New Era University
#9 Central Avenue, New Era Quezon City,
Philippines
ASSIGNMENT # 4
Francisco Jame J.. DOP: April 17, 2025
CE 226- 18, 2CE – 2 DOS: May 8, 2025
Dr. Darius B. Vigan
Professor
1. Types of water quality test
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics
of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or
more biotic species, or to any human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by
reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through
treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to assess
water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, and drinking water.
The quality of the water you consume or use in municipal or industrial processes
must meet specific parameters. For instance, the EPA has set legal limits on
more than 90 different contaminants that can be found in water. These limits
are necessary to ensure that drinking water remains free from contaminants that
could cause health issues or the development of waterborne diseases.
When it comes to industrial facilities, there are times when water must be treated
to ensure that the quality is at an acceptable level for a wide range of essential
processes. There are three water quality parameters that help to measure the
quality of water, which include physical parameters, chemical parameters, and
biological parameters. The physical parameters include color, taste, odor,
temperature, turbidity, solids, and electrical conductivity.
On the other hand, chemical parameters can include pH, acidity, alkalinity,
chlorine, hardness, dissolved oxygen, and biological oxygen demand. The third
type of parameter involves biological parameters, which include bacteria, algae,
and viruses.
Physical Water Quality Parameters
Turbidity
Though less used than some of the other water quality parameters on this list,
turbidity refers to how cloudy water is. When you use Turbidity sensors, these
devices are designed to measure the ability that light has to pass through water.
High levels of turbidity can occur as a result of higher concentrations of silt, clay,
and organic materials. The main issue with turbidity in water is that the water will
look bad. No one wants to drink cloudy water. Several additional problems that are
caused by high turbidity include:
● Water treatment costs will be higher.
● High levels of particulates can act as a shield for harmful microorganisms, which
makes it more difficult to get rid of these contaminants.
● Suspended materials may damage fish gills, reduce growth rates, and decrease
resistance to diseases.
● Various suspended particles can act as adsorption media for mercury, cadmium,
lead, and other heavy metals.
● Dissolved oxygen concentration will likely decrease.
Temperature
Some of the aspects of water quality that are influenced by the water’s temperature
include odors, chemical reactions, solubility, palatability, and viscosity. As such,
biological oxygen demand, sedimentation, and chlorination all depend on the
water’s temperature. The ideal water temperatures range from 50-60 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Color
It’s possible for the color of the water to be altered by materials that decay from
organic matter, the primary of which include vegetation. Such inorganic matter as
rocks, soil, and stones may also affect the color of the water. Even though these
changes to a water’s color may create aesthetic issues with the water, they don’t
change how the water tastes. You can effectively measure color by comparing a
water sample to color glass disks or standard color solutions.
When you’re attempting to identify the color of water, it’s important to understand
the difference between the water’s apparent color and its true color. Apparent color
is made up of suspended material and dissolved solid colors. The true color of
water can be identified after all suspended materials have been filtered out of the
water. Keep in mind that color can be graded on a scale that ranges from 0-70
color units. Pure water contains no color units because it is essentially colorless.
Taste and Odor
It’s possible for the taste of water to change and for odors to develop as a result of
foreign matter being introduced to the water. This matter can include organic
materials, dissolved gases, and inorganic compounds. Most of this matter is
derived from agricultural, natural, and domestic sources.
Solids
Solids can be in suspension or in solution when they get into the water. If you put
a water sample through a glass fiber filter, suspended solids will remain at the top
of this filter. On the other hand, any dissolved solids will pass through and remain
in the water. When measuring the number of solids in water, it’s common for total
dissolved solids to be measured. You can identify how much organic matter is
present in the water by measuring for total dissolved solids. The three different
water classifications for total dissolved solids include:
● Freshwater – Less than 1,500 mg/L TDS
● Brackish water – 1,500-5,000 mg/L TDS
● Saline water – More than 5,000 mg/L TDS
Electrical Conductivity
Another core physical parameter that you should be aware of involves electrical
conductivity, which measures how well a sample of water or similar solution can
carry or conduct electrical currents. Conductivity levels will increase as the amount
of ions in the water increases.
This is one of the main parameters when measuring water quality because of how
easy it is to detect water contamination levels when measuring the conductivity of
water. High conductivity means that the water contains a high amount of
contaminants. On the other hand, potable water and ultra-pure water are
practically unable to conduct an electrical current. The main units of measurement
for electrical conductivity include micromhos/cm and milliSiemens/m, the latter of
which is abbreviated into mS/m.
Chemical Parameters of Water Quality
PH
When measuring the quality of water, pH is one of the first measurements that you
should take. The pH of water is measured with a simple pH sensor or test kit, which
will tell you how acidic or basic the water is. Acidic water will invariably be
comprised of more hydrogen ions. On the other hand, basic water contains more
hydroxyl ions.
It’s possible for pH levels to range from 0-14. If you receive a reading of 7.0, this
means that the water is neutral. Any readings below 7.0 are acidic, while any
readings above 7.0 are alkaline. Pure water has a neutral pH. However, rainfall is
somewhat more acidic and typically has a 5.6 pH. Water is considered to be safe
to drink if it has a pH of 6.5-8.5. The many effects that changing pH levels can have
on plants and animals include:
● The majority of aquatic plants and animals are able to live in water with a
specific pH, which means that slight changes could worsen quality of life.
● Slightly acidic water can irritate fish gills, damage membranes, and reduce
the number of hatched fish eggs.
● Water with extremely high or extremely low pH is fatal to aquatic plants and
animals.
● Low pH can kill amphibians because their skin is sensitive to contaminants.
Acidity
This refers to the measure of how much acids are in a specific solution. The water’s
acidity is the quantitative capacity that it has to neutralize a base at a certain pH
level. Acidity is commonly caused by the presence of mineral acids, hydrolyzed
salts, and carbon dioxide. When acids are introduced to water, they can influence
many different processes, which include everything from biological activities and
chemical reactions to corrosion. The acidity of water is measured with a pH sensor.
Alkalinity
Alkalinity indicates the water’s acid-neutralizing capacity. Likely the most common
reason to measure the alkalinity of a sample of water is to identify how much soda
and lime must be added to the water for water softening purposes. The water
softening process is particularly beneficial for mitigating corrosion in boilers.
In the event that water is alkaline, this means that it has a pH that’s at least higher
than 7.0. The presence of bicarbonate ions, carbonate ions, and hydroxide ions
increases the alkalinity of water. If you find that your water samples have high
alkalinity or acidity, this indicates that the water is contaminated in some way.
Chlorine
While chlorine doesn’t occur naturally in water, it’s commonly added to wastewater
for disinfection purposes. Even though base chlorine is a toxic gas, the aqueous
solution is completely harmless to humans. If a small amount of chlorine is found
in water, this indicates that the water is clean and essentially free from
contaminants. You can measure chlorine residual with a spectrophotometer or
color comparator test kit.
Hardness
Hardness occurs when water contains high mineral levels. If left untended, the
dissolved minerals in your water could create scale deposits on hot water pipes. If
you take a shower with water that has high mineral content, you may find it difficult
to produce a lather with the soap you’re using. Hardness in water is mainly caused
by the presence of magnesium and calcium ions, which can enter water from rock
and soil. In most cases, groundwater has more hardness to it than surface water.
You can measure water hardness with a colorimeter or test strip.
Dissolved Oxygen
This is a critical water quality parameter that can help you determine how polluted
rivers, lakes, and streams are. When water has a high concentration of dissolved
oxygen, you can be confident that the water quality is high. Dissolved oxygen
occurs because of the solubility of oxygen. The amount of DO that you can find in
water depends on numerous factors, the primary of which include the water’s
salinity, pressure, and temperature. It’s possible to measure dissolved oxygen
levels with a colorimeter or with the electrometric method.
Biological Oxygen Demand
Microorganisms like bacteria use organic matter as a source of food. When this
material is metabolized, oxygen is consumed. If this process takes place in water,
the dissolved oxygen in a sample of the water will be consumed. In the event that
there is a substantial amount of organic matter in the water, high amounts of
dissolved oxygen will be consumed in order to make sure that the organic matter
decomposes. However, this creates problems since aquatic plants and animals
require DO to survive. You can measure biological oxygen demand with the dilution
method. if the BOD levels are high, the water is contaminated.
Biological Parameters of Water
Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled plants that can ingest food and reproduce at rapid rates
if the water’s pH, food supply, and temperature are ideal. Because bacteria can
grow rapidly, it’s almost impossible to count the number of bacteria in a sample of
water. In most cases, bacteria will reproduce at a slow rate in colder water. There
are many harmful waterborne diseases that can be caused by high amounts of
bacteria in water, which include cholera, tularemia, and typhoid
Algae
Algae are tiny, microscopic plants that consist of photosynthetic pigments. These
plants are able to support themselves by effectively converting inorganic matter
into organic matter, which is done with energy from the sun. While this process is
ongoing, the algae consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
Algae are also essential in wastewater treatment processes that use stabilization
ponds. The main issues caused by algae include strange odors and poor taste
problems. Keep in mind that some species of algae can pose serious public health
risks. For instance, it’s possible for blue-green algae to kill cattle.
Viruses
Viruses are tiny biological structures that can be harmful to a person’s health. Only
strong electronic microscopes are able to view viruses. All viruses require
parasites to live. Because of how small viruses are, they are able to pass through
the majority of filters. Certain waterborne viruses can cause hepatitis and similar
health problems. Despite the difficulty in treating viruses, most water treatment
facilities should be able to eliminate viruses during the disinfection process.
A septic tank is a buried, watertight tank
designated and constructed to receive
and partially treat raw domestic sanitary
wastewater. Heavy solids settle to the
bottom of the tank while greases and
lighter solids float to the top. The solids
stay in the tank while the wastewater is
discharged to the drainfield for further
treatment and dispersal.
relatively large in overall footprint and
may not be suitable for all residential sites
Conventional System or conditions.
A conventional decentralized
wastewater treatment system consists of
a septic tank and a trench or bed
subsurface wastewater infiltration
system, known as a drainfield. A
conventional septic system is typically
installed at a single-family home or small
business.
The gravel/stone drainfield is a design
that has existed for decades. The effluent
is piped from the septic tank to a shallow
underground trench of stone or gravel. A
geofabric or similar material is then
placed on top of the trench so sand, dirt,
and other contaminants do not enter the
clean stone. Effluent filters through the
stone and is then further treated by
microbes once it reaches the soil below
the gravel/stone trench. Gravel/stone
systems are
Chamber System Drip Distribution System
The drip distribution system is a type of
gravel/stone system. The primary effluent dispersal that can be used in
advantage of the chamber system is many types of drainfields. The main
increased ease of delivery and advantage of the drip distribution system
construction. They are also well suited to is that no large mound of soil is needed
areas with high groundwater tables, as the drip laterals are inserted into the
where the volume of influent to the septic top 6 to 12 inches of soil. The
system is variable (e.g., at a vacation disadvantage of the drip distribution
home or seasonal inn), in an area where system is that it requires a large dose
gravel is scarce, or in areas where other tank after the septic tank to
technologies such as plastic chambers accommodate the timed dose delivery of
are readily available. wastewater to the drip absorption area.
Additional components, such as
This type of system consists of a series of electrical power, are necessary for this
connected chambers. The area around system, requiring an added expense and
and above the chambers is filled with soil. increased maintenance.
Pipes carry wastewater from the septic
tank to the chambers. Inside the
chambers, the wastewater comes into
contact with the soil. Microbes on or near
the soil treat the effluent.
Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs) use
many of the same processes as a
municipal sewage plant, but on a smaller
scale. An aerobic system injects oxygen
into the treatment tank. The additional
oxygen increases natural bacterial activity
within the system that then provides
additional treatment for nutrients in the
effluent. Some aerobic systems may also
have a pretreatment tank and a final
treatment tank including disinfection to
further reduce pathogen levels.
The benefits of this system are that it can
be used in homes with smaller lots,
inadequate soil conditions, in areas where
the water table is too high, or for homes
close to a surface water body sensitive to
contamination by nutrients contained in
wastewater effluent. Regular life-time
maintenance should be expected for
ATUs
Mound System
Mound systems are an option in areas of shallow
soil depth, high groundwater, or shallow bedrock.
The constructed sand mound contains a
drainfield trench. Effluent from the septic tank
flows to a pump chamber where it is pumped to
the mound in prescribed doses. Treatment of the
effluent occurs as it discharges to the trench and
filters through the sand, and then disperses into
the native soil.
While mound systems can be a good solution for
certain soil conditions, they require a substantial
amount of space and periodic maintenance.
Recirculating Sand Filter System
Sand filter systems can be constructed above
or below ground. Effluent flows from the septic
tank to a pump chamber. It is then pumped to
the sand filter. The sand filter is often PVC-
lined or a concrete box filled with a sand
material. Effluent is pumped under low
pressure through the pipes at the top of the
filter. The effluent leaves the pipes and is
treated as it filters through the sand. The
treated wastewater is then discharged to the
drainfield.
Sand filters provide a high level of treatment for
nutrients and are good for sites with high water
tables or that are close to water bodies, but
they are more expensive than a conventional
septic system.
Evapotranspiration System
Evapotranspiration systems have unique
drainfields. The base of the
evapotranspiration system drainfield is
lined with a watertight material. After the
effluent enters the drainfield, it evaporates
into the air. Unlike other septic system
designs, the effluent never filters to the soil
and never reaches groundwater.
Evapotranspiration systems are only useful
in specific environmental conditions. The
climate must be arid and have adequate
heat and sunlight. These systems work
well in shallow soil; however, they are at
risk of failure if it rains or snows too much.
Constructed Wetland System
A constructed wetland mimics the
treatment processes that occur in
natural wetlands. Wastewater flows
from the septic tank and enters the wetland
cell. The wastewater then passes through the
media and is treated by microbes, plants, and
other media that remove pathogens and
nutrients. The wetland cell typically consists
of an impermeable liner, and gravel and sand
fill, along with the appropriate wetland plants,
which must be able to survive in a perpetually
saturated environment. A wetland system
can work via either gravity flow or pressure
distribution
Cluster / Community System
A cluster (or community) decentralized
wastewater treatment system is under
some form of common ownership and
collects wastewater from two or more
dwellings or buildings. It conveys the
wastewater to a treatment and
dispersal system located on a suitable
site near the dwellings or buildings. It
is common to find cluster systems in
places like rural subdivisions.
New Era University
#9 Central Avenue, New Era Quezon City,
Philippines
ASSIGNMENT # 4
Guimary BG Hammer B. DOP: April 17, 2025
CE 226- 18, 2CE – 2 DOS: May 8, 2025
Dr. Darius B. Vigan
Professor
New Era University
#9 Central Avenue, New Era Quezon City,
Philippines
What is an estuary?
An estuary is where the ocean meets a river in a semi-enclosed area. This causes a
mixing of fresh and salt water. These areas are home to an immense amount of
biological productivity and diversity. Estuaries tend to be rich in nutrients and
productivity due to the trapping of nutrients and sediments.
Types of Estuaries
1. Coastal Plains
2. Fjords
3. Bar-Built
4. Tectonic
1. Coastal Plains/Drowned River Mouth:
In the past 18,000 years sea levels have risen
some 125m. This has caused ocean water to rise
into the mouths of rivers. (River mouths are the
"exits" of a river into a lake, ocean, etc).
Formation: Coastal plain estuaries are
created when sea levels rise and flood
existing river valleys. As a result, the
valleys become submerged, forming large
estuarine environments.
Characteristics:
o Typically shallow and wide.
o Gradually sloping shorelines with expansive, flat water areas.
o Common in regions experiencing rising sea levels.
o Water salinity fluctuates depending on freshwater input and tidal mixing.
o High biological productivity due to nutrient-rich waters.
Examples:
o Chesapeake Bay, USA
o Bay of Fundy, Canada
2. Fjords:
Fjords are steep, caused by glacial eroding. They
are U-shaped. Fjords are often very deep (300-
400m) but end in a shallow lip (a sill) due to
glacial deposits. Shallow sills mean little vertical
mixing below sill depth which causes stagnant
water. Deeper sill allow for slow bottom water
mixing.
Formation: Fjords are deep, glacially-carved
valleys that are flooded by rising sea levels.
They are typically narrow and deep.
Characteristics:
o Deep, narrow bodies of water.
o Surrounded by steep cliffs or mountains.
o Limited mixing between freshwater and saltwater, often resulting in
stratified water (saltwater at the bottom and freshwater on top).
o Generally nutrient-rich and host to a variety of aquatic species.
Examples:
o Sognefjord, Norway
o Kongsfjorden, Norway
3. Bar-Built:
Bar-built estuaries form when a barrier is built
parallel to the coast above sea level. These
estuarine habitats are shallow and have limited
tidal action due to a narrow inlet (connection to the
ocean). Mixing is primarily due to the wind
Formation: Bar-built estuaries are formed when
sandbars or barrier islands form along the coast,
trapping water behind them and creating sheltered
estuarine zones.
Characteristics:
o Shallow, protected waters that are somewhat separated from the open
ocean.
o Common in areas with gentle coastal slopes.
o These systems provide crucial habitats for marine species, including
nursery areas for fish.
Examples:
o Pamlico Sound, USA
o Cape Cod Bay, USA
4. Tectonic:
Tectonic estuaries are coastal indentations due to
faulting and subsidence. Both fresh and salt water flow
into the depression resulting in an estuary.
Formation: These estuaries are formed by tectonic
activity such as earthquakes, which cause the land to
sink and flood. This can result in the formation of deep,
enclosed water bodies.
Characteristics:
oDeep and sometimes narrow.
oOften have steep surrounding cliffs.
oCan have isolated ecosystems due to their unique
formation.
Examples:
o San Francisco Bay, USA
o La Plata River Estuary, Argentina
Formation: Deltas are formed at the mouth of rivers where sediments carried by
the river are deposited, causing the river to split into many smaller channels (also
called distributaries).
Characteristics:
o Flat, marshy areas with high sediment deposition.
o Rich in nutrients, making them highly productive and supporting many
species.
o Deltas are often home to wetlands and are critical for biodiversity,
including migratory birds.
Examples:
o Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, India and Bangladesh
o Nile Delta, Egypt
Estuaries can also be classified by the circulation patterns:
Salt Wedge:
This is the simplest circulation pattern
where a large, fast flowing river enters
the ocean in an area where the tidal
range is low to moderate. The rapidly
entering freshwater holds back a wedge
of salt water. The density difference allow
the freshwater to flow over the salt water.
The wedge of seawater will rise and fall
with the tide. Example: Mississippi River
Well-Mixed:
When the river flows more slowly into an area
with a moderate to high tidal range, a well-
mixed estuary is formed. These contain
differing mixtures of fresh and salt water
through most of their length. Disturbances
caused by the tide will stir the waters together.
Example: Columbia River
Partially Mixed:
Partially mixed estuaries share properties of
both the salt wedge and well-mixed
estuaries. These are typically deeper
estuaries where the greater tidal range allows
for more mixing than the salt wedge.
Example: San Fransisco Bay
Fjord:
Fjord circulation patterns are found in fjord
estuaries. These areas have small surface
areas, high river input and little tidal mixing.
River water tends to flow at the surface with
little contact with the sea water below. With
little mixing, the bottom layer can become
stagnant (little oxygen and few nutrients)
My research in philippines
Types of Estuaries and Examples in the Philippines
Type of
Description Example in the Philippines
Estuary
1. Coastal Formed when rising sea levels flood existing Pangasinan Estuary (Agno
Plain Estuary river valleys. Common and shallow. River)
Deep, narrow estuaries formed by glacial
2. Fjord ❌ Not present in the
activity; steep sides and limited mixing. Not
Estuary Philippines
common in tropics.
Formed when sandbars or barrier islands build
3. Bar-Built Laguna de Bay (connected to
up parallel to the coast, enclosing the water
Estuary Manila Bay via Pasig River)
behind them.
4. Tectonic Created by land subsidence due to tectonic Manila Bay (formed by
Estuary activity; large and deep estuarine basins. tectonic subsidence)
Estuary Types Based on Circulation Patterns
Type of Example in the
Description Circulation Pattern
Estuary Philippines
Strong freshwater flow over denser Cagayan River
Salt Wedge Stratified (little
seawater; distinct separation between Estuary, Northern
Estuary vertical mixing)
layers (a "salt wedge"). Luzon
Moderate mixing of freshwater and Semi-stratified Iloilo River
Partially
seawater; some vertical salinity (moderate vertical Estuary, Western
Mixed
gradient remains. mixing) Visayas
Strong tidal mixing with weak river Manila Bay – Pasig
Well-Mixed Fully mixed (no
inflow; uniform salinity throughout River Estuary,
Estuary stratification)
the water column. NCR
Deep, glacial valleys with limited
Fjord Highly stratified with ❌ Not applicable
mixing; dense seawater trapped at the
Estuary stagnant bottom water in the Philippines
bottom.
