MIC206: Theory of Production Processes

Spring 2024-25

Instructor:

Dr. Shamik Basak (Office: #201, West Block, MIED, E-mail: shamik.basak@me.iitr.ac.in)

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India

Forming
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Forming: Sheet metal forming processes

Forming
101
 Anisotropy
Mechanical properties are different along different directions

Anisotropy of the material is defined by the ratio R which is known as

Lankford anisotropy parameter (R)

R = εw / εt

For isotropic material, R = 1.

εw = εt

Forming
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 Anisotropy
Planar anisotropy ΔR = (R0 - 2 R45 + R90) / 2

ഥ = (R0 + 2 R45 + R90) / 4

Average normal anisotropy 𝑹

For isotropic material,

R0 = R45 = R90 = 1.

High ΔR indicates
more anisotropy
exists in the sheet
metal

Forming
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 SHEET METAL OPERATIONS
 Metal Sheet is Generally a Plate with Thickness < about 5 mm.
 Various Operations Carried Out by Press Tools on Sheet Metals can be
Classified as:

Stress Induced Operations

Shearing Shearing, Blanking, Piercing, Trimming,
Shaving, Notching, Nibbling
Tension Stretch-Forming
Compression Ironing, Coining, Sizing, Hobbing
Tension and Drawing, Spinning, Bending, Embossing,
Compression Forming

Forming
SHF in automobile applications

Forming
105
 Applications of sheet forming products in real life

Aerospace components Household utensils Cans and package utensils

Beverage cans Automobile components

Forming
 SHEET METAL OPERATIONS INVOLVING SHEARING

SHEARING
 The Sheet is Brought to the Plastic Stage by Pressing it Between Two
Shearing Blades so that Fracture is Initiated at the Cutting Points.
 The Material Under the Upper Shear is Subjected to Both Compressive and
Tensile Stresses as shown in the Figure

Forming
 Various zones in Shearing
Different shearing zones in through thickness direction
• Rollover zone
• Burnish/shear zone
• Fracture zone
• Burr height

Forming
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BLANKING:
 Process of Removing a Portion of Material from the Stock (a Strip of Sheet
Metal of Necessary Thickness and Width) by a Punch.
 The Removed Portion is Called Blank and is Usually Further Processed to
be of Some Use, e.g., Blanking of a Pad Lock Key.
PUNCHING or PIERCING:
 Making Holes in a Sheet.
Blanking/Punching Die

 It is Identical to
Blanking Except that
the Punched Out
Portion Coming Out
Through the Die is the
Scrap.

 Generally a Blanking
Operation Follow a
Punching Operation.

Forming
TRIMMING:
 Removal or Trimming of the Flash
 Flash is the Small Amount of Extra Material Spread Out Near the Parting
Plane in Some Operations such as Drop Forging and Die Casting. The Flash
is to be Trimmed Before a Casting or Forging can be Used
SHAVING:
 Removal of the Burrs Left on Product during the Blanking or
Punching/Piercing Operation.
 The Burrs (which is Equal to the Clearance on the Die) are Generated in the
Shearing Process Preventing the Edge of the Blank or the Hole from being
Perfectly Clean.
 Therefore, for the Close Tolerance Work, the Blanking or Piercing Process
is Followed by Shaving.
NIBBLING:
 Removing the Material in Small Increments.
 To Cut/Generate a Specific Contour on a Sheet, a Small Punch is Used
Repeatedly Along the Necessary Contour.
 Nibbling is Used When the Contour is Long and a Separate Punch is
Impractical and Uneconomical.

Forming
NOTCHING:
 Cutting a Specified Small Portion of Material Towards the Edge of the
Material Stock.

Forming
 Shearing Dies: Compound Dies
• Several operations on the same strip may be performed in one stroke with a compound die in
one station.
• These operations are usually limited to relatively simple shearing because they are somewhat
slow and the dies are more expensive than those for individual shearing operations.

Forming
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 Shearing Dies: Progressive Dies
• Parts requiring multiple operations, such as punching, blanking and notching are made at high
production rates in progressive dies.
• The sheet metal is fed through a coil strip and a different operation is performed at the same
station with each stroke of a series of punches.

Forming
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 SHEET METAL OPERATIONS INVOLVING TENSION
STRETCH-FORMING
 In stretch forming, the Sheet is Clamped Around its Edges and Stretched
Over a Die or Over a Form Block, which Moves Upward, Downward or
Sideways Depending upon the Particular Machine.
 Complete Deformation is Carried Out in Plastic State only.

Forming
SHEET METAL OPERATIONS INVOLVING COMPRESSION
IRONING:
 Operation of Thinning the Side Walls and Increasing the Height.
 Die and Punch Set Used is Similar to that of Drawing Operation Except that
the Clearance Between the Die and Punch is Smaller than that Used in the
Drawing Operation.
 The Material Gets Compressed Between Punch and Die which Reduces the
Thickness and Increases the Height.

 The Wall
Thicknesses can
be Reduced to as
Much as 50% in a
Single Ironing
Operation.

Ironing Operation

Forming
 BENDING

Type of Bending Methods

Forming
 Stress Induced in a
Bent Specimen

Nomenclature of Bending Forming

BENDING
 Operation of Deforming a Flat Sheet Around a Straight Axis where the
Neutral Plane Lies.
 Due to the Applied Forces, the Top Layers are in Tension and Bottom
Layers are in Compression.
 The Plane with No Stresses is Called the Neutral Plane.
 The Neutral Axis should be at the Centre when the Material is Elastically
Deformed.
 But when the Material Reaches the Plastic Stage, the Neutral Axis Moves
Downward, since the Materials Oppose Compression much Better than
Tension.
 Beyond the Bend Lines, the Material is Not Affected.
 The Bend Allowance is the Arc Length of the Neutral Axis Between the
Bend Lines.
 Nomenclature of Bending and Type of Bending Methods are Shown in
Following Figures.

Forming
Other Bending Processes

Forming
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 SHEET METAL OPERATIONS INVOLVING both TENSION and
COMPRESSION
DEEP DRAWING
 Drawing is the Process of Making Cups, Shells, and Similar Articles from
Metal Blanks. In this case, the Cup Height is Less than Half the Diameter.
 When the Cup Height is More than Half the Diameter, the Drawing Process
is known as Deep Drawing.
 For Drawing Deeper Cups it is Necessary to Make Specific Provisions to
Confine the Material in Order to Prevent Excess Wrinkling of the Edges.
 For this Purpose, a Blank Holder is Normally Provided on All Deep
Drawing Dies.

Forming
Deep Drawing Operation

Forming
 Steps of deep drawing process

Step 1: Clamping of blank with the help of black holder

Step 2: Bending of the blank at the top die corner for the downward movement of
the punch
Step 3: Unbending of the blank Due to drawing the blank into the cavity
Step 4: Thickening at the top edge due to the compressive circumferential force
Step 5: Final deep drawn cup Forming
Blank Holding in Deep
Drawing

Forming
 Redrawing
• In many cases, the shape change involved in making that part will be severe (drawing ratio is very high).
• In such cases, complete forming of the part requires more than one deep drawing step.
• Redrawing refers to any further drawing steps that is required to complete the drawing operation.

• First draw: Maximum reduction of the starting blank - Reverse redrawing, the sheet part will
40% to 45% face down and drawing is completed in
• Second draw: 30%
• Third draw : 16% the direction of initial bend.

Forming
Metal-Forming Process for Beverage Can

Forming
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Metal-Forming Process for Beverage Can

Forming
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SPINNING
 Spinning is the Process for Making Axi-Symmetrical Cup Shaped Articles.
 A Rotating Blank is Held Against the Form Block and Gradually a Moving
Force is Applied on the Blank so that the Blank Takes the Shape of the Form
Block.
 Spinning Setup Consists of a Machine Similar to a Centre Lathe.
 In the Head Stock of the Spinning Machine, a Hard Wood Form Block
having the Shape of the Desired Part, is Fixed.
 Blank is Held Against the Form Block by Means of the Freely Rotating
Wooden Block From the Tail Stock.
 After Proper Clamping, the Blank is Rotated to its Operating Speed.
The Spinning Speed Depends on the Blank Material, Thickness and
Complexity of the Desired Cup.
 Then the Hard Wood or Roller Type Metallic Tool is Pressed and
Moved Gradually on the Blank so that it Conforms to the Shape of the
Form Block.
 Spinning is Comparable to Drawing for Making Cylindrical Parts.

Forming
Spinning Operation

Forming
Forming: Advanced forming processes

Forming
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 High Energy Rate Forming Processes
The application of large amounts of energy in a very short time interval for
deforming the material. These processes are known as high energy rate
forming (HERF) processes.

Many metals tend to deform more readily under extra – fast application of
load which make these processes useful to form large size parts out of
most metals including those which are otherwise difficult – to – form

Parts are formed at a rapid rate, and thus these processes are also called
high – velocity forming processes.

Forming
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 High Energy Rate Forming Processes
The forming processes are affected by the rates of strain used.

Effects of strain rates during forming:

1. The flow stress increases with strain rates
2. The temperature of work is increases due to adiabatic heating.
3. Improved lubrication if lubricating film is maintained.
4. Many difficult to form materials like Titanium and Tungsten alloys, can be deformed
under high strain rates.

Forming
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 Advantages
• Production rates are higher, as parts are made at a rapid rate.

• Capable of production of complex geometries.

• Suitable for job-shop, batch as well as mass production.

• Close tolerances can be maintained.

• Can be used for the processing of difficult to cut materials.

• Negligible spring back effect.

• Economically justifiable.

• Single step procedure is followed thus it eliminates any secondary steps to be

followed.

Forming
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 Limitations

• Highly skilled personnel are required from design to execution.

• Transient stresses of high magnitude are applied on the work.

• Not suitable to highly brittle materials.

• Source of energy (chemical explosive or electrical) must be handled carefully.

• Dies need to be much bigger to withstand high energy rates and shocks and to
prevent cracking.

• Controlling the application of energy is critical as it may crack the die or work.

Forming
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 High Energy Rate Forming Processes
There are three main high energy rate forming processes:

• Explosive forming
• Electro magnetic forming
• Electro hydraulic forming

Forming
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Explosive forming

Forming
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 Explosive forming
• Explosive forming, is distinguished from conventional forming in that the punch or
diaphragm is replaced by an explosive charge.
• Explosives used are generally high – explosive chemicals, gaseous mixtures, or
propellants.
A punch in conventional forming is replaced by an explosive charge.
Explosives used can be:
• High energy chemicals like TNT, RDX, and Dynamite.
• Gaseous mixtures
• Propellants.

Forming
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 Explosive forming

• Propellants and explosives are characterized by the following parameters:

• Heat of explosion: The amount of energy chemically bound in 1kg of an explosive,

• Detonation velocity: The velocity of the chemical reaction,

• Relative Effective Energy (REE): The coefficient of energetic efficiency of an explosive as

compared to the standard Nitroglykol efficiency.

Forming
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 Explosive forming
• The carrying medium is most often water or sand.
• There is a significant difference between the energy released by the explosive and the
energy required for the material deformation.
• There occurs a significant differences in terms of energy conversion from chemical to
pressure waves and the loss occurring in the transfer of energy to the environment.
• Loses describe efficiency of the process:

are overall, chemical, transfer and deformation efficiency of the process.

• The overall efficiency of explosive forming is around 10%.
• The equipment cost includes only the cost of die.
• This process can be used for forming materials with low formability.
• Extremely suitable for single part production.

Forming
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 Explosive forming

Factors affecting HERF process

• Size of work piece,
• Geometry of deformation,
• Behavior of work material under high strain rates,
• Energy source,
• Cost of die,
• Cycle time,
• Overall capital investment,
• Safety considerations.

Forming
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 Explosive forming
Types of explosive forming:

1) Unconfined type or Stand off technique

2) Confined type or Contact technique

Forming
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 Stand off technique: Sequence

Step 1: explosive charge is Step 2: Pressure pulse and gas bubble are
set in position formed as detonation of charge occurs

Step 3: Work piece is deformed Step 4: Gas bubbles vents at the surface of water

Forming
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 Stand off technique: Sequence
• It involves placing an explosive at a suitable distance from the work piece held on the die.
• The die is evacuated to create vacuum on the underside of the work piece.
• The conversion of chemical energy on detonation leads to generation of pressure waves
which are transferred through the water medium.
• The formation of gas bubble on detonation of the explosive expands spherically and then
collapses.
• The so generated pressure pulse impinges against the work
• Generation of high velocity i.e. 430km/h waves are generated.

Forming
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 Stand off technique
Working procedure:
• Sheet metal work piece blank is clamped over a die and the assembly is lowered into
a tank filled with water.
• Air in the die is pumped out.
• Explosive charge is placed at some predetermined distance from the work piece.
• On detonation of the explosive, a pressure pulse of very high intensity is produced.
• Gas bubble is also produced which expands spherically and then collapses.
• When the pressure pulse impinges against the work piece, the metal is deformed into
the die with as high velocity as 120 m/s.

Forming
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 Stand off technique

Role of water:

• Muffles the sound of explosion

• Acts as energy transfer medium
• Ensures uniform transmission of energy
• Cushioning/ smooth application of energy on the work without direct contact

Forming
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 Stand off technique

Process Variables:

• Work size
• Work material properties
• Vacuum in the die
• Type and amount of explosive: wide range of explosive are available.
• Stand off distance – SOD- (Distance between work piece and explosive):
Optimum SOD must be maintained.
• The medium used to transmit energy: water is most widely used.

Forming
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 Stand off technique

Advantages:
• Less noise
• Less probability of damage to work.
• Economical, when compared to a hydraulic press
• Large and thick parts can be easily formed
• Shock wave is efficiently transmitted through water and energy is transmitted
effectively on the work

Forming
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 Stand off technique
Limitations:
• Not suitable for small and thin works.
• Vacuum is essential and hence it adds to the cost.
• Dies must be larger and thicker to withstand shocks.
• Optimum SOD is essential for proper forming operation.
• Explosives must be carefully handled according to the regulations of the
government.

Applications:
• Ship building,
• Radar dish,
• Elliptical domes in space applications

Forming
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 Contact technique
Principle Cartridge

• The pressure pulse or shock wave

produced is in direct contact with the
work piece (usually tubular) and hence
the energy is directly applied on the
work without any water medium.
Die

• The tube collapses into the die cavity

and is formed. It is used for bulging Work piece
and flaring operations.
Enclosure

Forming
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 Contact technique
Principle:
• Explosive charge in the form of cartridge is
held in direct contact with the work piece
while the detonation is initiated.
• Detonation builds up extremely high
pressures (up to 30,000MPa) on the
surface of the work piece resulting in metal
deformation, and possible fracture.
• Process is used often for bulging tubes

Advantages
 There is no loss of energy.
Disadvantages
 Has limited applications in thick pipes.
 More chances of die failure.

Forming
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Thank you!

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