Comprehensive Study Notes on Database Management

For BSc Computer Applications

Table of Contents

Unit I: Overview of Database Management

1. Introduction to Database Management

2. File-Oriented Approach vs. Database-Oriented Approach

o Disadvantages of File-Oriented Approach

3. Data Independence

4. Database Administrator (DBA) and Its Role

5. DBMS Architecture

6. Different Types of DBMS Users

7. Data Dictionary and Its Contents

8. Types of Database Languages

9. Different Types of Data Models

Unit II: Relational Model & Database Design

1. Definition of Relational Model

2. Concept of Keys

o Candidate Key

o Primary Key

o Foreign Key

3. Fundamental Integrity Rules

4. Relational Algebra

5. Database Design Using ER Model

o Entities, Attributes, and Relationships

o Strong and Weak Entities

o ER Diagrams

Unit III: Normalization & SQL

1. Normalization in Relational Model

o Functional Dependencies

o Normal Forms (1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF)

 2. SQL Concepts

o SQL Constructs: SELECT, FROM, WHERE, GROUP BY, HAVING, ORDER BY

o INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE

o Views: Definition and Use

o Nested Queries

Unit IV: FoxPro & Case Studies

1. Introduction to FoxPro

2. Database Construction in FoxPro

3. Operations in FoxPro

o Searching, Sorting, Indexing

o Updation, Reports, Screen Designing

4. Programming Concepts in FoxPro

5. Managing Numbers and Dates in FoxPro

6. Case Studies

o Inventory Control System

o Payroll Processing

UNIT I: Overview of Database Management

1️⃣ Introduction to Database Management

A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that manages databases efficiently and
provides users with a systematic way to create, retrieve, update, and manage data.

Key Features of DBMS

Centralized Data Management
Reduction of Data Redundancy
Data Integrity and Security
Concurrent Access

2️⃣ File-Oriented Approach vs. Database-Oriented Approach

Feature File-Oriented Approach Database-Oriented Approach

High (same data stored in multiple

Data Redundancy Low (data stored centrally)
files)
Feature File-Oriented Approach Database-Oriented Approach

Data Integrity Difficult to maintain Easier due to constraints

Data Security Less secure More secure

Data High (programs remain

Low (changes in files affect programs)
Independence unaffected)

Complexity Simple but inefficient for large data More complex but efficient

Disadvantages of File-Oriented Approach

Data Redundancy (same data stored multiple times)

Data Inconsistency (different versions of the same data)
Lack of Security (difficult to control access)
No Data Independence (changes in data structure affect applications)

3️⃣ Data Independence

Data Independence refers to the separation of data from application programs.

Logical Data Independence: The ability to change the logical structure without affecting
applications.
Physical Data Independence: The ability to change the physical storage without affecting
the logical structure.

4️⃣ Database Administrator (DBA) and Its Role

A DBA (Database Administrator) is responsible for managing and maintaining the database.

Responsibilities of a DBA
Database Design and Implementation
Data Security and Authorization
Backup and Recovery Management
Performance Monitoring

5️⃣ DBMS Architecture

Three-Tier Architecture

1️⃣ External Level (User View)

2️⃣ Conceptual Level (Logical Structure)
3️⃣ Internal Level (Physical Storage)

Diagram of DBMS Architecture

[ User 1 ] [ User 2 ] [ User 3 ]

| | |

|________External Level________|

Conceptual Level

Internal (Storage) Level

6️⃣ Types of DBMS Users

End Users – Use applications to interact with the database

DBA – Manages the database system
Application Programmers – Develop software that interacts with DBMS
System Analysts – Design database structure

7️⃣ Data Dictionary and Its Contents

A Data Dictionary is a collection of metadata that describes database structure.

Contents
Table names, attributes, data types
Constraints (Primary Key, Foreign Key)
Indexes, Views

8️⃣ Types of Database Languages

Data Definition Language (DDL) – CREATE, ALTER, DROP

Data Manipulation Language (DML) – INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT
Data Control Language (DCL) – GRANT, REVOKE
Transaction Control Language (TCL) – COMMIT, ROLLBACK

9️⃣ Types of Data Models

Hierarchical Model – Tree-like structure

Network Model – Graph-based structure
Relational Model – Uses tables (most common)
Object-Oriented Model – Uses objects

UNIT II: Relational Model & Database Design

1️⃣ Definition of Relational Model

The Relational Model represents data as tables (relations) where each row is a record (tuple)
and each column is a field (attribute).

2️⃣ Concept of Keys

Candidate Key – A unique identifier for records

Primary Key – A chosen candidate key (cannot be NULL)
Foreign Key – A key in one table referring to the primary key of another table

Example:

Student_ID (PK) Name Course_ID (FK)

101 Alex CSE101

102 John CSE102

Here, Student_ID is a Primary Key, and Course_ID is a Foreign Key.

3️⃣ Fundamental Integrity Rules

Entity Integrity – Primary key cannot be NULL

Referential Integrity – Foreign key must refer to an existing primary key

UNIT III: Normalization & SQL

1️⃣ Normalization in Relational Model

What is Normalization?

Normalization is the process of organizing data to reduce redundancy and improve data
integrity in a relational database.

Functional Dependencies

A functional dependency (FD) exists when one attribute uniquely determines another.
Notation: If A → B, then knowing A means we can determine B.

Example:

• Student_ID → Student_Name (Each Student_ID uniquely determines Student_Name)

2️⃣ Normal Forms

Normalization is achieved through Normal Forms (NF):

 First Normal Form (1NF)

No repeating groups (each column has atomic values)

Each column contains unique data

Example (Not in 1NF):

Order_ID Product_Name Quantity

101 Pen, Book 5, 2

102 Pencil 3

Converted to 1NF:

Order_ID Product_Name Quantity

101 Pen 5

101 Book 2

102 Pencil 3

Second Normal Form (2NF)

Must be in 1NF
No partial dependency (No attribute should depend on only part of the primary key)

Example (Not in 2NF):

Order_ID (PK) Product_ID (PK) Product_Name Supplier

101 P1 Pen ABC Ltd

101 P2 Book XYZ Ltd

Issue: Product_Name and Supplier depend only on Product_ID, not on Order_ID.

Solution: Split the table.

Converted to 2NF:
Order Table

Order_ID (PK) Product_ID (FK)

101 P1

101 P2

Product Table
Product_ID (PK) Product_Name Supplier

P1 Pen ABC Ltd

P2 Book XYZ Ltd

Third Normal Form (3NF)

Must be in 2NF
No transitive dependency (A non-key attribute should not depend on another non-key
attribute)

Example (Not in 3NF):

Student_ID (PK) Student_Name Course_ID Course_Name

101 Alex CSE101 DBMS

102 John CSE102 OS

Issue: Course_Name depends on Course_ID, not Student_ID.

Solution: Split into two tables.

Converted to 3NF:
Student Table

Student_ID (PK) Student_Name Course_ID (FK)

101 Alex CSE101

102 John CSE102

Course Table

Course_ID (PK) Course_Name

CSE101 DBMS

CSE102 OS

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

A stricter version of 3NF

Every determinant must be a candidate key

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

 Must be in BCNF
No multi-valued dependencies

Example (Not in 4NF):

Student_ID (PK) Course Hobby

101 DBMS Chess

101 DBMS Music

101 OS Chess

Issue: Multi-valued dependency (Course and Hobby are independent).

Solution: Split into separate tables.

Student-Course Table

Student_ID (PK) Course

101 DBMS

101 OS

Student-Hobby Table

Student_ID (PK) Hobby

101 Chess

101 Music

3️⃣ SQL (Structured Query Language)

SQL is used to interact with databases.

SQL Commands

Data Retrieval (SELECT Statement)

SELECT Name, Age FROM Students WHERE Age > 20;

Sorting (ORDER BY)

SELECT Name, Age FROM Students ORDER BY Age DESC;

Grouping (GROUP BY and HAVING)

SELECT Course, COUNT(*) FROM Students GROUP BY Course HAVING COUNT(*) > 5;

Insert Data (INSERT INTO)

INSERT INTO Students (Student_ID, Name, Age) VALUES (101, 'Alice', 22);
 Update Data (UPDATE)

UPDATE Students SET Age = 23 WHERE Student_ID = 101;

Delete Data (DELETE FROM)

DELETE FROM Students WHERE Age < 18;

Nested Queries

SELECT Name FROM Students WHERE Course_ID IN

(SELECT Course_ID FROM Courses WHERE Course_Name = 'DBMS');

UNIT IV: FoxPro & Case Studies

1️⃣ Introduction to FoxPro

FoxPro is a relational database management system (RDBMS) used for data processing,
management, and programming.

2️⃣ Database Operations in FoxPro

Creating a Database

CREATE DATABASE StudentDB

Creating a Table

CREATE TABLE Students (Student_ID INT, Name CHAR(20), Age INT)

Inserting Data

INSERT INTO Students VALUES (101, 'Alice', 22)

Searching Records

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age > 20

Sorting Records

SORT ON Age DESCENDING TO SortedStudents

Indexing

INDEX ON Student_ID TO StudentIndex

Updating Records

UPDATE Students SET Age = 23 WHERE Student_ID = 101

Report Generation

REPORT FORM StudentReport PREVIEW

3️⃣ Case Studies

Inventory Control System

Objective: Manage stock levels, suppliers, and sales.

Tables: Products, Suppliers, Sales
Queries: Low stock alerts, supplier details, total sales

Payroll Processing

Objective: Manage employee salaries, deductions, and attendance.

Tables: Employees, Salaries, Attendance
Queries: Monthly salary calculations, tax deductions

Summary

Normalization reduces redundancy and improves integrity

SQL is used for data manipulation
FoxPro is a relational database management system
Case Studies help in real-world application