汉林学院 – Mr.

Zhao
Chapter 6 Cartesian Vectors

Suppose 𝑢 ⃗ is any vector in the plane with endpoints Q and R. We identify ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑄𝑅 as a Cartesian vector because its endpoints can be
defined using Cartesian coordinates. If we translate 𝑢
⃗ so that its tail is at the origin, O, then its head will be at some point 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏).
Then, we define this special Cartesian vector as the position vector [𝑎, 𝑏]. We use square brackets to distinguish between the point
(𝑎, 𝑏) and the related position vector [𝑎, 𝑏]. [𝑎, 𝑏] is also used to represent any vector with the same magnitude and direction as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
𝑂𝑃

Example
Draw the vectors 𝑎 = [5, −7] and 𝑏⃗ = [2, 3] on the Cartesian Plane.

The unit vectors 𝑖 and 𝑗 are the building blocks for Cartesian vectors. Unit vectors have magnitude 1 unit. 𝑖 and 𝑗 are special unit
vectors that have their tails at the origin. The head of vector 𝑖 is on the 𝑥-axis at (1, 0) and the head of vector 𝑗 is on the y-axis at
(0, 1). In the notation for Cartesian vectors, 𝑖 = [1, 0] and 𝑗 = [0, 1].

If we resolve 𝑢
⃗ into its horizontal and vertical vector components, we get two vectors that add to 𝑢
⃗ . The magnitude of the horizontal
vector is a, and it is collinear to 𝑖. Similarly, the magnitude of the vertical vector is b, and it is collinear to 𝑗. Thus, 𝑢
⃗ = 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗.
Thus, 𝑢
⃗ = [𝑎, 0] + [0, 𝑏].

Magnitude of a Vector
Any Cartesian vector 𝑣 = [𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ] can be translated so its head is at the origin, (0, 0) and its tail is at the point (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ). To find the
magnitude of the vector, use the absolute value sign as the magnitude of vector and use the formula for the distance between two
points.
|𝑣| = √(𝑣1 − 0)2 + (𝑣2 − 0)2
= √(𝑣1 )2 + (𝑣2 )2

Example
Write a force of 200 N at 30°to the horizontal in Cartesian form, and then resolve it to the vertical and horizontal components in terms
of 𝑖 and 𝑗.

Example
Find the coordinates and the magnitude of each vector.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , for 𝐴(1, 3) and 𝐵(7, 2)
a) 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , for 𝐶(−10, 0) and 𝐷(0, 10)
b) 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , for 𝐸(4, −3) and 𝐹(1, −7)
c) 𝐸𝐹

1 / 20
Vector Addition, Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication
For vectors 𝑢
⃗ = [𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ] and 𝑣 = [𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ] and scalar 𝑘, for all real number,
• 𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣 = [𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 ]
• 𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣 = [𝑢1 − 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 − 𝑣2 ]
• 𝑘𝑣 = [𝑘𝑣1 , 𝑘𝑣2]

Example
Given the vectors 𝑎 = [5, −7] and 𝑏⃗ = [2, 3], determine each of the following.
a) An expression for 𝑎 in terms of its horizontal and vertical vector components
b) An expression for 𝑏⃗ in terms of 𝑖 and 𝑗
c) 3𝑎
d) 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗
e) 2𝑎 − 4𝑏⃗
f) Two unit vectors collinear with 𝑎
g) Two unit vectors collinear with 𝑏⃗
h) |𝑎 − 𝑏⃗ |

Example
A ship’s course is set to travel at 50 km/h, relative to the water, on a heading of 240°. A current of 10 km/h is flowing from a bearing
of 160°.
a) Write each vector as a Cartesian vector.
b) Determine the resultant velocity of the ship.

Practice
1. Express each vector in terms of 𝑖 and 𝑗.
a) [2, 1]
b) [3, −5]
c) [−3, −6]
d) [5, 0]
e) [9, −7]
f) [0, −8]
g) [−6, 0]
h) [−5.2, −6.1]

2. Express each vector in the form [𝑎, 𝑏]

a) 𝑖 + 𝑗
b) 2𝑗
c) −5𝑖 − 2𝑗
d) −8.2𝑗
e) −4𝑖
f) 3𝑖 + 8𝑗
g) 7𝑖 − 4𝑗
h) −2.5𝑖 + 3.3𝑗

3. If 𝑢
⃗ = [4, −1] and 𝑣 = [2, 7], find
2 / 20
a) 8𝑢
⃗
b) −8𝑢
⃗
c) 𝑢
⃗ +𝑣
d) 𝑣 − 𝑢
⃗
e) 5𝑢
⃗ − 3𝑣
f) −4𝑢
⃗ + 7𝑣

4. Given the points 𝑃(−6, 1), 𝑄(−2, −1), and 𝑅(−3, 4), find
a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
b) |𝑅𝑃
c) The perimeter of ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅
d) Repeat the above for 𝑃(−6, 4), 𝑄(−2, −3), and 𝑅(−1, 5)

5. You are given the vector 𝑣 = [5, −1]

a) State the vertical and horizontal vector components of 𝑣
b) Find two unit vectors that are collinear with 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ has its initial point at 𝑃(−2, −7). Determine the coordinates of Q.
c) An equivalent vector 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ has its terminal point at 𝑀(5, 8). Determine the coordinates of L.
d) An equivalent vector 𝐿𝑀

6. Write each force as a Cartesian vector.

a) 500 N applied at 30°to the horizontal
b) 1000 N applied at 72°to the vertical
c) 125 N applied upward
d) 230 N applied to the east
e) 25 N applied downward
f) 650 N applied to the west

7. Let 𝑎 = [4, 7] and 𝑏⃗ = [2, −9].

a) Plot the two vectors.
b) Which is greater, |𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ | or |𝑎| − |𝑏⃗ |?
c) Will this be true for all pairs of vectors? Justify your answer with examples.
d) Repeat the above for 𝑎 = [−5 6] and 𝑏⃗ = [7, 4].

8. An airplane is flying at an airspeed of 600 km/h on a heading of 030°. A wind is blowing at 100 km/h from a bearing of 080°.
Determine the ground velocity of the airplane. Include a diagram in your solution.

9. A boat’s destination is 300 km away, at a bearing of 048°. A 10-km/h current is flowing from a bearing of 212°. What velocity
(magnitude and direction) should the captain set in order to reach the destination in 12 h?

10. A person pushes a lawnmower with a force of 250 N. The handle makes an angle of 35° with the ground. Write this force in
component form as a Cartesian vector.

11. Andrew and David kicks a football at the same time. Andrew kicks it with a force of 155N and David kicks it with a force of 210N.
The angle between the two forces is 30°. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

3 / 20
12. A box is pulled 22 m along level ground by a 90 N force applied at an angle of 40° to the ground. It is then pulled up a 6 m ramp
by the same force. If the ramp is inclined at 25° to the ground, find the total work done. Include a diagram.

13. Three basketball players are fighting over the ball. Sam is pulling with a force of 608 N, Jason is pulling with a force of 550 N,
and Nick is pulling with a force of 700 N. The angle between Sam and Jason is 120°, and the angle between Jason and Nick is 150°.
Determine the resultant force on the basketball.

*14. Three basketball players are fighting over the ball. Julia is pulling with a force of 530N, Cassandra is pulling with a force of
690N, and Laura is pulling with a force of 620N. The angle between Julia and Cassandra is 60°, and the angle between Cassandra and
Laura is 145°. Determine the resultant force on the basketball.

*15. Solve for 𝑥.

a) 𝑢
⃗ = [𝑥, 3𝑥], |𝑢
⃗| = 9
b) 𝑢
⃗ = [2𝑥, 𝑥], 𝑣 = [𝑥, 2𝑥], |𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣| = 6
c) 𝑢
⃗ = [3𝑥, 7], 𝑣 = [5𝑥, 𝑥], |𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣| = 10𝑥
d) 𝑢
⃗ = [−2𝑥, 3𝑥], |𝑢
⃗| = 6
e) 𝑢
⃗ = [𝑥, −4𝑥], 𝑣 = [3𝑥, 2𝑥], |𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣| = 8
f) 𝑢
⃗ = [5, 𝑥], 𝑣 = [−𝑥, −6𝑥], |𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣| = 9𝑥
⃗ = [𝑥 + 1, 𝑥], 𝑣 = [𝑥, 𝑥 − 5] and |𝑢
g) 𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑣| = √50

*16. The points 𝑃(0, 0), 𝑄(3, 0), 𝑆(2, 3) are three vertices of the parallelogram 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆. Determine the coordinates of point R.

*17. Let 𝑎 = [3 − 4] and 𝑏⃗ = [−6, 𝑘].

a) Determine the value of 𝑘 such that |𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ | = |𝑎| + |𝑏⃗ |. What is the relationship between the two vectors for this result to be true?
b) Determine the value of 𝑘 such that |𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ | < |𝑎| + |𝑏⃗ |. What is the relationship between the two vectors for this result to be true?

The Dot Product

For two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, the dot product is defined as 𝒂 ⃗ = |𝒂
⃗ ·𝒃 ⃗ | 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽, where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ when the
⃗ ||𝒃
vectors are arranged tail to tail, and 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°. The dot product is a scalar, not a vector, and the units depend on the
application.

Example
Determine the dot product of each pair of vectors.

4 / 20
Properties of the Dot Product
1. For non-zero vectors 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣, 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 are perpendicular if and only if 𝑢
⃗ · 𝑣 = 0. That is, if 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 are perpendicular, then
𝑢
⃗ · 𝑣 = 0, and if 𝑢
⃗ · 𝑣 = 0, then 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 are perpendicular.
2. For any vectors 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣, 𝑢⃗ ·𝑣 =𝑣·𝑢
⃗ . This is the commutative property for the dot product.
2
3. For any vector 𝑢
⃗, 𝑢 ⃗ = |𝑢
⃗ ·𝑢 ⃗| .
4. For any vectors 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 and scalar k for all real numbers, (𝑘𝑢
⃗ ) · 𝑣 = 𝑘(𝑢
⃗ · 𝑣) = 𝑢
⃗ · (𝑘𝑣 ). This is the associative property for
the dot product.
5. For any vectors 𝑢
⃗ , 𝑣, and 𝑤
⃗⃗ , 𝑢
⃗ · (𝑣 + 𝑤
⃗⃗ ) = 𝑢
⃗ ·𝑣+𝑢
⃗ ·𝑤
⃗⃗ and, because of the commutative property, (𝑣 + 𝑤
⃗⃗ ) · 𝑢
⃗ =𝑣·𝑢
⃗ +𝑤
⃗⃗ ·
𝑢
⃗ . This is the distributive property for the dot product.

Example
Use the properties of the dot product to expand and simplify each expression.
a) (𝑘𝑢
⃗ ) · (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣)
b) (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣) · (𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣)

The Dot Product for Cartesian Vectors

The dot product can also be defined for Cartesian vectors. Let 𝑎 = [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ] and 𝑏⃗ = [𝑏1, 𝑏2]. The dot product is:
⃗ · ⃗𝒃 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝒂

Example
Calculate 𝑢
⃗ · 𝑣.
a) 𝑢
⃗ = [5, −3], 𝑣 = [−4, 0]
b) 𝑢
⃗ = [−2, 9], 𝑣 = [−1, −7]

Example
Prove the property algebraically that 𝑎 · 𝑎 = |𝑎 |2 for any vector 𝑎.

Geometrically, the dot product can be found by using the formula 𝑎 · 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏⃗ | cos 𝜃
Algebraically, the dot product can be found by using the formula 𝑎 · 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2
If two vectors are perpendicular, the angle between them is 90°. Therefore, the dot product of the two vectors is 0. Vice versa.

5 / 20
Example
a) Find a vector that is perpendicular to 𝑢
⃗ = [3, −2]. Verify that the vectors are perpendicular.
b) Determine the value of 𝑘 so that 𝑢⃗ = [𝑘, 3] and 𝑣 = [𝑘, 2𝑘] are perpendicular.
c) Determine the value of 𝑘 so that the vectors 𝑎 = [𝑘, −2, 1] and 𝑏⃗ = [3𝑘, 2, −5] are perpendicular
d) If 𝑢
⃗ = [3, −4] and 𝑣 = [6, 𝑘], and 𝑢
⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑣, determine the value of 𝑘.

Practice
1. Calculate the dot product for each pair of vectors. Round answers to one decimal place.

e) |𝑢
⃗ | = 850, |𝑣| = 400, 𝜃 = 58°
f) |𝑢
⃗ | = 16, |𝑣| = 2|𝑢
⃗ |, 𝜃 = 153°

2. Calculate the dot product of each pair of vectors.

a) 𝑢
⃗ = [2, 4], 𝑣 = [3, −1]
b) 𝑢
⃗ = [−5, −7], 𝑣 = [3, 4]
c) 𝑢
⃗ = [9, −3], 𝑣 = [3, −13]
d) 𝑢
⃗ = [−6, 7], 𝑣 = [9, 2]
e) 𝑢
⃗ = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗, 𝑣 = 9𝑖 − 7𝑗
f) 𝑢
⃗ = 4𝑖 + 𝑗, 𝑣 = −𝑖 − 𝑗

3. Let 𝑢
⃗ = [−3, −5], 𝑣 = [−6, 4], and 𝑤
⃗⃗ = [4, 2]. Evaluate each of the following, if possible. If it is not possible, explain why
not.
a) 𝑢
⃗ · (𝑣 + 𝑤
⃗⃗ )
6 / 20
b) 𝑢
⃗ · 𝑣 − 𝑣 · 𝑤
⃗⃗
c) (𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣 ) · (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣)
d) 𝑢
⃗ = 3𝑣 · 4𝑤
⃗⃗
e) −3𝑣 · (2𝑤
⃗⃗ )
f) 5𝑢
⃗ · (2𝑣 − 𝑤
⃗⃗ )
g) 𝑢
⃗ · 𝑣 · 𝑤
⃗⃗
h) (3𝑢
⃗ − 2𝑣) · (3𝑤
⃗⃗ + 2𝑢
⃗)
i) 𝑢
⃗ · 𝑢
⃗
j) 𝑣 · 𝑣 − 𝑤
⃗⃗ · 𝑤
⃗⃗

4. a) Which of the following is a right-angled triangle? Identify the right angle in that triangle
i) ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 for 𝐴(3, 1), 𝐵(−2, 3), 𝐶(5, 6)
ii) ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 for 𝐴(4, 6), 𝐵(−3, 7), 𝐶(−5, −4)
b) Describe another method for solving the problem in part a)

5. Given 𝑎 = 3𝑖 + 𝑚𝑗 and 𝑏⃗ = −4𝑖 + 2𝑗, determine the value of 𝑚 in each case

a) 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are perpendicular
b) 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are parallel
c) The angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, when placed tail to tail, is 60°

*6. If 𝑢
⃗ , 𝑣 and 𝑤
⃗⃗ are non-zero vectors such that 𝑢
⃗ · (𝑣 + 𝑤
⃗⃗ ) = 𝑣 · (𝑢
⃗ − 𝑤
⃗⃗ ), prove that 𝑤
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to (𝑣 + 𝑢
⃗)

*7. If 𝑢 ⃗⃗ are non-zero vectors such that (𝑢

⃗ , 𝑣 and 𝑤 ⃗ · 𝑣) 𝑤
⃗⃗ = (𝑣 · 𝑤
⃗⃗ ) 𝑢
⃗ , prove that 𝑤
⃗⃗ and 𝑢
⃗ are parallel.

2 2
*8. Prove that 4𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ | − |𝑎 − 𝑏⃗ | for any vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗.

Application of Dot Product

In physics, the dot product is used to find the work.

If the coordinates of two vectors are given, we can find the angle between the two vectors by equating the two equations; that is
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = |𝒂 ⃗|
⃗ ||𝒃

Example
Angela has entered the wheelchair division of a marathon race. While training, she races her wheelchair up a 30-m hill with a constant
7 / 20
force of 500 N applied at an angle of 30° to the surface of the hill. Find the work done by Angela.

Example
Determine the angle between the vectors in each pair.
a) 𝑢
⃗ = [5, 4] and 𝑣 = [−3, −8]
b) 𝑢
⃗ = [−3, 2] and 𝑣 = [4, −2]

Vector Projections
⃗ on 𝒖
You can think of a vector projection like a shadow. Think of the projection of 𝒗 ⃗ as the shadow that 𝑣 casts on 𝑢
⃗ . If the
angle between 𝑣 and 𝑢
⃗ is less than 90°, then the projection of 𝑣 on 𝑢
⃗ , or 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑢⃗ 𝑣 , is the vector component of 𝑣 in the
direction of 𝑢⃗ . If the angle between 𝑣 and 𝑢 ⃗ is between 90° and 180°, the direction of 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑢⃗ 𝑣 is opposite to the direction of
𝑢
⃗ . If 𝑣 is perpendicular to 𝑢⃗ , then 𝑣 casts no “shadow.” So, if 𝜃 = 90°, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑢⃗ 𝑣 = ⃗0.

Example
a) Find the projection of 𝑣 on 𝑢
⃗ if 0 < 𝜃 < 90°.
b) Find 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑢⃗ 𝑣 if 90° < 𝜃 < 180°.

Vector Projection Equation

The projection of 𝑣 on 𝑢
⃗ , where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑣 and 𝑢
⃗ , is:
𝟏
⃗ = |𝒗
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝒖⃗⃗ 𝒗 ⃗ |𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 (|𝒖| 𝒖
⃗ ) → Geometrically
⃗⃗

Or
⃗𝒗 · 𝒖
⃗⃗
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝒖⃗⃗ ⃗𝒗 = ( ) ⃗𝒖 → Algebraically
⃗⃗ · 𝒖
𝒖 ⃗⃗

Example
Find the Projection of One on Another
a) |𝑢
⃗ | = 6, |𝑣| = 1, 𝜃 = 50°
b) |𝑢
⃗ | = 30, |𝑣| = 15, 𝜃 = 120°
c) |𝑢
⃗ | = 5.8, |𝑣| = 13.4, 𝜃 = 180°
d) |𝑢
⃗ | = 4.0, |𝑣| = 6.1, 𝜃 = 90°
e) 𝑢
⃗ = [2,3], 𝑣 = [1,4]

Example
Given 𝑢 ⃗⃗ = [4, 2, −1] calculate
⃗ = [−2, 3, 1] and 𝑤
a) 𝑢
⃗ +𝑤
⃗⃗
b) A unit vector opposite to 𝑢
⃗
8 / 20
c) 𝑢
⃗ ∙𝑤
⃗⃗
d) The angle between 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑤
⃗⃗
e) 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑢⃗ 𝑤
⃗⃗

Example
A shoe store sold 50 pairs of Excalibur shoes and 75 pairs of Camelot shoes in a year. Excalibur shoes sell for $125 and Camelot
shoes sell for $225.
a) Write a Cartesian vector, 𝑠, to represent the numbers of pairs of shoes sold.
b) Write a Cartesian vector, 𝑝, to represent the prices of the shoes.
c) Find the dot product 𝑠 · 𝑝. What does this dot product represent?

Practice
1. In each case, calculate the angle between the vectors in each pair, and determine the projection of the first vector on the second.
a) 𝑢
⃗ = [6, −1], 𝑣 = [11, 5]
b) 𝑢
⃗ = [2, 7], 𝑣 = [−4, −3]
c) 𝑢
⃗ = [−2, −5], 𝑣 = [−5, 1]
d) 𝑢
⃗ = [10, −3], 𝑣 = [9, −4]
e) 𝑢
⃗ = [7, 8], 𝑣 = [4, 3]
f) 𝑢
⃗ = [−2, −8], 𝑣 = [6, −1]
g) 𝑢
⃗ = [−7, 2], 𝑣 = [−6, −11]
h) 𝑢
⃗ = [−2, 3], 𝑣 = [9, −6]

2. Given the vectors 𝑎 = [−2, 5, 1], 𝑏⃗ = [3, 2, 0], and 𝑐 = [1, −3, −1], find
a) 3𝑎 − 2𝑏⃗
b) 𝑏⃗ ∙ 𝑐
c) A unit vector in the opposite direction of 𝑎
d) A vector orthogonal to both 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗
e) The angle between 𝑎 and 𝑐
f) 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑐 𝑏⃗

*3. Determine the angles of 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 for 𝐴(3, 6), 𝐵(8, −7), and 𝐶(−10, −3).

*4. Consider the parallelogram with vertices 𝐴(−1, −1), 𝐵(3,2), 𝐶(10, −1), and 𝐷(6, −4). Find the acute angle at which the
diagonals of the parallelogram intersect.

5. A factory worker pushes a package along a broken conveyor belt from (−4, 0) to (4, 0) with a 50-N force at a 30° angle to the
conveyor belt. How much mechanical work is done if the units of the conveyor belt are in meters?

6. A box is pulled 22 m along level ground by a 90 N force applied at an angle of 40° to the ground. It is then pulled up a 6 m ramp
by the same force. If the ramp is inclined at 25° to the ground, find the total work done.

*7. A force 𝐹 of 100 N acts in the direction 𝑎 = [0, −1, 0]. Find the work done by 𝐹 in moving an object from 𝐴 = (1, −5, 2) to
𝐵 = (4, 0, 2)

*8. A rock climber pulls himself 21m up the side of stairs that is 8m long and inclined at 50°. How much work is done against gravity
9 / 20
9. The points 𝑃(−8, −3), 𝑄(−3,4) and 𝑅(8, −2) are three vertices of parallelogram 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆.
a) Find the coordinates of S.
b) Find the measures of the interior angles of the parallelogram, to the nearest degree.
c) Find the measures of the angles between the diagonals of the parallelogram, to the nearest degree.
d) Repeat the above for the points 𝑃(−2, 1), 𝑄(−6, 4), and 𝑅(4, 3)

*10. The town of Oceanside lies at sea level and the town of Seaview is at an altitude of 84 m, at the end of a straight, smooth road
that is 2.5 km long. Following an automobile accident, a tow truck is pulling a car up the road using a force, in newton, defined by the
vector 𝐹 = [36 000, 12 000].
a) Find the force drawing the car up the hill and the force, perpendicular to the hill, tending to lift it.
b) What is the work done by the tow truck in pulling the car up the hill?
c) What is the work done in raising the altitude of the car?
d) Explain the differences in your answers to parts b) and c).

11. A crate is dragged 5 m along a smooth level floor by a 50-N force, applied at 30°to the floor. Then, it is pulled 4 m up a ramp
inclined at 20° to the horizontal, using the same force. Then, the crate is dragged a further 3 m along a level platform using the same
force again. Determine the total work done in moving the crate.

12. An electronics store sells 40-GB digital music players for $229 and 80-GB players for $329. Last month, the store sold 125 of the
40-GB players and 70 of the 80-GB players.
a) Represent the total revenue from sales of the players using the dot product.
b) Find the total revenue in part a).

13. The town of C is 95m above sea level and the town of V is 178m above sea level. The two towns are 4.8km apart along a straight,
smooth road. A family decides to move from C to V. they pack all their belongings in a trailer hitched to their SUV. The SUV pulls
the trailer up the road using a force, in newton, defined by the vector 𝐹 = [25 000, 14 000].
a) Find the force drawing the trailer up the hill and the force, perpendicular to the hill, tending to lift it.
b) What is the work done by the SUV in pulling the trailer up the hill?
c) What is the work done in raising the altitude of the trailer?
d) Explain why your answers to parts b) and c) are different

*14. A car enters a curve on a highway. If the highway is banked 10° to the horizontal in the curve, show that the vector
[cos 10° , sin 10°] is parallel to the road surface. The 𝑥-axis is horizontal but perpendicular to the road lanes, and the y-axis is vertical.
If the car has a mass of 1000 kg, find the component of the force of gravity along the road vector. The projection of the force of
gravity on the road vector provides a force that helps the car turn. (Hint: The force of gravity is equal to the mass times the
acceleration due to gravity.)

*15. A ramp is inclined at 12° to the horizontal. A cart is pulled 8 m up the ramp by a force of 120 N, at an angle of 10° to the
surface of the ramp. Determine the mechanical work done against gravity. Would it be the same as the work done pulling the cart up
the ramp? Explain.

*16. Prove (𝑏⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗ )𝑎 − (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ )𝑏⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑏⃗

*17. Determine |𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣| given |𝑢
⃗ | = 12, |𝑣| = 18, and |𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣| = 23
10 / 20
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ on 𝐶𝐷
*18. Given the points 𝐴(4,7), 𝐵(5,8), 𝐶(−3,2), and 𝐷(1,4), and 𝑞 , which is the vector projection of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , show that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑞 | ≤ |𝐴𝐵
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − m𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | for all 𝑚 ∈ 𝑅. Interpret the meaning of the result.

A 3-D coordinate system will have 3 axis, which are 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧. The right-handed system states if you curl the fingers of your right
hand from the positive x-axis to the positive 𝑦-axis, your thumb will point in the direction of the positive 𝑧-axis.

3-D Cartesian Vectors

Let 𝑣 represent a vector in space. If 𝑣 is translated so that its tail is at the origin, O, then its tip will be at some point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1, 𝑧1 ).
Then, 𝑣 is the position vector of the point P, and 𝑣 = 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = [𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ].

Unit Vectors
As in two dimensions, we define the unit vectors along the axes. The unit vector along the 𝑥-axis is 𝑖 = [1, 0, 0], the unit vector
along the y-axis is 𝑗 = [0, 1, 0], and the unit vector along the 𝑧-axis is 𝑘⃗ = [0, 0, 1]. From the diagram, and the definition of unit
vectors, you can see that 𝑖, 𝑗, and 𝑘⃗ all have magnitude, or length one.

As with 2-D vectors, 3-D vectors can be written as the sum of multiples of 𝑖, 𝑗, and 𝑘⃗.

Magnitude of a Vector
On a 3-D Cartesian plane, consider the vector 𝑢
⃗ = [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]. The magnitude of the vector 𝑢
⃗ is:
|𝑢
⃗ | = √(𝑎)2 + (𝑏)2 + (𝑐)2

Example
For each vector below,
i) Sketch the position vector
ii) Write the vector in the form 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘⃗
iii) Find the magnitude
a) 𝑢
⃗ = [3, −5, −8]
b) 𝑣 = [−2, 0, −4]

Vector Addition, Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication

For vectors 𝑢
⃗ = [𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ] and 𝑣 = [𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3] and scalar 𝑘, for all real number,
• 𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣 = [𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2, 𝑢3 + 𝑣3 ]
• 𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣 = [𝑢1 − 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 − 𝑣2, 𝑢3 − 𝑣3 ]
• 𝑘𝑣 = [𝑘𝑣1 , 𝑘𝑣2 , 𝑘𝑣3 ]

11 / 20
Vector between Two Points
The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 from point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) to point 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2, 𝑧2 ) is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 = [𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ]

Magnitude of a Vector between Two Points

The magnitude of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 between the points 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑃 2 2
1 𝑃2 | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2

Example
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝑖, 𝑗, and 𝑘⃗.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ as an ordered triple. Then, write 𝐴𝐵
a) Given the points 𝐴(13,5, −2) and 𝐵(−1, 10, 15), express 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
b) Determine the magnitude of 𝐴𝐵
c) Determine a unit vector, 𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
⃗ , in the direction of 𝐴𝐵

The Dot Product for 3-D Cartesian Vectors

For two 3-D Cartesian vectors, the dot product of 𝑢
⃗ = [𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ] and 𝑣 = [𝑣1 , 𝑣2, 𝑣3 ] is:
⃗ ·𝒗
𝒖 ⃗ = 𝒖𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒖𝟑 𝒗𝟑

Example
Given the vectors 𝑢
⃗ = [−2, 5, −5], 𝑣 = [8, −4, 8], and 𝑤
⃗⃗ = [−6, 0, 4], simplify each vector expression.
a) −3𝑣
b) 𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣 − 𝑤
⃗⃗
c) |𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣|
d) 𝑢
⃗ ·𝑣

Example
Determine if the vectors 𝑢
⃗ = [−6, −2, −4] and 𝑣 = [9, 3, 6] are collinear.

Example
a) Prove that two non-zero vectors 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 are orthogonal , or perpendicular, if and only if 𝑢
⃗ · 𝑣 = 0.
b) Find a vector that is orthogonal to [0, −4, 1].

Example
Prove that 𝑖, 𝑗, and 𝑘⃗ are mutually orthogonal using the dot product.

Example
A crane lifts a steel beam upward with a force of 15000 N. At the same time, two workers push the beam with forces of 600 N toward
the west and 650 N toward the north. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the beam.

Practice
1. Express the following as a sum of unit vectors. Then draw each position vector.
a) [−1, 5, −6]
b) [3, −3, 3]
c) [0, −2, −4]

2. Express each vector in the form [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]. Then draw each position vector.
a) 3𝑖 + 9𝑗
12 / 20
b) −5𝑖 − 2𝑘⃗
c) 7𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 9𝑘⃗

3. Write the vector in the form [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧]. Then find the magnitude.
a) 𝐴(2, 5, 3), 𝐵(5, 2, 2)
b) 𝐴(−1, −7, 2), 𝐵(−3, −2, −5)
c) 𝐴(0, 0, 6), 𝐵(0, −5, 0)
d) 𝐴(3, −4, −1), 𝐵(6, 1, 5)

4. a) The initial point of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑀𝑁 = [2, 4, −7] is 𝑀(−5, 0, 3). Determine the coordinates of the terminal point, N.
b) The terminal point of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐸 = [−4, 2, 6] is 𝐸(3, 3, 1). Determine the coordinates of the initial pint, D.

5. Find 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑢

⃗ and 𝑣 are collinear.
a) 𝑢
⃗ = [𝑎, 3, 6], 𝑣 = [−8, 12, −𝑏]
⃗ = 𝑎𝑖 − 2𝑗, 𝑣 = −3𝑖 − 6𝑗 + 𝑏𝑘⃗
b) 𝑢

6. Determine the value(s) of 𝑘 such that 𝑢

⃗ and 𝑣 are orthogonal.
a) 𝑢
⃗ = [4, 1, −3], 𝑣 = [1, −5, −𝑘]
b) 𝑢
⃗ = [𝑘, 3, 6], 𝑣 = [5, −𝑘, 8]
c) 𝑢
⃗ = [1, 7, 2𝑘], 𝑣 = [𝑘, 4, 𝑘]

7.a) For what value(s) of 𝑎 are the vectors 𝑢

⃗ = [3, 𝑎, 9] and 𝑣 = [𝑎, 12, 18] collinear?
b) For what value(s) of 𝑎 are these vectors perpendicular?

8. Given the vectors 𝑢

⃗ = [−4, 1, 2], 𝑣 = [−2, 0, −3], and 𝑤
⃗⃗ = [1, −1, 5], simplify each vector expression.
a) 7𝑢
⃗
b) 𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣 − 𝑤
⃗⃗
c) 𝑣 + 𝑤
⃗⃗ − 𝑢
⃗
d) 𝑤
⃗⃗ − 𝑣
e) 3𝑢
⃗ − 2𝑣 + 4𝑤
⃗⃗
f) 𝑢
⃗ · 𝑤
⃗⃗
g) 𝑣 · (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑤
⃗⃗ )
h) 𝑣 · 𝑤
⃗⃗ − 𝑢
⃗ · 𝑤
⃗⃗
i) (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣) · (𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣)

9. Identify the type of triangle with vertices 𝐴(2, 3, −5), 𝐵(−4, 8, 1), and 𝐶(6, −4, 0).

10. Determine the angle between the vectors 𝑔 = [6, 1, 2] and ℎ⃗ = [−5, 3, 6]

*11. Consider the Cartesian vectors 𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑣 = ⃗0, then 𝑣 = −𝑢

⃗ and 𝑣, in three-space. Prove the following statement: if 𝑢 ⃗

*12. Use the dot product to prove that the sum of the squares of the diagonals of a parallelogram equals the sum of the squares of its
sides.

13. An airplane takes off at a ground velocity of 300 km/h toward the west, climbing at an angle of 14°. A 50-km/h wind is blowing
13 / 20
from the north. Determine the resultant air and ground velocities. Include a diagram in your solution.

*14. The CN Tower is 553 m tall. A person is south of the tower, in a boat on Lake Ontario at a position that makes an angle of
elevation of 11° to the top of the tower. A second person is sitting on a park bench, on a bearing of 060° relative to the tower,
observing the top of the tower at an angle of elevation of 10°. Determine the displacement between the two people.

*15. A projectile is launched from the origin at an angle of 𝜃 above the positive 𝑦-axis. Its position is affected by a crosswind and
can be determined using the vector equation [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] = [𝑤𝑡, 𝑣𝑡 cos 𝜃 , 𝑣𝑡 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2 ], where 𝑣 is the initial speed, in meters per
second; 𝑡 is the time, in seconds; w is the wind speed, in meters per second; and g is the acceleration due to gravity, in meters per
square second.
a) Determine the position at time 𝑡 of a ball thrown from Earth for each scenario.
i) Initial speed of 20 m/s at an angle of 20° to the horizontal, with a crosswind blowing at 5 m/s
ii) Initial speed of 8 m/s at an angle of 35° to the horizontal, with a crosswind blowing at 2 m/s
b) Calculate the position after 1 s for each scenario in part a).
c) Calculate the position after 3 s for each scenario in part a).
d) Determine the position of the ball at its maximum height for each scenario in part a).

16. The electron beam that forms the picture in an old-style cathode ray tube television is controlled by electric and magnetic forces in
three dimensions. Suppose that a forward force of 5.0 fN (femto-newtons) is exerted to accelerate an electron in a beam. The
electronics engineer wants to divert the beam 30° left and then 20° upward.
a) Determine the magnitude of the component of the force to the left.
b) Determine the magnitude of the upward component of the force.
c) Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the electron.

17. The Eiffel Tower is 324m tall. Denise is at a caféwest of the tower. She is looking up at the tip of the tower at an angle of
elevation of 35°. Daniel is in a park, located on a bearing of 110° relative to the tower. He observes the top of the tower from an
angle of elevation of 17°. Determine the distance between Denise and Daniel.

*18. Three vertices of a parallelogram are 𝐷(2, 1, 3), 𝐸(−4, 2, 0), and 𝐹(6, −2, 4). Find all possible locations of the fourth vertex.

*19. The points 𝑃(−1,2,4), 𝑄(−5,5,1) and 𝑆(5, −2,1) are three vertices of parallelogram PQRS.
a) Find the coordinates of R
b) Find the measures of the interior angles of the parallelogram, to the nearest degree.
c) Find the measures of the angles between the diagonals of the parallelogram, to the nearest degree.

The Cross Product Rule

In general, the cross product of two vectors 𝑢 ⃗ = (|𝒖
⃗ ×𝒗
⃗ and 𝑣 is defined as 𝒖 ⃗ ||𝒗 ̂ , where θ is the angle between 𝑢
⃗ | 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽) 𝒏 ⃗ and
𝑣 and 𝑛̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 such that 𝑢
⃗ , 𝑣, and 𝑛̂ form a right-handed system.

To determine the magnitude of 𝑢

⃗ × 𝑣, consider the parallelogram formed by 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣. The area of the parallelogram formed by 𝑢
⃗
and 𝑣 is equal to the magnitude of the cross product of 𝑢 ⃗ | = |𝒖
⃗ ×𝒗
⃗ and 𝑣, which is |𝒖 ⃗ ||𝒗
⃗ | 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.

14 / 20
We use the right hand rule to determine the orientation of the cross product.

Example
If |𝑢
⃗ | = 30, |𝑣| = 20, the angle between 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 is 40°, and 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 are in the plane of the page, find
a) 𝑢
⃗ × 𝑣
b) 𝑣 × 𝑢
⃗

Example
Determine the direction of the following cross products.
a) 𝑖 × 𝑗
b) 𝑗 × 𝑘⃗
c) 𝑘⃗ × 𝑖

The Cross Product in Cartesian Form

Let 𝑎 = [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ] and 𝑏⃗ = [𝑏1, 𝑏2, 𝑏3 ]. The cross product of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ is:
⃗ × ⃗𝒃 = [𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟑 − 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟏 − 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟑 , 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 ]
𝒂

Example
Consider the vectors 𝑎 = [3, 1, −2], 𝑏⃗ = [4, 3, 0], and 𝑐 = [−1, 2, 4].
a) Find 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗.
b) Confirm that 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ is orthogonal to 𝑎 = [3, 1, −2] and 𝑏⃗ = [4, 3, 0].
c) Determine 𝑎 × (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐) and 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 × 𝑐. What do you notice?
d) Determine (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ ) × 𝑐 and 𝑎 × 𝑐 + 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 . What do you notice?

Example
Prove that, for two non-zero vectors 𝑢 ⃗ × 𝑣 = ⃗0 if and only if there is a scalar 𝑘 such that 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣, 𝑢 ⃗ = 𝑘𝑣.

15 / 20
Properties of the Cross Product
⃗ , 𝑣, and 𝑤
For any vectors𝑢 ⃗⃗ and any scalar 𝑘,
• 𝑢
⃗ × 𝑣 = −(𝑣 × 𝑢
⃗)
• 𝑢
⃗ × (𝑣 + 𝑤
⃗⃗ ) = 𝑢
⃗ × 𝑣 + 𝑢
⃗ × 𝑤
⃗⃗
• (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣) × 𝑤
⃗⃗ = 𝑢
⃗ × 𝑤
⃗⃗ + 𝑣 × 𝑤
⃗⃗
• If 𝑢 ⃗ × 𝑣 = ⃗0 if and only if there is a scalar 𝑘 such that 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 are non-zero, 𝑢 ⃗ = 𝑘𝑣.
• 𝑘(𝑢⃗ × 𝑣) = (𝑘𝑢 ⃗) × 𝑣 = 𝑢 ⃗ × (𝑘𝑣)

⃗ × 𝑣 = (|𝑢
Geometrically, the cross product is defined as 𝑢 ⃗ ||𝑣| sin 𝜃) 𝑛̂, where 𝑛̂ is the unit vector orthogonal to both 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣,
following the right-hand rule for direction, and 𝜃 is the angle between the vectors.

Algebraically, if 𝑎 = [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ] and 𝑏⃗ = [𝑏1, 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ]. Then the cross product of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ is: 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = [𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 𝑏1 −
𝑎1 𝑏3 , 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 ]

The magnitude of the cross product vector is |𝒖 ⃗ | = |𝒖

⃗ ×𝒗 ⃗ ||𝒗
⃗ | 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 also calculates the area of the parallelogram defined by 𝑢
⃗
and 𝑣.

Example
a) Determine the area of the parallelogram defined by the vectors 𝑢
⃗ = [4, −5, 2] and 𝑣 = [−3, 2, 0].
b) Determine the angle between vectors 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣.

Practice
1. Determine 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ and 𝑏⃗ × 𝑎 for each pair of vectors. And then confirm the cross product is orthogonal to both 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ .
a) 𝑎 = [3, −2, 9], 𝑏⃗ = [1, 1, 6]
b) 𝑎 = [6, 3, 2], 𝑏⃗ = [−5, 5, −9]
c) 𝑎 = [−8, 10, 3], 𝑏⃗ = [2, 0, −5]
d) 𝑎 = [4.3, 5.7, −0.2], 𝑏⃗ = [12.3, −4.9, 8.8]
⃗ = [5, −3, 7], 𝑣 = [−1, 6, 2]
e) 𝑢
⃗ = [−2, 1, 5], 𝑣 = [3, 2, 0]
f) 𝑢
⃗ = [4, −6, 2], 𝑣 = [6, 8, −3]
g) 𝑢

2. Given 𝑎 = [2, −3, 1], 𝑏⃗ = [−1, 5, 3], and 𝑐 = [4, 5, −6], evaluate each of the following.
a) 𝑎 × (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐)
b) (𝑐 + 𝑏⃗ ) × 𝑎
c) 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ − 𝑎 × 𝑐
d) 𝑎 × 5𝑎
e) |𝑎 × 𝑐 |
f) |𝑏⃗ | × |𝑎 − 𝑐 |
16 / 20
g) |𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ | × |𝑏⃗ × 𝑐|

3.. Solve the following

a) Determine two vectors that are orthogonal to both 𝑎 = [4, 6, −10] and 𝑏⃗ = [−2, 10, 7].
⃗ = 3𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 𝑘⃗ and 𝑣 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 4𝑘⃗
b) Determine a unit vector that is orthogonal to both 𝑢
c) If 𝑝 = [1, 2, −3] and 𝑞 = [2, −1, 4] , find a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑝 and 𝑞 .
d) Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to both 𝑝 = [2, 2, 2] and 𝑞 = [2, 6, −2] and makes an obtuse angle with the z-axis.
⃗ [−3, −2, 1]
e) Find a unit vector that is parallel to the 𝑦𝑧-plane and is perpendicular to the vector 𝑢
f) Determine two vectors, 𝑢 ⃗ and 𝑣, that are orthogonal to each other and also orthogonal to 𝑤
⃗⃗ = [3, −1, 2]
g) Find a vector that is perpendicular to 𝑝 = [1, −2, −2], and makes equal angles with 𝑖 and 𝑘⃗. Is there only one solution?

4. Determine the area of the parallelogram defined by each pair of vectors.

⃗ = [5, −3, 7], 𝑣 = [−1, 6, 2]
a) 𝑢
⃗ = [−2, 1, 5], 𝑣 = [3, 2, 0]
b) 𝑢
⃗ = [4, −6, 2], 𝑣 = [6, 8, −3]
c) 𝑢
⃗ = [1, −4], 𝑣 = [3, 5]
d) 𝑢
⃗ = [−3, 2, 0], 𝑣 = [6, −4, 2]
e) 𝑢
⃗ = [6, 8, 9], 𝑣 = [3, −1, 2]
f) 𝑢
g) Use the cross product to describe when the area of a parallelogram will be zero.

*5. a) Show that the quadrilateral with vertices at 𝑃(0, 2, 5), 𝑄(1, 6, 2), 𝑅(7, 4, 2) and 𝑆(6, 0, 5) is a parallelogram.
b) Calculate its area.
c) Is this parallelogram a rectangle? Explain.

*6. Calculate the area of the triangle shown

7. Use the cross product to determine the angle between the vectors 𝑎 = [4, 5, 2] and 𝑏⃗ = [2, 6, −10]. Verify using the dot
product.

*8. A parallelogram has area 85 𝑐𝑚2. The side lengths are 10 cm and 9 cm. What are the measures of the interior angles?

*9. a) If 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 are non-collinear vectors, show that 𝑢
⃗, 𝑢
⃗ × 𝑣, and (𝑢
⃗ × 𝑣) × 𝑢
⃗ are mutually orthogonal
b) Verify this property using vectors collinear with unit vectors
c) Use this property to determine a set of three mutually orthogonal vectors.

*10. Prove the statement

a) If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are collinear, then 𝑝 × 𝑞 = ⃗0
b) If 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 = 0
⃗ , then 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 = 𝑐 × 𝑎

*11. Prove that if 𝑤

⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑢
⃗ + 𝑛𝑣, 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅, then 𝑤
⃗⃗ · 𝑢
⃗ × 𝑣 = 0.
17 / 20
*12. Prove that for any vectors 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐 , 𝑎 · 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 = 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ · 𝑐

*13. Let 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, and 𝑐 be three vectors sharing a common starting point. The tips of the vectors form the vertices of a triangle. Prove
1
that the area of the triangle is given by the magnitude of the vector: 2
(𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ + 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 + 𝑐 × 𝑎) This vector is known as the

vector area of the triangle.

𝜋
*14. Suppose 𝑎 , 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐 are unit vectors such that 𝑎 × 𝑐 = 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 and the angle between 𝑎 and 𝑐 is 4 . If 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏⃗ , prove that

𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are perpendicular.

*15. If 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐 are distinct non-zero vectors, prove that 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎 × 𝑐 if and only if 𝑎 is parallel to 𝑏⃗ − 𝑐

*16. Solve the following

a) Given 𝑎 = [−5, 2, −3], 𝑏⃗ = [7, 𝑦, 1], and 𝑐 = [𝑥, −2, 𝑧], and 𝑎 × 𝑐 = 𝑏⃗
b) Find a different vector 𝑐 such that 𝑎 × 𝑐 = 𝑏⃗
c) Explain why there are infinitely many vectors 𝑐 such that 𝑎 × 𝑐 = 𝑏⃗

*17. Use the cross product to prove the sine law.

*18. Prove the following

2
a) For any vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, |𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ |2 + (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ ) = |𝑎|2 |𝑏⃗ |2

b) How is this result related to the Pythagorean theorem?

*19. A triangle has vertices 𝐴(−2, 1, 3), 𝐵(7, 8, −4) and 𝐶(5, 0, 2). Determine the area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 15, |𝐴𝐶

*20. Given ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 such that |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 12, and 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ · 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −100, determine the area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 to one decimal place.

Application of Cross Product

In physics, the cross product is used to find the torque, that is 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹 × 𝑑

Example
A wrench is used to tighten a bolt. A force of 60 N is applied in a clockwise direction at 80° to the handle, 20 cm from the center of
the bolt.
18 / 20
a) Calculate the magnitude of the torque.
b) In what direction does the torque vector point?

Example
Determine the projection, and its magnitude, of 𝑣 = [4, 2, 2] on 𝑢
⃗ = [6, 3, 1].

Example
A force with units in newton and defined by 𝐹 = [300, 400, 500] acts on an object with displacement, in meters, defined by 𝑑 =
[3, 10, 12].
a) Determine the work done in the direction of travel.
b) Determine the work done against gravity, which is a force in the direction of the negative 𝑧-axis.

The Triple Scalar Product

⃗ · ⃗𝒃 × 𝒄
Certain situations require a combination of the dot and cross products. The triple scalar product, 𝒂 ⃗ , is one such combination.
Because the dot product is a scalar, this combination is only meaningful if the cross product is performed first. It can be shown that the
volume of the parallelepiped can be found using the triple scalar product

Example
Consider the vectors 𝑎 = [4, 3, 2], 𝑏⃗ = [2, −5, 6], and 𝑐 = [0, −3, −4].
a) Evaluate the expression 𝑎 · 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐.
b) Evaluate 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 · 𝑎. Compare your answer to that in part a) and explain why this happens.
c) Explain the geometric significance of the result. (Hint: focus on the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the 3 vectors.)

Example
a) Use the cross product to describe when the area of a parallelogram will be zero. What does that mean geometrically.
b) Use the 𝑎 · 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 to describe when the area of a parallelepiped will be zero. What does that mean geometrically.

Practice
1. A force of 100 N is applied to a wrench in a counterclockwise direction at 60° to the handle, 15 cm from the center of the bolt.
a) Calculate the magnitude of the torque.
b) In what direction does the bolt move?

2. A wrench is rotated with torque of magnitude 100 𝑁 · 𝑚 . The force is applied 30 cm from the fulcrum, at an angle of 40°. What is
the magnitude of the force, to one decimal place?

3. When a wrench is rotated, the magnitude of the torque is 15𝑁 · 𝑚. A 75-N force is applied 25cm from the fulcrum (or pivot point).
19 / 20
At what angle to the wrench is the force applied?

4. A Force, 𝐹 = [3, 5, 12], in newton, is applied to lift a box, with displacement, 𝑠, in meters as given. Calculate the work against
gravity and compare it to the work in the direction of travel.
a) 𝑠 = [0, 0, 8]
b) 𝑠 = [2, 0, 10]
c) 𝑠 = [2, 1, 6]

5. Determine the projection, and its magnitude, of 𝑎 on 𝑏⃗.

a) 𝑎 = [3, 1, 1], 𝑏⃗ = [6, −2, 1]
b) 𝑎 = [5, −4, 0], 𝑏⃗ = [3, −7, 6]
c) 𝑎 = [−2, 5, 3], 𝑏⃗ = [4, −8, 9]

*6. A vertical force 𝐹 of 500N is applied to the pedal of a bicycle. The pedal is attached to an arm that is pivoted at a point, P. if the
pedal arm is 15cm, what is the magnitude of the moment, 𝑀 ⃗⃗ , about P in each case?
a) The pedal is horizontal
b) The angle between the force 𝐹 and the arm is 150°
c) The angle between the force 𝐹 and the arm is 60°

7. Find the volume of each parallelepiped, defined by the vectors 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, and 𝑐.
a) 𝑎 = [1, 4, 3], 𝑏⃗ = [2, 5, 1], and 𝑐 = [1, 2, 3]
b) 𝑎 = [−2, 0, 1], 𝑏⃗ = [3, −4, 2], and 𝑐 = [−1, −3, −5]
c) 𝑎 = [1, 1, 0], 𝑏⃗ = [0, 0, −4], and 𝑐 = [−2, 0, 5]
d) 𝑎 = [1, 1, 0], 𝑏⃗ = [−3, −3, 0], and 𝑐 = [−2, 0, 5]
e) 𝑎 = [1, 0, −4], 𝑏⃗ = [0, −3, 2], and 𝑐 = [2, −2, 0]

*8. Three edges of a right triangular prism are defined by the vectors 𝑎 = [1, 3, 2], 𝑏⃗ = [2, 2, 4], and 𝑐 = [12, 0, −6]
a) Draw a diagram of the prism, identifying which edge of the prism is defined by each vector.
b) Determine the volume of the prism.
c) Explain how your method of solving this problem would change if the prism were not necessarily a right prism.

*9. Prove that 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 is in the same plane as 𝑎, and 𝑏⃗.

1
*10. Prove that, for any vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ in three-space, 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ ) × (𝑎 − 𝑏⃗ ) = 𝑏⃗ × 𝑎

*11. Consider any vectors 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐 in three-space, prove that 𝑎 · 𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 = 𝑏⃗ · 𝑐 × 𝑎 = 𝑐 · 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗

2
*123. Given that is the angle 𝜃 between two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ in three-space, prove that (𝑎 · 𝑎) (𝑏⃗ · 𝑏⃗ ) − (𝑎 · 𝑏⃗ ) =

|𝑎 |2 |𝑏⃗ |2 sin2 𝜃

*13. Prove that for any two vectors in three space, |𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ | = √(𝑎 · 𝑎 ) (𝑏⃗ · 𝑏⃗ ) − (𝑎 · 𝑏⃗ )2

20 / 20