1

IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

(CERTIFICATE IN AGRICULTURE)

Introduction

Irrigation involves artificially providing crops with water. This is done to enable plants to grow when there is not
enough rain, particularly in dry areas. A reliable and suitable irrigation water supply can result in vast
improvements in agricultural production and assure the economic vitality of the region. Many civilizations have
been dependent on irrigated agriculture to provide the basis of their society and enhance the security of their people.

Irrigated agriculture faces a number of difficult problems. One of the major concerns is the generally poor efficiency
with which water resources have been used for irrigation. A relatively safe estimate is that 40 percent or more of the
water diverted for irrigation is wasted at the farm level through either deep percolation or surface runoff.

Importance of Irrigation

The benefits of irrigation as compared to total dependence on rainfall may be listed as follows:-

 Increase in crop yield – The production of almost all types of crops can be increased by providing the right
amount of water at the right time. This is possible only through irrigation.

 Protection from famine – The availability of irrigation facilities in any region ensures protection against crop
failure and famine due to drought.

 Cultivation of superior crops – With assured supply of water for irrigation, farmers may think of cultivating
superior varieties of crops with higher yields.

 Elimination of mixed cropping – In rain-fed areas, farmers tend to cultivate more than one type of crop in the
same field. So that if rain is insufficient, at least one crop give yield. However due to competition, this reduces
overall production of the field.

 Domestic and industrial water supply – Some water from the irrigation canals may be utilized for domestic and
industrial water supply for nearby areas.

To understand why irrigations necessary one must understand Plant-Soil-Water relationship;

Plant – Water relationship

Water is essential in the plant environment for a number of reasons:-

a) Water transports minerals through the soil to the root where they are absorbed by the plant.

b) Water is the principle medium for the chemical and bio-chemical processes that support plant metabolism.

c) Under pressure within plant cells, water provides physical support for plants.

d) It also acts as a solvent for dissolved sugars and minerals transported throughout the plant.

e) Evaporation within inter-cellular spaces provides cooling to the plant.

 2

Soil – Water relationship

although it has been demonstrated that soil is not essential for plant growth (plants can grow hydroponically – in a
liquid medium), however plants usually grow in soil. So soil properties affect availability of water and nutrients to
plants.

Soil water affects plant growth directly through its controlling effect on plant water status and indirectly through its
effect on aeration, temperature and nutrient transport, uptake and transportation. The balance between the liquid and
gas phases is most critical as it regulates root activity and plant growth process

An active root system requires a delicate balance between the three soil components:-
- solid particles (minerals and organic matter)
- water and dissolved chemical
- air

The perspective of water balance at the field level

 3

Terms used in Crop water requirements

 Evaporation :- The change of water from liquid to vapour form. It occurs from all moist surfaces, including
soil, open water and plants

 Transpiration :- Loss of water by plant through small openings in the leaves called stomata.

 Evapotranspiration :- The sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the earth’s land surface to the
atmosphere.
i.e. evaporation + transpiration = evapotranspiration

Soil Moisture Principles

Important soil characteristics in irrigation include;

i. The water holding or storage capacity of the soil.

ii. The permeability of the soil to the flow of water and air.

iii. The physical features of the soil, like the organic matter content, depth, texture and structure

iv. The soil’s chemical property such as the concentration of soluble salts, nutrients and trace elements

Irrigation pumps

The heart of most irrigation systems is a pump. To make an irrigation system as efficient as possible, a pump must
be selected to match the requirements of the water source, water piping system and irrigation equipment. Pumps
used in irrigation include:-

 centrifugal pumps  submersible pumps

 deep well turbines pumps  hydram
 diaphragm pumps  reciprocating pumps

Selection of pump

Before selecting an irrigation pump, a careful and complete inventory of the conditions under which the pump will
operate must take place. The inventory must include:-

 the source of water (well, river, pond, etc.)

 the required pumping flow rate
 the total suction head
 the total dynamic head

There is usually no choice when it comes to the source of water. It is either surface or well water depending on local
geology and hydrological conditions. However flow rate and total dynamic head (TDH) will be determined by the
type of irrigation system, the distance from the water source and the size of the pumping system.

The terms head and pressure are used interchangeably. The unit of measure of pressure is the ‘Pascal’ (Pa) while
that of head is ‘meter’ (m). One meter of water column = 9.8kPa.

Head is frequently used in discussing pump installations because there will be vertical distance from water level to
pump and from pump to point of discharge.
 4

So the pump power requirements are established. This is the power required to be added to water as it moves
through a pump. The actual power required to run a pump will be higher than theoretically calculated because
pumps and drives are not 100% efficient.

The pump manufacturers determine by test the operating characteristics of their pumps and publish the results in
pump performance charts commonly called ‘pump curves’. All pump curves are plotted with the flow rate on the
horizontal axis and TDH on the vertical axis. In addition pump efficiency lines are added and wherever the
efficiency line crosses the pump curve lines, that number is what the efficiency is at that point.

So when the desired flow rates and TDH are known, these curves are used to select a pump.

Irrigation methods

In water application there, generally, are four methods:-

i) overhead irrigation iii) drip/trickle irrigation
ii) surface irrigation iv) subsurface irrigation

Overhead (sprinkler) irrigation

Water is supplied to crops by sprinklers in the form of a spray to mimic rain. Sprinklers may be a rotating head
mounted on vertical pipes, thus the water must pass through the sprinklers under high pressure. The system consists
basically of a water source a pump or pressure generator, pipe network, nozzle and a riser.

Advantages

1. There is even distribution of water over the irrigated area.

2. Involves less wastage of water than surface irrigation
3. Suited for sloppy ground
4. Soluble fertilizers can be applied together with irrigation water
5. Sprinklers can easily be moved from one point to another
6. Sandy soils can be irrigated within minimum distance of its top soil
7. It does not create drainage problems
8. It does not take much of the farm land

Disadvantages

1. Expensive in installation (e.g. buying of pipes, water pump, etc.)

2. Nozzles require very clean water supply, otherwise they easily get blocked by debris and silt
3. Encourages fungal diseases (e.g. blight, rust) due to water accumulation on leaves
4. It causes soil erosion if not properly controlled, especially on sloppy grounds.
5. May require establishment of wind breakers
6. Maintenance requires a lot of skill and is expensive
7. Unsuited for soils with low infiltration rates (e.g. heavy clays)
8. Has high power requirements

Layout of sprinkler irrigation system

The layout of main line and lateral lines is dependent on the slope and shape of the land or farm and location of
water source. A source of water near the centre of the area ensures the most economical combination use of pipes.

The laterals are laid at right angles to the main line and run across the slope, as nearly on the same level as possible,
to minimize variations in pressure. Usually the distance between laterals is kept at 12m as well as the distance
between two sprinklers, but factors affecting spacing of sprinklers are:-

a) Operating pressure
 5

b) Sprinkler irrigation rate

c) Amount of irrigation water required
d) Weather conditions
e) Soil type
f) Crop spacing
g) Topography
h) Overlap area

Water application rate

The water application rate has to be less than infiltration capacity of the soil to be irrigated. The maximum rate at
which water can be applied without causing pudding, capping or surface run-off is controlled by the nature of the
soil, crop grown and the topography of the area to be irrigated.

Water application in each irrigation

This is the amount of water to be applied in each irrigation. It depends on

 Available moisture in the soil (should not be more than 50%)

 Area to be irrigated in one setting
 Pattern of sprinkle
 Operating pressures

Sprinkler losses
Depend on:-  wind velocity  temperature  soil texture
 fineness of spray  humidity  vegetation cover

Surface irrigation system

Surface irrigation has evolved into an extensive array of configurations which can be broadly classified as:-

1) basin irrigation;
2) border irrigation;
3) furrow irrigation;
4) uncontrolled flooding.

There are two features that distinguish a surface irrigation system:-

(a) the flow has a free surface responding to the gravitational gradient; and
(b) the on-field means of conveyance and distribution is the field surface itself.

Each surface system has unique advantages and disadvantages depending on such factors as were listed earlier like:-

i) initial cost ii) size and shape of fields iii) soil characteristics
iv) nature and availability of the water supply v) climate vi) cropping patterns
vii) social preferences and structures viii) historical experiences

1. Basin irrigation
Basin irrigation is the most common form of surface irrigation, particularly in regions with layouts of small
fields. If a field is level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to prevent runoff, and provides an undirected
flow of water onto the field, it is herein called a basin.

A basin is typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and rectangular configurations. It may be
furrowed or corrugated, have raised beds for the benefit of certain crops, but as long as the inflow is undirected
and uncontrolled into these field modifications, it remains a basin.

Basin irrigation is commonly used for rice grown on flat lands or in terraces on hillsides. Trees can also be
 6

grown in basins, where one tree usually is located in the centre of a small basin.

Advantages
i) Cheap to establish and maintain
ii) There is no water contact with the plant leaves hence reduces incidents of fungal disease

Disadvantages
i) Basin requires leveling
ii) Dykes are expensive to construct if the land is not properly leveled
iii) Requires a lot of water
iv) May result to salt accumulation in the soil if not properly managed

2. Border irrigation
In border irrigation, the field to be irrigated is divided into strips (also called borders or border strips) by parallel
dykes or border ridges (see Fig.).

The water is released from the field ditch onto the border through gate structures called outlets (see Fig. 92).
The water can also be released by means of siphons or spiles. The sheet of flowing water moves down the slope
of the border, guided by the border ridges.

Border irrigation

Advantages
i) Cheap to establish
ii) There is no water contact with the plant leaves hence reduces incidents of fungal disease

Disadvantages
i) Border strips require some land grading
ii) Requires a lot of water
iii) May result to salt accumulation in the soil if not properly managed
iv) Uneven distribution of water

3. Furrow irrigation
Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field surface by channeling the flow along the primary direction of
 7

the field using 'furrows,' 'creases,' or 'corrugations'. Water infiltrates through the wetted perimeter and spreads
vertically and horizontally to refill the soil reservoir. Furrows are often employed in basins and borders to
reduce the effects of topographical variation and crusting. The distinctive feature of furrow irrigation is that the
flow into each furrow is independently set and controlled as opposed to furrowed borders and basins where the
flow is set and controlled on a border by border or basin by basin basis.

Furrows provide better on-farm water management flexibility under many surface irrigation conditions. The
discharge per unit width of the field is substantially reduced and topographical variations can be more severe. A
smaller wetted area reduces evaporation losses. Furrows provide the irrigator more opportunity to manage
irrigations toward higher efficiencies as field conditions change for each irrigation throughout a season. This is
not to say, however, that furrow irrigation enjoys higher application efficiencies than borders and basins.

The water flows from the field ditch into the furrows by opening up the bank or dyke of the ditch (see Fig. a) or
by means of siphons or spiles. Siphons are small curved pipes that deliver water over the ditch bank (see Fig.b).
Spiles are small pipes buried in the ditch bank (see Fig. c).

a b c

Advantages
i) Cheap to establish
ii) There is no water contact with the plant leaves hence reduces incidents of fungal disease
iii) Requires little skill

Disadvantages
i) A lot of water is wasted
ii) Soil erosion may occur where furrows are not properly planned
iii) Accumulation of salinity between furrows
iv) The difficulty of moving farm equipment across the furrows
v) The added expense and time to make extra tillage practice (furrow construction)

Water losses in surface irrigation result from:-

a. Evaporation c. Deep percolation

b. Seepage d. Overflows

Sub-surface irrigation
Here water does not wet the surface directly. It can be divided into two categories:-

1) Natural sub-surface irrigation 2) Artificial sub-surface irrigation

1. Natural sub-surface irrigation

This is where canals are provide in which water in the neighborhood is lowered where the water table is the
same. The water nourishes the plants by capillary action. This method is applicable to low lying lands where the
water table is high and within the capillary reach of the root zone of crop. The water table is charged by seepage
 8

from the irrigation canals.

2. Artificial sub-surface irrigation

This is where perforated pipes are buried in the ground and water drips to the surrounding soil. This method
involves use of perforated pipes, a distribution system with water under pressure. The pipes are placed well
beneath the surface. The method is expensive but economical on water. It works well in soil which have higher
horizontal hydraulic conductivity and high capillary action.

Advantages of sub-surface irrigation

i). No need for construction of dykes, leveling or making level basins

ii). Minimizes labour especially in changing pipes
iii). It can be practiced on sloppy or flat lands
iv). Less water is required in comparison to sprinkler and surface irrigation
v). Water does not cause erosion because it comes out in small amounts
vi). Fungal diseases such as blight are reduced because water does not accumulate on leaves

Disadvantages of sub-surface irrigation

i). It is expensive in undertaking because the equipment needed and their installation involve cost
ii). Pipes can be damaged during weeding or land preparation
iii). Nozzles can be blocked and introduce inefficiencies to the system

Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at very low rates (2-20
litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers. Water is
applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler
irrigation, which involves wetting the whole soil profile.

With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent (usually every 1-3 days) than with other methods and this
provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can flourish.

Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops (vegetables, soft fruit), tree and vine crops where one or more emitters
can be provided for each plant. Generally only high value crops are considered because of the high capital costs of
installing a drip system.

Drip irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope. Normally the crop would be planted along contour lines and the
water supply pipes (laterals) would be laid along the contour also. This is done to minimize changes in emitter
discharge as a result of land elevation changes.

Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils. On clay soils water must be applied slowly to avoid surface water ponding
and runoff. On sandy soils higher emitter discharge rates will be needed to ensure adequate lateral wetting of the
soil.

One of the main problems with drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters. All emitters have very small waterways
ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these can become blocked if the water is not clean. Thus it is essential for
irrigation water to be free of sediments. If this is not so then filtration of the irrigation water will be needed.
Blockage may also occur if the water contains algae, fertilizer deposits and dissolved chemicals which precipitate
such as calcium and iron. Filtration may remove some of the materials but the problem may be complex to solve and
requires an experienced engineer or consultation with the equipment dealer.

Drip irrigation is particularly suitable for water of poor quality (saline water). Dripping water to individual plants
also means that the method can be very efficient in water use. For this reason it is most suitable when water is
scarce.
 9

Drip System Layout

A typical drip irrigation system consists of the following components:-
 Pump unit  Laterals
 Control head  Emitters or drippers
 Main and sub-main lines

The pump unit takes water from the source and provides the right pressure for delivery into the pipe system.

The control head consists of valves to control the discharge and pressure in the entire system. It may also have filters
to clear the water. Common types of filter include screen filters and graded sand filters which remove fine material
suspended in the water. Some control head units contain a fertilizer or nutrient tank. These slowly add a measured
dose of fertilizer into the water during irrigation. This is one of the major advantages of drip irrigation over other
methods.

Mainlines, sub-mains and laterals supply water from the control head into the fields. They are usually made from
PVC or polyethylene hose and should be buried below ground because they easily degrade when exposed to direct
solar radiation. Lateral pipes are usually 13-32 mm diameter.

Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water from the lateral to the plants. They are usually
spaced more than 1 metre apart with one or more emitters used for a single plant such as a tree. For row crops more
closely spaced emitters may be used to wet a strip of soil. Many different emitter designs have been produced in
recent years. The basis of design is to produce an emitter which will provide a specified constant discharge which
does not vary much with pressure changes, and does not block easily

Salinization
A soil may be rich in salts because the parent rock from which it
was formed contains salts. Sea water is another source of salts in
low-lying areas along the coast. A very common source of salts in
irrigated soils is the irrigation water itself. Most irrigation waters
contain some salts.

After irrigation, the water added to the soil is used by the crop or
evaporates directly from the moist soil. The salt, however, is left
behind in the soil. If not removed, it accumulates in the soil; this
process is called salinization (see Fig. across). Very salty soils are
sometimes recognizable by a white layer of dry salt on the soil
surface.
 10

Salty groundwater may also contribute to salinization. When the

water table rises (e.g. following irrigation in the absence of proper
drainage), the salty groundwater may reach the upper soil layers
and, thus, supply salts to the root zone

Soils that contain a harmful amount of salt are often referred to as

salty or saline soils. Soil, or water, that has a high content of salt is
said to have a high salinity.

Improvement of saline soils

Improvement of a saline soil implies the reduction of the salt concentration of the soil to a level that is not harmful
to the crops.

To that end, more water is applied to the field than is

required for crop growth. This additional water infiltrates
into the soil and percolates through the root zone. During
percolation, it takes up part of the salts in the soil and takes
these along to deeper soil layers. In fact, the water washes
the salts out of the root zone. This washing process is called
‘leaching’.

The additional water required for leaching must be removed

from the root zone by means of a subsurface drainage
system. If not removed, it could cause a rise of the
groundwater table which would bring the salts back into the
root zone. Thus, improvement of saline soils includes,
essentially, leaching and sub-surface drainage.

NOTE
Water salinity
Water salinity is the amount of salt contained in the water. It is also called the "salt concentration" and may be
expressed in grams of salt per litre of water (grams/litre or g/l), or in milligrams per litre (which is the same as parts
per million, p.p.m). However, the salinity of both water and soil is easily measured by means of an electrical device.
It is then expressed in terms of electrical conductivity: millimhos/cm or micromhos/cm. A salt concentration of 1
gram per litre is about 1.5 millimhos/cm. Thus a concentration of 3 grams per litre will be about the same as 4.5
millimhos/cm.

Soil salinity
The salt concentration in the water extracted from a saturated soil (called saturation extract) defines the salinity of
this soil. If this water contains less than 3 grams of salt per litre, the soil is said to be non saline. If the salt
concentration of the saturation extract contains more than 12 g/l, the soil is said to be highly saline.
 11

DRAINAGE

Drainage is the means by which excess water in the field is collected water in the field is collected and disposed of.
Drainage is as essential as irrigation and no water system is efficient without drainage. It is a system by which the
excess water is collected and disposed of .

Reasons for drainage

1) To improve farm mechanization (i.e. facilities the use of machines on the land).
2) Reduce crop failure due to water logging
3) Improve soil structure
4) Increase the size of land for cultivation
5) Increase crop yields
6) To facilitate the removal of toxic substances from the soil (e.g. soluble salts)
7) To reduce water erosion
8) To reduce water volume on the land surface
9) To reduce leaching of plant nutrients
10) Raise soil temperature
11) Increase soil aeration

Sources of excess water in the farm include:-

i). When there is excess rainfall. This is the water which is above crop water requirements
ii). Canal seepage (which happens to soil which has high permeability)
iii). Artesian condition (this happens when areas under irrigation are below the surrounding water table)
iv). Flooding (i.e. sudden excess foreign water)
v). Seepage under earth structures (e.g. earth dams)
vi). Over irrigation

Essential requirements of drains

1) Should admit all the flood water from the catchment

2) Should have quick and unobstructed flow away of the water received to the out fall
3) There must be ideal disposal conditions
4) The section should be stable with non-silting
5) Low cost of maintenance
6) Low initial cost

Classification of drains
Two methods of classification

i. According to construction
ii. According to function

Classification according to construction

When classified according to construction, drains are either natural or artificial drains.

Natural drains :- these the lowest valley lines between two ridges.

Artificial drains :- these are constructed drains generally aligned along drainage lines, sometimes taken across
the valley to reduce length of the drain or to have proper disposal conditions.
 12

Classification according to function served

Here two types exits.
a) open drains
b) closed drains

Open drains
types of open drains:
i) Surface drains
These are normally used for the removal of excess surface irrigation water or for disposal of storm
water. They remove water before it has entered the soil.

ii) Seepage drains

Seepage drains cater for the sub-soil water. They are made deep enough to allow water table to
drop in the drain as seepage water and is carried away. They are smaller in section compared with
surface drains and help maintain aeration of root zone depth. The disadvantage of this type of
subsurface drainage is that it makes the use of machinery difficult.

ii) Surface-cum-seepage drains

These serve the dual purpose of seepage and storm water drains.

Closed (sub-surface) drains

This method operates below the ground level and is used to:-

a) Improve internal drainage of the soils with low permeability and thus improve the movement of air and
water within the soil.
b) Lower the high water table
c) To control the water table, which could otherwise rise to the ground surface.

Methods of sub-surface drainage

1. Tube or pipe drains.

This involves the use of perforated pipes laid underground for collecting water from its surrounding. The water
enters through perforations distributed over the entire length of the pipe and is drained away.
 13

2. Mole drains
These are special holes which are dug by a special machine and implement beneath the soil surface. Mole drains
are made of particular soils (clay soils) and reinforced by an expander which enlarges and compacts the lining
of the mole drain.

3. French drains
They are normally made through excavation of a channel and then filling it with stones and, at the top, fine
aggregates so that water can sink. The stones create voids or spaces hence the soil should not be compacted.

4. Tile drains
involves the use of porous pipes that are laid underground. The pipes may be concrete pipes that allow water
into their empty parts since the external pressure is greater, thus water sieves into the pipes.

5. Pumped wells
A water pump is used to pump out water from a low area surrounded by high ground.

Water disposal
Water collected can be disposed in the following ways

 Into swamps
 Into ponds and dams
 Into streams and rivers
 Into natural and artificial water ways

Maintenance of drainage systems

 Inspect the drainage system after every rain storm and repair if broken
 The drains which may collapse can be lined by concrete
 Remove weeds from the drainage system
 Remove the soil siltation from the drainage

LAND RECLAMATION

This is the process of restoring to cultivation lands which have been rendered un-cultivatable or suffered reduction
in yield.
 14

Considerations for method of land reclamation

 Soil characteristics.
 Salt distribution and nature in soil.
 pH value and total soluble salt content in the soil.
 Irrigation water quality.
 Present state of salts vis-à-vis yield of crop.

Land reclamation methods

1. Leveling :- This is done to prevent accumulation of water in fields and uniform application of water.

2. Leeching :- Done on saline sodic soils.

3. Crop rotation :- Follows leeching. Rotate crops that can withstand waterlogged conditions (e.g. rice, sugarcane,
etc).

4. Addition of amendment :- These are additives added to improve alkalinity, salinity, sodity, etc. thus improve
crop yield.

5. Surface drainage :- Drains out salts from the soil surface and also remove them from within the soil.

6. Sub-surface drainage :- Very effective reclamation measure for areas with high content throughout the soil
profile or saline underground water.

7. Addition of waste product :- e.g. molasses, hull, sawdust to alter alkalinity or acidity.

8. Dug-out ponds :- In waterlogged and saline soils, the excess runoff is collected in ponds of sufficient capacity
dug out in low lying areas.

9. Breaking impervious pan :- The hard impervious sub-soil pan should be broken by deep chiseling deep
ploughing with sub-soiler plough.

10. Skimming drainage :- Installing partially penetrating walls just to pump out better quality water.