To develop these quotas, the researcher lists relevant control
characteristics which may include sex, age and race, are identified
on the basis of judgment.
• A field worker is provided with screening criteria that will classify
the potential respondent into a particular quota cell.
• In other words, the quotas ensure that the composition of the sample
is the same as the composition of the population with respect to the
characteristics of interest.
• In the second–stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.
• Once the quotas have been assigned, there is considerable freedom in
selecting the elements to be included in the sample.
• The only requirement is that the elements selected fit the control
characteristics.

• Although this type of sample is not representative, it may

nevertheless be very relevant.

Advantages
• QS Attempts to obtain representative samples at a relatively low cost.

39
 • A quota system overcomes much of the non-representative ness
danger inherent in convenience samples.
• It may guarantee that the researcher has sufficient sub-sample sizes
for meaningful subgroup analysis.
• Under certain conditions, Qs obtain results close to those for
conventional probably sampling.

4.3. Strengths and Weaknesses of probability Sampling Techniques

S/N Technique Strengths Weaknesses

1 Simple random Easily understood, Difficult to construct sampling
sampling (SRS) result projectable frame, expensive, lower
precision, no assurance of
representativeness
2 Systematic Can increase Can decrease
sampling representativeness, representativeness
easier to implement
than SRS, sampling
frame not necessary
3 Stratified Includes all Difficult to select relevant
sampling important stratification variables, not
subpopulations, feasible to stratify on many
precision variables, expensive
4 Cluster sampling Easy to implement Imprecise, difficult to compute
cost effective and interpret results.

40
 4.4. Strengths and Weaknesses of Non-probability Sampling
Techniques

S/N Technique Strengths Weaknesses

1 Convenience Least expensive , least Selection bias, sample not
sampling time consuming, most representative, not
convenient recommended for descriptive
or causal research
2 Judgment Low cost, convenient, Does not allow generalization ,
sampling not time consuming subjective
3 Quota sampling Sample can be controlled Selection bias , no assurance
for certain of representativeness
characteristics
4 Snow ball sampling Can estimate rare Time consuming
characteristics.

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CHAPTER 6: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

6.1. Types of data: viz., primary and secondary

• The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first
time, and thus happen to be original in character.
• The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already
been collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process.
6.2. Collection of Primary Data
• We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an
experimental research and descriptive survey research.
• An experiment refers to an investigation in which a factor or variable
under test is isolated and its effect(s) measured.
• Survey refers to the method of securing information concerning
phenomena under study from all or a selected number of respondents
of the concerned universe.
• There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in
surveys and descriptive researches.
1. Observation Method
• The observation method is the most commonly used method
especially in studies relating to behavioral sciences.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data
collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research
purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to
checks and controls on validity and reliability
• The advantages:

1. Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately

42
2. The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening

3. Independent of respondents‘ willingness to respond

Limitations:
1. it is an expensive method
2. information provided by this method is very limited
3. sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational
task
• In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the
units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information,
standardized conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent
data of observation, then the observation is called as structured
observation.
• But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to
be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation.
• Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive
studies, whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure
is most likely to be relatively unstructured.
• If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member
of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the
members of the group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation.
• But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any
attempt on his part to experience through participation what others

43
 feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant
observation.
When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be
unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is described as
disguised observation

• If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed

as uncontrolled observation.
• but when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged
plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed
controlled observation.
• In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision
instruments.
• The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous
picture of life and persons.
2. Interview Method
• It involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
(a) Personal interviews
• Personal interview method requires a person known as the
interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to
the other person or persons.
• It is usually carried out in a structured way. Such interviews involve
the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized
techniques of recording.

44
 • The analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more
difficult and time-consuming.
• Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and greater
skill on the part of the interviewer. Unstructured interview, however,
happens to be the central technique of collecting information in case
of exploratory or formulative research studies.
• Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given
experience of the respondent and its effects.
• Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and
sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also the
freedom to explore reasons and motives.
• The clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings
or motivations or with the course of individual‘s life experience.
• The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive
expression of the respondents‘ feelings and beliefs and of the frame
of reference within which such feelings and beliefs take on personal
significance.
(b) Telephone interviews
• It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in
industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.
• The chief merits of telephone interview
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining
information
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method
4. No field staff is required

45
3. Questionnaire
• It is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries
• A Questionnaire is a structured technique for data collection that
consists of a series of questions, written or verbal, that a respondent
answers.
• A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in
a definite order on a form or set of forms.
• Typically, a questionnaire is only one element of a data collection
package that might also include:

Fieldwork procedures, such as instructions for selecting, approaching, and

questioning respondents.
 Main aspects of a questionnaire
• Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey
operation.
1. General form
• Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there
are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions.
• The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‗yes‘
or ‗no‘) or open (i.e., inviting free response). Structured
questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions.
• Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions
and answers are specified and comments in the respondent‘s own
words are held to the minimum.
• Structured questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively
inexpensive to analyze. The provision of alternative replies, at times,
helps to understand the meaning of the question clearly.

46
 • unstructured questionnaire: the interviewer is provided with a
general guide on the type of information to be obtained, but the exact
question formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies
are to be taken down in the respondent‘s own words to the extent
possible; in some situations tape recorders may be used to achieve
this goal.
2. Question sequence
• In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to
the replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-
sequence in preparing the questionnaire.
• A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of
individual questions being misunderstood.
• The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning
thereby that the relation of one question to another should be readily
apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer
being put in the beginning.
• But in a structured questionnaire the best that can be done is to
determine the question-sequence with the help of a Pilot Survey
which is likely to produce good rapport with most respondents.
• In general, all questions should meet the following standards—
(a) should be easily understood;
(b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;
(c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the
respondent‘s way of thinking.
6.3. Collection of secondary data
• Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.
Usually published data are available in:
47
(a) various publications of the central, state are local governments;
(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies
and their subsidiary organizations;
(c) technical and trade journals

(d) books, magazines and newspapers;

(e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business
and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
(f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in
different fields;

(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of
published information.
• The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in
diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also
may be available with scholars and research workers, trade
associations, labor bureaus and other public/ private individuals and
organizations.
• Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data.
• He/she must make a minute scrutiny because it is just possible that
the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the
context of the problem which the researcher wants to study.
• By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must
see that they possess following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data

2. Suitability of data

3. Adequacy of data

48
Chapter 7: Data Processing, Analysis, Interpretation and
Report Writing
• Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are
amenable to analysis.
• The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures
along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among
data-groups
• Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the
investigator for completing (translating or rewriting) what the latter
has written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the time of
recording the respondents‘ responses.
• This type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual
writing styles often can be difficult for others to decipher.
• This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the
interview, preferably on the very day or on the next day.
• While doing field editing, the investigator must restrain himself and
must not correct errors of omission by simply guessing what the
informant would have said if the question had been asked.
• Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have
been completed and returned to the office.
• This type of editing implies that all forms should get a thorough
editing by a single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in
case of a large inquiry.

49
 • Editor(s) may correct the obvious errors such as an entry in the
wrong place, entry recorded in months when it should have been
recorded in weeks, and the like.

2. Coding: it refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols

to answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories
or classes.
• Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under
consideration.
• They must also possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e.,
there must be a class for every data item) and also that of mutual
exclusively which means that a specific answer can be placed in one
and only one cell in a given category set.
• Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several
replies may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain
the critical information required for analysis.
• Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of
the questionnaire.
• But in case of hand coding some standard method may be used.
3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data
which must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get
meaningful relationships.
• This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the
process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics.

50
 • Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in
this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or
classes.
• Classification can be one of the following two types, depending upon
the nature of the phenomenon involved:

(a) Classification according to attributes: Data are classified on the basis

of common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy,
sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.).
Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be
measured quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual
item can be noticed.
• Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as
statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be
classification according to attributes.
• Such classification can be simple classification or manifold
classification.
• In simple classification we consider only one attribute and divide the
universe into two classes-one class consisting of items possessing the
given attribute and the other class consisting of items which do not
possess the given attribute.
• But in manifold classification we consider two or more attributes
simultaneously, and divide that data into a number of classes (total
n
number of classes of final order is given by 2 , where n = number of
attributes considered).

51
(b) Classification according to class-intervals: Data relating to income,
production, age, weight, etc. are classified on the basis of class intervals.
We may have classes with equal class magnitudes or with unequal class
magnitudes.
• The number of items which fall in a given class is known as the
frequency of the given class.
• All the classes or groups, with their respective frequencies taken
together and put in the form of a table, are described as group
frequency distribution or simply frequency distribution.
• Classification according to class intervals usually involves the
following three main problems:
(i) How many classes should be there? What should be their
magnitudes?
• There can be no specific answer with regard to the number of classes.
• The decision about this calls for skill and experience of the
researcher.
(ii) How to choose class limits?
• While choosing class limits, the researcher must take into
consideration the criterion that the mid-point (generally worked out
first by taking the sum of the upper limit and lower limit of a class
and then divide this sum by 2) of a class-interval and the actual
average of items of that class interval should remain as close to each
other as possible.
• Consistent with this, the class limits should be located at multiples of
2, 5, 10, 20, 100 and such other figures.
• Class limits may generally be stated in any of the following forms:

52
1. Exclusive type class intervals: the upper limit of a class interval is
excluded and items with values less than the upper limit (but not less than
the lower limit) are put in the given class interval.

2. Inclusive type class intervals: The upper limit of a class interval is also
included in the concerning class interval.

• Class limits may generally be stated in any of the following forms:

1.Exclusive type class intervals: the upper limit of a class interval is
excluded and items with values less than the upper limit (but not less than
the lower limit) are put in the given class interval.

2. Inclusive type class intervals: The upper limit of a class interval is also
included in the concerning class interval.
(iii) How to determine the frequency of each class?
• This can be done either by tally sheets or by mechanical aids.
• Under the technique of tally sheet, the class groups are written on a
sheet of paper (commonly known as the tally sheet) and for each item
a stroke (usually a small vertical line) is marked against the class
group in which it falls.
• The general practice is that after every four small vertical lines in a
class group, the fifth line for the item falling in the same group, is
indicated as horizontal line through the said four lines and the
resulting flower (IIII) represents five items.
4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes
necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise
and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation.

53
 • Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and
displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical
tables) for further analysis.
• In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in
columns and rows.
• Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
omissions.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
• Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic
devices.
• The choice depends on the size and type of study, cost considerations,
time pressures and the availability of tabulating machines or
computers.
• In relatively large inquiries, we may use mechanical or computer
tabulation if other factors are favorable and necessary facilities are
available.
• Hand tabulation is usually preferred in case of small inquiries where
the number of questionnaires is small and they are of relatively short
length. Hand tabulation may be done using the direct tally, the list
and tally or the card sort and count methods.
• When there are simple codes, it is feasible to tally directly from the
questionnaire.

54
 • Under this method, the codes are written on a sheet of paper, called
tally sheet, and for each response a stroke is marked against the code
in which it falls.
• Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation.
• The former type of tabulation gives information about one or more
groups of independent questions, whereas the latter type of tabulation
shows the division of data in two or more categories and as such is
designed to give information concerning one or more sets of inter-
related questions.
• Simple tabulation generally results in one-way tables which supply
answers to questions about one characteristic of data only.
• As against this, complex tabulation usually results in two-way tables
(which give information about two inter-related characteristics of
data), three-way tables (giving information about three interrelated
characteristics of data) or still higher order tables, also known as
manifold tables, which supply information about several interrelated
characteristics of data.
• Two-way tables, three-way tables or manifold tables are all examples
of what is sometimes described as cross tabulation.
7.2. Elements/Types of Analysis
• Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data,
involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences. Analysis
may, therefore, be categorized as descriptive analysis and
inferential analysis (statistical analysis).
• Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one
variable.
55
• This study provides us with profiles of companies, work groups,
persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics such
as size, composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.
• This sort of analysis may be in respect of one variable (described as
uni-dimensional analysis), or in respect of two variables (described
as bivariate analysis) or in respect of more than two variables
(described as multivariate analysis).
• In this context we work out various measures that show the size and
shape of a distribution(s) along with the study of measuring
relationships between two or more variables.
• Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more
variables for determining the amount of correlation between two or
more variables.
• Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more
variables affect changes in another variable. It is thus a study of
functional relationships existing between two or more variables. This
analysis can be termed as regression analysis.
• Causal analysis is considered relatively more important in
experimental researches, whereas in most social and business
researches our interest lies in understanding and controlling
relationships between variables then with determining causes per se
and as such we consider correlation analysis as relatively more
important.
• Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of
significance for testing hypotheses in order to determine with what
validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions.
• It is also concerned with the estimation of population values.
56
 • It is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of
interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and conclusions) is
performed.
7.3. Interpretation and Report Writing
• After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to
accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by report writing.
• It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose
relations and processes that underlie his findings.
• In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and
upheld several times, the researcher may arrive at generalizations.
• But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he would
try to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
• This may at times result in new questions, leading to further
researches.
• All this analytical information and consequential inference(s) may
well be communicated, preferably through research report, to the
consumers of research results.
• Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the
collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study.
• In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings.
• The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to
establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given
study with those of another, and (ii) the establishment of some
explanatory concepts.

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 • In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the
collected data, partially overlapping analysis.
• Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the
results of other research, theory and hypotheses.
• Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem
to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the
study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical
conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.
• Why interpretation?
• Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness
and utility of research findings lie in proper interpretation.
• It is being considered a basic component of research process because
of the following reasons:
• (i) It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand
the abstract principle that works beneath his findings.
(ii) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that
can serve as a guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of
intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
(iii) Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his
findings are what they are and can make others to understand the real
significance of his research findings.
(iv) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often
results into hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation
is involved in the transition from exploratory to experimental research.
 Technique of Interpretation
• The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:

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(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which
he has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms
of the underlying processes.
 This is the technique of how generalization should be done and
concepts be formulated.
(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be
considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may
prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration.

(iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult

someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will
not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation.

(iv) Researchers must accomplish the task of interpretation only after

considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false
generalization.
• Significance of Report Writing
• Research report is considered a major component of the research
study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been
presented and/or written.
• As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well
designed and conducted research study, and the most striking
generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are
effectively communicated to others.
• The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are
made known to others. Research results must invariably enter the
general store of knowledge.
• All this explains the significance of writing research report.

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 • Writing of report is the last step in a research study and requires a set
of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect of the
earlier stages of research.
• This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care;
he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.
• Different Steps in Writing Report
• Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate
inductive work. The usual steps involved in writing report are:

1. Logical analysis of the subject matter:

• There are two ways in which to develop a subject
(a) logically and
(b) chronologically.
• The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections
and associations between the one thing and another by means of
analysis.
• Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the
simple possible to the most complex structures.
• Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in
time or occurrence.
• The directions for doing or making something usually follow the
chronological order.
2. Preparation of the final outline:
• Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are
constructed.
• They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a
reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

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3. Preparation of the rough draft:
• This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the
preparation of the final outline.
Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write
down what he has done in the context of his research study

4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft:

• This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing.
• Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the
rough draft.
• The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre
and a good piece of writing.
While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses
in logical development or presentation

5. Preparation of the final bibliography:

• Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final
bibliography.
• The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research
report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research
which has been done.
• It should contain all those works which the researcher has
consulted.
The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided
into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and
pamphlets, and the second part may contain the names of magazine and
newspaper articles.

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 • Generally, this pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and
satisfactory from the point of view of reader, though it is not the only
way of presenting bibliography.

6. Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft
should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language,
avoiding vague expressions.
 Layout of the Research Report
• A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise:

(A) Preliminary Pages

• In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date,
followed by acknowledgements in the form of ‗Preface‘ or
‗Foreword‘.
• Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and
illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested in
reading the report can easily locate the required information in the
report.
(B) Main Text
• The main text provides the complete outline of the research report
along with all details.
• Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of
the main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered
consecutively, beginning with the second page.

(i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research

project to the readers.

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 • It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e.,
enough background should be given to make clear to the reader why
the problem was considered worth investigating.
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations:
• After introduction, the research report must contain a statement of
findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it
can be easily understood by all concerned.
• If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put
in the summarized form.

(iii) Results:
• A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting
data in the form of tables and charts together with a validation of
results, is the next step in writing the main text of the report.
• This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over
several chapters.
• The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries
and reductions of the data rather than the raw data.
• All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted
into readily identifiable sections.
• All relevant results must find a place in the report.

(iv) Implications of the results:

• Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely.
(v) Summary:
• It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very
brief summary, resting in brief the research problem, the

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 methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn
from the research results.
(C) End Matter
• At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of
all technical data such as questionnaires, sample information,
mathematical derivations and the like ones.
• Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an
alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the
numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are
mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the
report.
• The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the
reader for the contents in the report.
• Types of reports
• Research reports vary greatly in length and type.
• In each individual case, both the length and the form are largely
dictated by the problems at hand.
• For instance, business firms prefer reports in the letter form, just one
or two pages in length.
• Banks, insurance organizations and financial institutions are
generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for their
annual reports to their customers and shareholders.
• Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their investigations in
the form of algebraic notations.
• Chemists report their results in symbols and formulae.
• We give below a few details about the said two types of reports:
(A) Technical Report
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 • In the technical report the main emphasis is on

(i) the methods employed,

(it) assumptions made in the course of the study,

(iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and
supporting data
• A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or
three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study,
formulation of the problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis,
the type of analysis and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their
limitations. For instance, in
• sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample
size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data:
• Discussion of data collected their sources, characteristics and
limitations.
• If secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be
fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data were
collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings:
• The analysis of data and presentation of the findings of the study with
supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated.
This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually
extending over several chapters.
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6. Conclusions:
• A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications
drawn from the results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared
and attached.
8. Technical appendices:
• Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular
technique of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index:
• Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the
end.
(B) Popular Report
• The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
• The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
• We give below a general outline of a popular report.

1. The findings and their implications:

2. Recommendations for action:

3. Objective of the study:

4. Methods employed:

5. Results:

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6. Technical appendices:
 Precautions for Writing Research Reports
• Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings
to the readers of the report.
• A good research report is one which does this task efficiently and
effectively.
• As such it must be prepared keeping the following precautions in
view:
1. While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary
greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long
enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain interest.
• In fact, report-writing should not be a means to learning more and
more about less and less.
2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should be
such as to sustain reader’s interest.

3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a

research report.
• The report should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible.
• This, in other words, means that report should be written in an
objective style in simple language, avoiding expressions such as ―it
seems,‖ ―there may be‖ and the like.

4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main

findings and as such the report must provide a ready availability of the
findings.

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 • For this purpose, charts, graphs and the statistical tables may be used
for the various results in the main report in addition to the summary
of important findings.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be
appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research problem.
6. The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be
prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition of
report-writing such as the use of quotations, footnotes, documentation,
proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes and the like.
7. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter.
• It must reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of analysis
relating to the research problem fit well.
8. A research report should show originality and should necessarily be an
attempt to solve some intellectual problem.
• It must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the
store of knowledge.
9. Towards the end, the report must also state the policy implications
relating to the problem under consideration.
10. It is usually considered desirable if the report makes a forecast of the
probable future of the subject concerned and indicates the kinds of
research still needs to be done in that particular field.

11. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must
necessarily be given.

12. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such
must be prepared and appended at the end.

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13. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether
typed or printed.

14. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various

constraints experienced in conducting the research study may also be stated
in the report.
15. Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed
and the analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the
beginning of the report in the form of introduction.

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