Module 4.

Genetics and Livestock Improvement

Introduction/Rationale
Genetic improvement therefore is synonymous with animal performance
improvement brought about by selection, assuring the environment is favorable.
For selection to be effective, a systematic method by which animals possessing
genetic superionity is identified should be enforced. This system of recognition
should be flexible enough to incorporate all the available records of the individual
animal plus its relatives in order for genetic superiority recognition to be accurate.
The success of a selection prograrm therefore rests on sound record keeping and
reliable evaluation of the genetic worth of an animal.

Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students/learners should be able to:

1. Discuss the importance and role of genetics in the improvement of farm

animals;
2. Discuss the functions of genes and theories influencing heredity:
3. Discuss the different systems of breeding; and
4. Discuss the advantages of artificial insemination.

Lesson 1. Genes and their Role in Animal Productivity

Before the nature of inheritance was understood, people believed

that similarities and differences among individuals occur because of intervention
of supernatural beings, maternal impressions and other environmental factors. For
all many speculations about the basis of variation among individuals and the
nature by which characteristics are transmitted from parents to offspring, it was
only in 1865 that the scientific basis of inheritance was laid. At that time, Gregor
Mendel, an Austrian scientist conducted breeding experiments on garden plants,
formulated and published his hypothesis about the mechanics of inheritance of
characteristics in plants. But the work of Mendel remained unknown. It was only
in 1901 when the work of Mendel was rediscovered, that the modern concept of
inheritance started to be understood and accepted. In 1906, Bateson, an English
biologist studied the inheritance of certain characteristics of the chicken, showed
that the mendelian laws also applied to animals. In 1909, Johansen, a Danish

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biologist coined the term "gene" to refer to the parliculate factor that Mendel
hypothesized as the basic unit of inheritance.
Gene maybe defined as a segment of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
which determines the base sequence of nucleotide in the messenger ribonucleic
acid (m-RNA) that makes up the code for a certain biological function. The DNA
is a biochemical compound consisting of a chain of nucleotides caled
polynucleotide. The DNA is a biochemical compound consisting of a chain of
nucleotides called polynucleotide. Each nucleotide consists of a phosphate (P).
a sugar (S), and a base (B). the coding system of the gene is based on the
arrangement of the four bases guanine (G), adenine (A), thymine (T) and cytosine
(C). Amino acids which are building blocks of proteins are known to be coded by
specific combinations of three bases.

Genetics

I t is the branch of biology 1hat deals with the principles of heredity and
variation in allivings things.

The folowing are the great contributors to the field of Genetics:

1) Gregor Mendel (1866) - FATHER OF GENETICS

- an Austrian scientist who conducted breeding experiments on

garden peas (Pisum safivum L

- and published his hypothesis about the mechanics of inheritance

of characteristics in plants.
-that hereditary characteristics were determined by elementary
factors (now called GENES).

2) Wiliam Bateson (1906) an English biologist who studied the

inheritance of characteristics of the chicken

- he also showed that the Mendelian laws also applied to

animals
3) Johannsen (1909) - a Danish biologist, coined the term "gene" to
refer to the particulate factor that Mendel hypothesized as the basic
unit of inheritance.

4) James Watson and Francis Crick (1956) two young scientist of

Cambridge, University of England, hypothesized the chemical nature
and function of the gene which is now universally accepted.

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 5). HUGO de Vries(in Netherlands), Carl Correns (in Germany) and rick
Von Tshermark (in Austria) independently rediscovered the works of
Mendel in 1901.

Genes
Maybe defined as a segment of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which
determines the base sequence of nucleofide in the messenger ribonucleic
acid (m-RNA) that makes up the code for a certain biological function

DNA-is a biological compound consisting of a chain of nucleotides called

polynucleotide

Functions of Gene

1. Store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell and from parents
to offspring.
2. Copy or replicate itself with great consistency and precision, and
3. Undergo mutation or error in copying which would subsequently be
copied and replicated

The genetic information that is stored must be decoded and translated

into action in the developing individual. The manner by which the genetic
information is transmitted from cell to cell is made possible through somatic
cell division (mitosis). The transmission of the genetic materials from parents
to offspringis made possible through the reduction division of germinal cells
(meiosis) and subsequent union of the gametes.
In spite of the consistency and the precision by which the gene copies
itself, mistakes, evenif they are rare, occur. These mistakes are copied and
become incorporated as part of the genetic information itself. Such
mistakes are called mutations. If the mutation occurs in the somatic cell
then it is transmitted only from cell to cell in the same individual. But if it
occurs in the germinal cell, then it may transmit to the next generation.

Mitosis versus Meiosis

Cells divide and reproduce in two ways, mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis results in two
identical daughter cells, whereas meiosis results in four sex cells. Below we
highlight the keys differences and similarities between the two types of cell
division.

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Differences

Mitosis

Involves one cell division

Results in two daughter cells
Results in diploid? daughter cells (chromosome? number remains the
same as parent cel)
Daughter cells are genetically identical
Occurs in all organisms except viruses
Creates all body cells (somatic?) apart from the germ cels (eggs and
sperm)
Prophase is much shorter
No recombination/crossing over occurs in prophase.

In metaphase individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up

along the equator.
During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.

Meiosis

Involves two successive cell divisions

Results in four daughter cells
Results in haploid" daughter cels (chromosome number is halved from
the parent cell)
Daughter cells are genetically different
Occurs only in animals, plants and fungi
Creates germ cells (eggs and sperm) only

Prophase I takes much longer

Involves recombination/crossing over of chromosomes in prophase
In metaphase I pairs of chromosomes line up along the equator.
During anaphase I the sister chromatids move together to the same pole.
During anaphase ll the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.

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Similarities

Mitosis

Diploid parent cell

Consists of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
In metaphase individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up
along the equator.
During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.
Ends with cytokinesis.

Meiosis

Diploid parent cell

Consists of interphase, prophase, metaphase. anaphase and telophase
(but twicel!)
In metaphase ll individual chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) line up
along the equator.
Duing anaphase ll the sister chromatids are separated to opposite poles.
Ends with cytokinesis.

Mitosis- the manner by which the genetic information is transmitted from

cell to cell is made possible through somatic cell division.

Meiosis-the transmission of the genetic materials from parents to offspring

is made possible through the reduction division of germinal cells and subsequent
union of the gametes.

Chromosomes it is the part of the cell that contains the hereditary

materials.

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Common Species of Domesticated Animals and their Chromosome
Numbers

Species Chromosome Number

Pig. Sus scrofa 40

Sheep, Ovis Aries 54
Cattle, Bos taurus 60
Cat, Felis maniculata 38
Dog. Cahis familiaris 78
Chicken, Gallus domesticus 77.78
Turkey, Meleagris gallopavo 81,82
Pigeon, Columbia livia 79,80

The role of Phenotype and Environment on the Phenotypic

Expression
The mechanics by which the gene is able to synthesize protein in the cell
underlies the relationship among the genotype (G) and the environment (E) in
the formation of the phenotype (P) of the organism. The genotype refers to the
specific combination of genes that are associated with a particular characteristic
of the individual. The environment is the totality of non-genetic factors affecting
the individual. The phenotype is the observable manifestation of a given
character of an individual. This may be expressed mathematicaly as P = G+F+
(GxE)where Gx E- is the interaction between the genotype of the individual and
the environment under which the animal is raised. In farm animals, the
accumulation of and proper combination among the genes that are favorable
to the expression of superior performance is the object of breeding. Similarly,
provided with a well-balanced and nutritious feed, good housing and other
favorable environmental factors is the aim of good husbandry practices. The
effect of Gx E interaction becomes significant when certain genotypes performn
well under certain environments that other genotypes.

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Lesson 2. The Mechanics of Inheritance
The flow of the genetic material from generation to generation is made
possible by reproduction. Animal reproduction involves two processes:
gametogenesis and fertilization. Gametogenesis is the process of producing T
cells. The male produces sperm cells (spermatogenesis) and the female
produces eggs (oogenesis).
a. Gametogenesis and fertilization. Individual animal is provided with
specialized organs which are responsible for the formation of the
reproductive cells. These cells serve as the vehicles for the for the
fransmission of the genetic material from parents to their offsprirng (Figure
1).

FEMALE
FEMALE
PARENT PARENT

GERM GERM
CELLS CELLS

CHROMOSOMES CHROMOSOMES
AND GENES AND GENES

OFFSPRING

Figure 1. Flow of genetic materials from parents to offspring

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 In the juvenile stage, the primordial germ cell remains in the diploid stage.
As the incividual reaches' maturity, the reproductive cells undergo meiosis, a
process by which the germinal cells divide to produce haploid cells carrying only
one-half of the gametic complement of the individual. Iin the males, the haploid
reproductive cells eventually develop into sperm cells and in the females the ova
or egg cells is oogenesis.

During mating the male deposits the sperm cells into the reproductive tract
of the female. When the female has shed an egg or eggs from the ovary into the
oviduct, chances are that a sperm cell will successfully penetrate through the
walls of the ovum. When that happens, fertilization takes place and fertilized egg
now would contain one-half of the genetic complement of each of the mates.
The fertilized egg then undergoes active cell multiplication or mitosis to form the
zYgofe (Figure 2).

Primondial cor a

tnaticta

Figure 2. Gametogenesis in the male and female

Mendelian Inheritance and Probability

The random process of chromosome combination during meiosis coupled
with the random combination of the male and female gametes during fertlization

IMGARCIA/DSCARIASO/RBBARRAMEDA/AJALAGLIVA/ADLDUMPIT 140
promotes the generation of genotypes that are different from those of the two
parents. The role of the chromosomes in inheritance was formulated by Mendel
refered to as Mendelian laws:

1. Law of Segregation. Characters are determined by pair of genes. In the

formation of gametes, these factors are segregated so that only one of
the pair is transmitted by a particular gametee

2. Law of Independence. In the formation of gametes, members of one

pair of genes segregate independently of other pairs.

A r praus proauce
yollow round seeds (V'yRr)

F, Generation

LAW OF SEGREGATION Meiosis LAW OF INDEPENDENT

The two alleles for each gene ASSORTMENT Alleles of genes
soparate during gamete on nonhomologous
formation. Metaphas
chromosomes assort
independently during gemete
formation.

Anaphase

Metophase I1

Gametes

One of the most important implications of Mendel's indings is that- the

process of segregation and recombination of genes is governed purely by
chance and that the occurrence of each new combination may be
predicted according to the rules of probability.

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Non-Mendelian Inheritance
After the discovery of Mendel's law of inheritance, other biologists
conducted breeding experiments and found that the inheritance of some
characters did not follow the Mendel's law. Some of the important characters are
controlled by genes in the sex-chromosomes and those that are linked in the
same chromosomes.

1. Sex-linkage
-Higher forms of organisms like farm animals cary a pair of sex
chromosomes in addition to the autosomes.
The sex chromosomes determines the sex of the individual
-The autosomes cary the genetic material but do not determine the sex.
- Depending on the species, the transmission of the specific kind of sex
chromosomes determines the sex of the offspring.

.These types of sex-chromosomes are the following:

Sex Chromosome Pair

Class of Animal Male Female

Mammals XY XX

Birds 12 ZW

Example:
Mating of Cattle:

Bull XY

Cow XX

So: XYX XX

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*
These are the possible combinations as a result of the mating:
Genotype Phenotype of offspring

1.XX Female
2. XX Female
3. XY Male

4. XY Male
Or: The mating of XY x XX will result to:

-2 Females (XX)

2 Males (XY)

Theories Influencing Heredity

A. Monohybrid Cross - This is a cross involving a single pair of alele.

1. Dominance Theory - According to this theory, the presence of at least

one dominant one dominant gene expresses the dominant character.

Example: Let B represent Black and b represents white

a. BB bb
(Black) (White
B b

Mendel's Square:
b
B Bb Bb
B Bb Bb

Genotypic Ratio: 4 Bb or all Bb

Phenotypic ratio: 4 Black or all Black

D. Bb Bb

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 (Black) (black)
B b
b b

Mendel's Square:
B b

B BB Bb
b Bb Bb
Genotypic ratio: 1 BB: 28b: 1bb
Phenotypicratio: 3 Black 1White

Example 2.

Let P-represent polled

p-honed

a. PP Pp
(polled) (horned)

Mendel's Square:

P Pp Pp
P Pp Pp

Genotypic ratio: Pp
Phenotypic ratio: 4 polled

2. Incomplete Dominance the more the dominance genes, the higher is the
intensity of the expression of the dominant character.

Example:
Let R represents red
and r represents white

a. RR

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 (red) (white)
R

Mendel's Square:

R Rr Rr
R Rr Rr

Genotypic ratio: 4 Rr
Phenotypic ratio: 4 roan

b. Rr X

(roan) (white)
R

Mendel's Square:

R Rr Rr

Genotypic ratio: 2 Rr: 2 r

Phenotypic ratio: 2 roan: 2 white

B. Dihybrid test cross. A cross which involves two character differences

separable in inheritance.

1. Combs in fowls which exemplifies the complimentary gene theory.

Example:
a. RRpp rrPP
(rose) (pea
Rp P

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 Mendel's Square:

rp p
Rp RpPp RrPp
Rp RrPp RrPp
Genotypic ratio: 4 RrPp
Phenotypic ratio: 4 walnut

b. RrPp RrPp
(walnut) (walnut)
RP RP
Rp Rp
rP rP
p rp

Mendel's Square:

RP Rp P rP
RP RRPP RRPp Rr P RrPp
Rp RRPp RRpp RrPp Rrpp
rP RrPP RrPp rrPP rrPp
rp RrPp Rrpp rPp rrpp

Genotypic ratio: 1 RRPP: 1 RRpp 2RrPP : 4RrPp 2 RRPp

2Rrpp IPP 2rrPp 1 rrpp

Phenotypic ratio 9 walnut 3 rose 3 pea: 1 single comb

2. Dominance theory:

Let P - polled
p - horned

B - black

b white

Example: a. PPBB X Ppbb

(polled.black) (horned, white)
PB pb

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 Mendel's Square:

pb pb pb pb
PB PpBb PpBb PpBb PpBb
PB PpBb PpBb PpBb PpBb
PB PpBb PpBb PpBb PpBb
PB PpBb PpBb PpBb PpBb

Genotypic ratio: 16 PpBb or 1 PpBb

Phenotypic ratio: 16 black, polled or 1 black, polled

3. Davenports theory of skin color inheritance exemplifyving the additive gene

action.

Example:
a. AABB X aabb
(black) (white)
AB ab
Mendel's Square:

ab
AB AaBb

Genotype ratio: 1 AaBb

Phenotypicratio: l mulatto

Example
p. AaBb X AaBb
(mulatto) (mulatto)
AB, Ab, aB, ab AB, Ab. aB, ab

Mendel's Square:

AB Ab aB ab
AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb
Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb
aB AaBB AaBb AaBB aaBb
ab AaBb Aabb aaBa aabb

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 Genotype ratio: 1 AABB 2 AABb 1 AAbb 2AaBB
4 AaBb: 2 Aabb: 1 AaBB 2 aaBb :
1 aabb

Phenotype ratio: 1 black:4 dark 6 medium (mulatto)

4 light:1 white

C. Trihybrid Cross- This is a cross involving three pairs of genes

Let:
epistatic genes
C hyperstatic genes
O- hyperstatic genes
1ICCOO X iCcOO
(white) (black)
ICO ICO
ICo ocO

Mendel's Square:
iCO icO
ICO liCCOO liCcOO
ICo liCCOo liCcOo

Genotype ratio 1 liCCoo: 1 liCCOo 1 liCcOo: 1 iCcOo

Phenotype ratio: 4 white

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2. Autosomal linkage

Genes that are more closely

linked tend to be inherited together Example: Autosomal Linkage
more often than those that are When two genes are found on the same chromosome and
therefore inherited together (unless chiasmata form betwen)
located further apart in the same
Phenotypes of Purple, 10 Purple, long
chromosome. parents

Genotypes ofparents
C.m
abae DIn
Cametes PLp
This is because
during the PL
prophase stage of meiosis, when PLL Ppll
the chromosomes double
segments of the homologous EXPLANATIONE Te genes for colu
chromosomes uSUally cross-over Purple, nd ength are on te sne
chromosome, so they wil dlaays te
and exchange segments. Red, short: 1 3:1 mented together (turless crossing over
ocaur) in the same combinaion as in
the parert ce
The longer is the distance
between genes in the
chromosome the more likely that cross-over will take place between them.

3. Non-nuclear Inheritance

In animals, non-nuclear or cytoplasmic inheritance is quite rare not like in plants.

In plants, the chlorophyl-bearing plastids are caried in the cytoplasm.

There are some evidences however, that cytoplasmic genetic material affecting
milk production may be present in cattle.

4. Maternal Influence

Other than the genetic materials in the chromosomes and the possibility that there
may be genetic materials in the cytoplasm, the mother could further influence the
characteristics of her offspring because of the matenal care she provides to her
young.

Maternal effect forms part of the total environment of the individual.

Self- Check

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Lesson 3. Genes in Population
Population - is a group of individuals sharinga common gene pool.

Gene pool - is the totality of the genes that could potentialy be transmitted by
individuals in a population to the next generation.

These characteristics, however, may change from one generation to the next
depending on the many factors that affect them.

Factors affecting the genetic composition of population

a. Selection - is a process in which certain genotypes contribute more progeny in

the next generation than other genotypes.

-may take place because of natural forces (natural selection) or

because of the intervention of man (artificial selection).
b. Migration- is a process in which individuals from one population transfer to
another population

C. Mutation i s a spontaneous change in the biochemical structure of the gene

resulting in an entirely different phenotypic effect.

d. Non-random mating occurs when some individuals do not have the same
chances of mating with individuals of the opposite sex.

Animal Breeding
Animal breeding is the art and science of the genetic improvement of farm
animals. The general objectives are:

a. Improve the quantity of production of farm animals and of their products per
unit of time.
b. Improve the efficiency of production of farm animals and of their products.
C. Improve the quality of farm animals and their products.
d. Improve the aesthetic value of farm animals and their products.

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Systems of Breeding
a. Inbreeding is a form of non-
NBRNEEDINGR
random mating or a special
A= Dominant allele a Reccesive deleterious allele
case of assortative mating
where individual that are AA
related by ancestry are mateed
together. The effect of
rtreedng OUtreedng
inbreeding is to increase the AA Aa Aa
frequency of homozygous
genotypes at the expense of
the heterozygote.

Study.com
b. Crossbreeding refers to the mating between animals of different established
breed. It can also apply to the mating between groups of animals of diverse
genotypes such as between varieties and lines of animals. In contrast to
inbreeding, crossbreeding increases the frequency of heterozygote at the
expense of the homozygote. Crossbreeding results to large improvement in the
average performance of the FI progeny over that of the parents. This
improvement is called hybrid vigor or heterosis effect. (See ilustration below.

IMGARCIADSCARIASO/RBBARRAMEDA/AJALAGLIVA/ADLDUMPIT 151
 Marhd ot; 43 *ke geagere ; 45 kmdestam se tres

The three breed erom is obrsines wten sli the temsles from a two areed eross
re mted 1o a b.ti oM a third, unreted breed Al the theee breret cross geogey
3re meted.

Three Breeds Cross

Reproduction and Genetic Improvement of Animals

Animal reproduction involves the physical and physiological processes in
both sexes leading to the egg by the sperm cell and the subsequent
development of the young.

Artificial Insemination is a process of inducing fertlization in the female

reproductive tract without the benefit of sexual contact between the male and
female animal. The semen is USUally collected from the male, the collected semen
is then processed and then introduced manually into the reproductive tract of an
actively ovulating female. The benefits are:

a. The number of females that could be mated by a single male is increased.

b. Sexually-transmitted diseases are minimized.
C. Males that are physically unable to mate naturaly may still be used for
breeding.
d. The accuracy of evaluating the breeding value of a male is increased.

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Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer Technology
Multiple ovulation is a process by which the female animals is induced to
simultaneously ovulate more eggs than what is normally shed. Embryo transfer is
a technique wherein a young embryo is collected from a donor female parent
and then implanted in the uterus of a recipient female parent.

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