SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM:

a sociological and psychological theory of knowledge

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Social constructionism and social constructivism are sociological and psychological
theories of knowledge that consider how social phenomena develop in particular social
contexts. Within constructionist thought, a social construction (social construct) is a concept or
practice which may appear to be natural and obvious to those who accept it, but in reality is an
invention or artifact of a particular culture or society. Social constructs are generally
understood to be the by-products (often unintended or unconscious) of countless human
choices rather than laws resulting from divine will or nature. This is not usually taken to imply
a radical anti-determinism, however. Social constructionism is usually opposed to essentialism,
which defines specific phenomena instead in terms of transhistorical essences independent of
conscious beings that determine the categorical structure of reality.[citation needed]
Although both
social constructionism and social constructivism are concerned with ways social phenomena
develop, they are distinct. Social constructionism refers to the development of phenomena
relative to social contexts while social constructivism refers to an individual's making meaning
of knowledge relative to social context. For this reason, social constructionism is typically
described as a sociological construct whereas social constructivism is typically described as a
psychological construct. Social constructivism has been studied by many educational
psychologists, who are concerned with its implications for teaching and learning. For more on
the psychological dimensions of social constructivism, see the work of A. Sullivan Palincsar

A major focus of social constructionism is to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups
participate in the creation of their perceived social reality. It involves looking at the ways social
phenomena are created, institutionalized, and made into tradition by humans. Socially
constructed reality is seen as an ongoing, dynamic process; reality is reproduced by people
acting on their interpretations and their knowledge of it.

Constructionism became prominent in the U.S. with Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann's
1966 book, The Social Construction of Reality. Berger and Luckmann argue that all knowledge,
including the most basic, taken-for-granted common sense knowledge of everyday reality, is
derived from and maintained by social interactions. When people interact, they do so with the
understanding that their respective perceptions of reality are related, and as they act upon this
understanding their common knowledge of reality becomes reinforced. Since this common
sense knowledge is negotiated by people, human typifications, significations and institutions
come to be presented as part of an objective reality. It is in this sense that it can be said that
reality is socially constructed. The specific mechanisms underlying Berger and Luckmann's
notion of social construction are discussed further in social construction.

"Social construction" may mean many things to many people. Ian Hacking, having examined a
wide range of books and articles with titles of the form "The social construction of X" or
"Constructing X", argues that when something is said to be "socially constructed", this is
shorthand for at least the following two claims:
 (0) In the present state of affairs, X is taken for granted; X appears to be inevitable.
(1) X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is
not determined by the nature of things; it is not inevitable.

Hacking adds that the following claims are also often, though not always, implied by the use of
the phrase "social construction":

(2) X is quite bad as it is.

(3) We would be much better off if X were done away with, or at least radically
transformed.

Thus a claim that gender is socially constructed probably means that gender, as currently
understood, is not an inevitable result of biology, but highly contingent on social and historical
processes. In addition, depending on who is making the claim, it may mean that our current
understanding of gender is harmful, and should be modified or eliminated, to the extent
possible.

According to Hacking, "social construction" claims are not always clear about exactly what isn't
"inevitable", or exactly what "should be done away with." Consider a hypothetical claim that
quarks are "socially constructed". On one reading, this means that quarks themselves are not
"inevitable" or "determined by the nature of things." On another reading, this means that our
idea (or conceptualization, or understanding) of quarks is not "inevitable" or "determined by
the nature of things".

Hacking is much more sympathetic to the second reading than the first. Furthermore, he
argues that, if the second reading is taken, there need not always be a conflict between saying
that quarks are "socially constructed" and saying that they are "real". In our gender example,
this means that while a legitimate biological basis for gender may exist, some of society's
perceptions of gender may be socially constructed.

The stronger first position, however, is more-or-less an inevitable corollary of Willard Van
Orman Quine's concept of ontological relativity, and particularly of the Duhem-Quine thesis.
That is, according to Quine and like-minded thinkers (who are not usually characterized as
social constructionists) there is no single privileged explanatory framework that is closest to
"the things themselves"—every theory has merit only in proportion to its explanatory power.

As we step from the phrase to the world of human beings, "social construction" analyses can
become more complex. Hacking briefly examines Helène Moussa’s analysis of the social
construction of "women refugees". According to him, Moussa's argument has several pieces,
some of which may be implicit:
 1. Canadian citizens' idea of "the woman refugee" is not inevitable, but historically
contingent. (Thus the idea or category "the woman refugee" can be said to be "socially
constructed".)
2. Women coming to Canada to seek asylum are profoundly affected by the category of
"the woman refugee". Among other things, if a woman does not "count" as a "woman
refugee" according to the law, she may be deported, and forced to return to very
difficult conditions in her homeland.
3. Such women may modify their behavior, and perhaps even their attitudes towards
themselves, in order to gain the benefits of being classified as a "woman refugee".

Hacking suggests that this third part of the analysis, the "interaction" between a socially
constructed category and the individuals that are actually or potentially included in that
category, is present in many "social construction" analyses involving types of human beings.

The nature of the learner

The learner as a unique individual

Social constructivism views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and
backgrounds. The learner is also seen as complex and multidimensional. Social constructivism
not only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages,
utilises and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process (Wertsch 1997).

The importance of the background and culture of the learner

Social constructivism encourages the learner to arrive at his or her own version of the truth,
influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview. Historical developments
and symbol systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are inherited by the
learner as a member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life.
This also stresses the importance of the nature of the learner's social interaction with
knowledgeable members of the society. Without the social interaction with other more
knowledgeable people, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems
and learn how to utilize them. Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting
with other children, adults and the physical world. From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is
thus important to take into account the background and culture of the learner throughout the
learning process, as this background also helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the
learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning process (Wertsch 1997).

The responsibility for learning

Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the
learner (Von Glasersfeld 1989). Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the
learner being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints
where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a
passive, receptive role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasizes that learners construct their own
understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for
meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence
of full or complete information.

The motivation for learning

Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the learner concerns the level and source
of motivation for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld (1989) sustaining motivation to learn
is strongly dependent on the learner’s confidence in his or her potential for learning. These
feelings of competence and belief in potential to solve new problems, are derived from first-
hand experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more powerful than any
external acknowledgment and motivation (Prawat and Floden 1994). This links up with
Vygotsky’s "zone of proximal development" (Vygotsky 1978) where learners are challenged
within close proximity to, yet slightly above, their current level of development. By
experiencing the successful completion of challenging tasks, learners gain confidence and
motivation to embark on more complex challenges.

The role of the instructor

Instructors as facilitators

According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adapt to the role of
facilitators and not teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995). Where a teacher gives a didactic lecture which
covers the subject matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding
of the content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter
scenario the learner plays an active role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away
from the instructor and the content, and towards the learner (Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett,
1998). This dramatic change of role implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different
set of skills than a teacher (Brownstein 2001). A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher
lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back; a teacher gives answers according
to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the
learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a monologue, a
facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A facilitator
should also be able to adapt the learning experience ‘in mid-air’ by using his or her own
initiative in order to steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value.
The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the learner's
thinking (Di Vesta, 1987). While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem
and solution process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical
goal is to support the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by
assuming multiple roles, such as consultant and coach.

The nature of the learning process

Learning is an active, social process

Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process where learners should learn to
discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouraging
guesswork and intuitive thinking in learners (Brown et al.1989; Ackerman 1996). In fact, for
the social constructivist, reality is not something that we can discover because it does not pre-
exist prior to our social invention of it. Kukla (2000) argues that reality is constructed by our
own activities and that people, together as members of a society, invent the properties of the
world.

Other constructivist scholars agree with this and emphasize that individuals make meanings
through the interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. Knowledge is
thus a product of humans and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest 1991; Prawat and
Floden 1994). McMahon (1997) agrees that learning is a social process. He further states that
learning is not a process that only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a passive
development of our behaviours that is shaped by external forces and that meaningful learning
occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities.

Vygotsky (1978) also highlighted the convergence of the social and practical elements in
learning by saying that the most significant moment in the course of intellectual development
occurs when speech and practical activity, two previously completely independent lines of
development, converge. Through practical activity a child constructs meaning on an
intrapersonal level, while speech connects this meaning with the interpersonal world shared by
the child and her/his culture.

Dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner

A further characteristic of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist viewpoint, is that
the instructor and the learners are equally involved in learning from each other as well (Holt
and Willard-Holt 2000). This means that the learning experience is both subjective and
objective and requires that the instructor’s culture, values and background become an
essential part of the interplay between learners and tasks in the shaping of meaning. Learners
compare their version of the truth with that of the instructor and fellow learners in order to get
to a new, socially tested version of truth (Kukla 2000). The task or problem is thus the
interface between the instructor and the learner (McMahon 1997). This creates a dynamic
interaction between task, instructor and learner. This entails that learners and instructors
should develop an awareness of each other's viewpoints and then look to own beliefs,
standards and values, thus being both subjective and objective at the same time (Savery
1994).

Some studies argue for the importance of mentoring in the process of learning (Archee and
Duin 1995; Brown et al. 1989). The social constructivist model thus emphasizes the
importance of the relationship between the student and the instructor in the learning process.

Some learning approaches that could harbour this interactive learning include reciprocal
teaching, peer collaboration, cognitive apprenticeship, problem-based instruction, web quests,
anchored instruction and other approaches that involve learning with others.

Collaboration among learners

Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions in
order to arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field (Duffy and Jonassen
1992).

Most social constructivist models, such as that proposed by Duffy and Jonassen (1992), also
stress the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to traditional
competitive approaches. One Vygotskian notion that has significant implications for peer
collaboration, is that of the zone of proximal development. Defined as the distance between
the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers, it differs from the fixed biological nature of Piaget's
stages of development. Through a process of 'scaffolding' a learner can be extended beyond
the limitations of physical maturation to the extent that the development process lags behind
the learning process (Vygotsky 1978).

Learning by teaching (LdL) as constructivist method

Main article: Learning by teaching

If students have to present and train new contents with their classmates, a non-linear process
of collective knowledge-construction will be set up.

The importance of context

The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to
the learning itself (McMahon 1997).

Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is "the assumption that there is no
one set of generalised learning laws with each law applying to all domains" (Di Vesta
1987:208). Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our
understandings to authentic tasks because, as Duffy and Jonassen (1992) indicated, we are
not working with the concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex
interrelationships in that environment that determine how and when the concept is used. One
social constructivist notion is that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes
part in activities which are directly relevant to the application of learning and which take place
within a culture similar to the applied setting (Brown et al. 1989). Cognitive apprenticeship has
been proposed as an effective constructivist model of learning which attempts to "enculturate
students into authentic practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that
evident, and evidently successful, in craft apprenticeship" (Ackerman 1996:25).

Assessment

Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of
assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here
the essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather
than viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is
seen as a two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learner. The role
of the assessor becomes one of entering into dialogue with the persons being assessed to find
out their current level of performance on any task and sharing with them possible ways in
which that performance might be improved on a subsequent occasion. Thus, assessment and
learning are seen as inextricably linked and not separate processes (Holt and Willard-Holt
2000).

According to this viewpoint instructors should see assessment as a continuous and interactive
process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the learning experience
and courseware. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct
foundation for further development.

The selection, scope and sequencing of the subject matter

Knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole

Knowledge should not be divided into different subjects or compartments, but should be
discovered as an integrated whole (McMahon 1997; Di Vesta 1987).
This also again underlines the importance of the context in which learning is presented (Brown
et al. 1989). The world, in which the learner needs to operate, does not approach one in the
form of different subjects, but as a complex myriad of facts, problems, dimensions and
perceptions (Ackerman 1996).

Engaging and challenging the learner

Learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to skills and knowledge just
beyond their current level of mastery. This will capture their motivation and build on previous
successes in order to enhance the confidence of the learner (Brownstein 2001). This is in line
with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development which can be described as the distance between
the actual developmental level (as determined by independent problem-solving) and the level
of potential development (as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers) (Vygotsky 1978).

Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of
development. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions which are in the
stage of maturing, which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that
instruction plays an extremely important role in development.

In order to fully engage and challenge the learner, the task and the learning environment
should reflect the complexity of the environment that the learner should be able to function in
at the end of learning. Learners must not only have ownership of the learning or problem-
solving process, but of the problem itself (Derry 1999).

Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the
foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form (Duffy and
Jonassen 1992). This means that instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that give life
and form to any topic or subject area, and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This
notion has been extensively used in curricula.

It is also important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for
them, it inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal which reflects their own
belief systems, their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their
learners (Rhodes and Bellamy 1999). Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared
enterprise. The emotions and life contexts of those involved in the learning process must
therefore be considered as an integral part of learning. The goal of the learner is central in
considering what is learned (Brown et al. 1989; Ackerman 1996).

The structuredness of the learning process

It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that
is built into the learning process. Savery (1994) contends that the more structured the
learning environment, the harder it is for the learners to construct meaning based on their
conceptual understandings. A facilitator should structure the learning experience just enough
to make sure that the students get clear guidance and parameters within which to achieve the
learning objectives, yet the learning experience should be open and free enough to allow for
the learners to discover, enjoy, interact and arrive at their own, socially verified version of
truth.

Final remarks

A constructivist learning intervention is thus an intervention where contextualised activities

(tasks) are used to provide learners with an opportunity to discover and collaboratively
construct meaning as the intervention unfolds. Learners are respected as unique individuals,
and instructors act as facilitators rather than as teachers.

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