DIVERSITY, CHANGE AND CONTINUITY: EVOLUTION
TASK 1 : Use a dictionary and define (in a scientific context) the following terms
1. a fact – use to refer to a particular situation that exists
2. a theory – a formal set of ideas intended to explain why something
happens or exists. The principles on which a particular subject is
based
3. a hypothesis – an idea and explanation of something that is based
on a few known facts that has not yet been proved to be true or
correct
4. a model – a simple description of a system, used for explaining
how something works or calculating what might happen.
5. a law – a scientific rule that somebody has stated to explain a
natural process.
ORIGIN OF AN IDEA ABOUT ORIGIN
TASK 2: Erasmus Darwin (1731 – 1802)
(a) What was the name of the book published by Erasmus
Darwin?
Zoonomia and “The Laws of Organic Life”
(b) What were the ideas on evolution proposed by Erasmus
Darwin?
• Organisms of a species produce a large number of offspring
• The offspring show a great deal of variation
• Of the large number of offspring produced, only a few survive
• Characteristics are inherited from surviving parents to offspring
TASK 3: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829)
(a) What nationality was Jean-Baptiste Lamarck?
• French
(b) Lamarck’s theory of evolution was based on the inheritance of
acquired characteristics. Explain Lamarck’s Law of Use as it
applies to giraffe. Explain Lamarck’s Law of Disuse as it
applies to snakes.
• According to Lemark, the ancestors of the giraffe had short necks.
During their lifetime these short necked giraffes continuously had
to strain to reach high branches for food.
• All this stretching resulted in their necks becoming longer and
stronger.
• Acquired characteristic is therefore passed on.
• Another example is the lack of developing legs for snakes. The legs
disappeared
(c) Lamarck’s theory is not accepted by Life Scientists today.
Explain why.
• We do not pass on acquired characteristics to our offspring
TASK 4: Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)
(a) Charles Darwin was an English naturalist. He began his studies
on his 5-year voyage around the world. What was the name of
the ship on which Charles Darwin was employed as a
naturalist?
• HMS Beagle
(b) What was the name of Darwin’s book in which he put forward
his ideas?
• “Origin of the Species”
(c) Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution is based on natural
selection. What does the term natural selection mean? What
scientific observation made by Darwin, enabled him to derive
the theory of natural selection?
1. Natural Selection is the competition of species or survival
of the fittest.
2. Observations:
1. Each species produce more offspring than can survive,
meaning there must be competition.
2. populations remain more or less constant in numbers
3. Characteristics are inherited and are passed on to the next
generation
(d) Explain what would happen if the world suddenly changed so
the only things dogs could eat was deer, and there was
absolutely no way for a dog to eat it if it wasn’t big or strong
enough to catch and kill a deer
• Small dogs die, big dogs would thrive and reproduce
TASK 5: Alfred Russel Wallace (1823 – 1913)
(a) Wallace was a young British scientist who worked in the East
Indies. Where did he collect his specimens?
• Mollucus, East Indies
(b) Whose ideas did Wallace mimic and what was his theory based
on?
• Darwin, Natural Selection
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
PALAEONTOLOGY
TASK 6: (a) What is a fossil?
• Fossils refer to any parts or impressions of an organism that may
be left behind after his death
(b) State the role of fossils in understanding ancient life.
• Gives us an idea of what organisms existed, about the climate and
any ancestral to modern-day organisms
(c) How do fossils support the theory of evolution?
• Geology allow scientists to determine the age of rocks, which gives
the approximate age of fossils from oldest to youngest
• Scientist can trace some line of decent in the fossil record
COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY
Comparative embryology is the study of the similarities and differences in the way
organisms develop. They examined patterns from the early stages of development of
an organism, known as the embryo, to the fully grown organism.
Darwin’s followers have used these observations to develop the theory of
recapitulation. According to this theory, the embryo of an organism, during its
development, passes through the adult stages of all its ancestors.
TASK 7: (a) What are the similarities between the early-stage embryos of a
fish, reptiles, bird and mammal?
• All have gill slits, tails and common eye spots for development
• They are fish-like, have hearts and nerve chords
(b) What does this evidence suggest?
• It suggests that in early development all vertebrates have a
common ancestor
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES = structures that are the same in arrangement,
function or both in different animals e.g. human arm, bat wing, whale flippers,
crocodile arm.
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES = structures that don’t have a common evolutionary
relationship but are similar in function e.g. bird’s wing, pterodactyl wing, insect wing.
VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES = a body structure that is no longer useful in organisms
today, but was probably useful to ancestors e.g. ostrich wings, human appendix and
tailbone.
TASK 8: Complete the Activity below comparing the human skeleton to that
of
a frog, crocodile, pigeon and cat.
Examine the skeletons of answer the questions that follow based on
your experience or observations.
(a) Using the labeled human skeleton, label the other skeletons.
(b) What are three characteristics that all the skeletons share?
• Skull, vertebrae, limbs, pectoral girdle,
(c) What are three differences that exist among the skeletons?
• Position of foramun magnum, size of cranium
• Position of eye socket
• Length of tail
• No thorax in frog
(d) How are the hind limbs similar?
• Arrangement of bones similar, they consist of a femur, tibia and
fibula
(e) How do the functions of the forelimbs differ among the five
vertebrates you have examined?
• Pigeon – flying
• Cat – walking pouncing and landing
• Crocodile – support body, walking, tail for swimming
• Frog – landing
• Human – multifunctional, grasping etc
(f) What type of evidence would indicate that the human hand,
pigeon wing and cat paw are homologous structures?
• They are structurally similar in arrangement.
(g) Are bones that are similar in structure always similar in
function? Give an example to defend your answer.
• No, a human hand is used for grasping while a crocodiles
forelimbs is used for walking, even though they are structurally
similar
(h) What evidence have you obtained in this investigation to
support the theory that the vertebrates evolved from a
common ancestor?
• They have similar structures, the arrangement of bones are similar
i.e. the forelimbs
(i) Do you think bones should be named according to their structure or
their function? Defend your answer.
• Structure, many bones look similar but have different functions
COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY
This compares DNA and RNA to show relationships between individuals and to show
who is related to whom and how close.
TASK 9: Complete the Activity 12.5, “Compare Hb amino acid sequences of
selected primates”
• 22.5%, 20%, 7.5%,2.5%, 0%
• Graph
• Chimpanzee
• Squirrel monkey
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BIOGEOGRAPHY
Different but closely related species in similar biomes across the world have similar
features in adapting to that biome, indicating that they probably developed from a
common ancestral species. The organ-pipe cactus of North and South America and a
plant called Euphorbia growing in African deserts both share a similar-looking fleshy
body type and no leaves.
EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION
.
• Organisms of species produce large number of offspring
• The offspring show a great deal of variation
• Of the large number of offspring produced, only a few survive
• Characteristics are inherited from surviving parents to offspring
(b) Write a short summary explaining Darwin’s theory of natural
selection.
• The offspring of the same species of plants and animals show a
great deal of variation
• Plants and animals generally produce a large number of offspring.
• The offspring produced compete with each other for available
resources such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, sunlight, water shelter,
food and breeding space
• Besides competing with other members of the same species, this
struggle for life is also affected by other plants and animals living
in the same environment.
• Only those individuals that have characteristics that are
advantageous to enable them to compete successfully for resources
in the environment and protect themselves against other plants and
animals to survive.
• As natural selection occurs from generation occurs from
generation to generation, there is a continual change in
populations leading to the evolution to new species.
•
(c) Tabulate the similarities and differences between Natural selection
and Artificial selection.
Differences between Natural selection and artificial selection
NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Nature selects those that are best suited Humans selected those plants and
to the environment to survive animals that are most useful to them to
survive
The new population shows characteristics The new population shows characteristics
that enable them to survive. that are most useful for humans.
Change brought about by environmental Change brought about by humans
factors working randomly on the working selectively on certain individuals
population. from the population.
Similarities between Natural Selection and Artificial selection
• In both natural and artificial selection, the phenotype of the population
changes
• In both natural selection and artificial selection, the phenotype changes after
a number of generations.
TASK 11: Complete Activity12.6, “Simulated natural selection” on pg.254.
3. White beans because they will be better camouflaged against the
white paper background
4. The white beans will be naturally selected over the other beans and
become the dominant population because they stand the least
chance of being preyed upon
5. example of results
6. the white bean population has increased 143 times, the mottled
bean population has increased 91 times and the brown bean
population has only increased 51 times. The brown population
increased much less in relation to the white and mottled
populations compared to the start of the game where there were
equal numbers.
7. Graph
8. Yes the population of the brown beans would increase more as they
would be camouflaged and less likely to be preyed upon
TASK 12: Complete Activity 12.7, “Understand the effects of artificial
breeding of wheat”, on pg 256.
3. graph
4. Mexico produced the most tones of wheat per hectare during
this period India produced the least and the USA was in
between. However, in 1995, yields from India caught up to
those from the USA.
5. Perhaps there was an outbreak of disease or a severe drought.
6. India: 190%
Mexico: 194%
USA: 87,5%
FORMATION OF A NEW SPECIES
TASK 13: (a) Give three characteristics of a species.
• A group of organisms that have a large number of similar
characteristics
• And are able to interbreed
• To produce viable offspring which are fertile
(b) What is speciation? Explain the two main types of speciation.
• The term speciation refers to the formation of a new species
• In allopatric speciation a population becomes separated into two
sub-populations by a geographic barrier such as a mountain or
river
• In sympatric speciation new species may be formed without the
presence of a geographic barrier to separate the population into
two sub-populations. The two groups formed within the population
develop reproductive isolation barriers which prevent them from
interbreeding, resulting in separate species.
TASK 14: Complete activity 13.2, “Understand speciation”, on page 268.
2. It is allopatric speciation because of the divergence of species as a
result of geographical separation
3. 950km off the west coast of Ecuador in South America
4. The island is volcanic and has never been joined. This means that
each island has its own unique flora and fauna. As a result, these
islands show the best example of how organisms that have been
geographically isolated can become new specie over time.
5. The initial population of finches must have reached the island form
mainland South America, possibly by very strong winds. There was
little competition or predation of the birds on the island and the
population grew. Over time, some of the birds may have decided to
stay and colonise the new island or may have been blown there by
winds. Due to the absence of competition on the new island, the
birds may have decided to stay and colonise the new island.
Natural selection tells us that there is variety within a species. As a
result of this variety, there must have been some birds that were
better suited to the conditions on the new island. Over millions of
years, these differences would have been selected for with breeding
and in the end a new species would form.
TASK 15: Lake Malawi has between 500 and 1 500 different species of cichlid
fish.
(a) Using the example of the red and blue species of cichlid fish. Why
do these fish not mate with each other?
• The individuals of the different sub-populations stop mating
randomly because reproductive isolation mechanisms prevent them
from doing so even though they may remain in contact with each
other.
(b) What type of speciation is exhibited by these fish?
• Sympatric speciation
(c) Explain how courtship may act as a reproductive isolating
mechanism.
• Some animals have very specific courtship behaviours that do not
attract individuals of other species, even if they are closely-related
species.
(d) List 3 other reproductive isolating mechanisms, other than
courtship.
• Breeding at different times of the year –Temporal isolation
• Adaptations to different pollinators – Mechanical isolation
• Production of infertile offspring – Hybrid infertility
EVOLUTION IN PRESENT TIMES
Scientists have used the way in which insects have developed resistance to
insecticides, and the way in which bacteria have developed resistance to
antibiotics, as examples of evolution by natural selection in present times.
TASK 16: (a) What is the cause for genetic adaptation in bacteria, which
results in a stronger strain of the TB bacteria?
• In any population of the TB bacterium, there will be a great deal of
genetic variation
• Whilst most of these bacteria will die when treated with antibiotics,
some will be resistant and survive because of this genetic variation.
• This is natural selection
• The antibiotic-resistant bacteria reproduce rapidly since they have
less competition because of the reduced population size.
• In the new population of bacteria most individuals are resistant to
antibiotics
• The next time the same antibiotics are given, most bacteria will
survive, but few will die out.
(b) Describe how mosquitoes have become resistant to DDT.
• Mosquito populations show variation
• Whilst most mosquitoes will die of DDT poisoning a small number
of these mosquitoes will have the ability to survive the insecticide
• This is natural selection
• These DDT-resistant mosquitoes breed rapidly and increase in the
numbers since they have less competition because of reduced
population size
• The next time DDT ia applied in the same area most mosquitoes
will survive
• Again nature is selecting those that are best adapted to the
environment to survive.
HUMAN ORIGINS
TASK 1 : (a) Classify a human in terms of the modern classification system :
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.
• Kingdom: Animalia
• Phylum: Chordata
• Class: Mammalia
• Order: Primates
• Family: Hominidae
• Subfamily: Homininae
• Genus: Homo
• Species: Homosapiens
(b)List 5 characteristics of organisms belonging to the Order
Primata.
• Large brain or skull compared to their body masses
• Olfactory brain centeres reduced
• Parts of the brain that process information from hands and eyes
are enlarged
• Eyes in front binocular/ stereoscopic visions
• Eyes with cones or colour vision
• Freely rotating arms
• Long upper arms
• Elbow joints allowing rotation of forearm
• Rotate hands at least 180°
• Flat nails instead of claws/ bare finger tips
• Opposable thumbs which work in opposite direction to fingers
• Upright posture
• Sexual dimorphism/ distinct differences between male and female
• Two mammary glands only
(c) List 9 characteristics that are different between Homo sapiens
and other primates.
FEATURE HOMOSAPIENS OTHER PRIMATES
CRANIUM Larger cranium or brain Smaller cranium or brain
FORAMEN MAGNUM Flat face/ forehead slope Face sloping/ foreheads
less backwards slope much backwards
BROW RIDGES Brow ridges are not as Brow ridges are
pronounced pronounced
CANINES Smaller canines Larger canines
SPACES BETWEEN Smaller spaces between Larger spaces between
TEETH teeth teeth
ARRANGEMENT OF Jaws with teeth on a Jaws with teeth in
TEETH gentle/ round curve rectangular shape/ U-
shaped
JAWS Less protruding jaws/ More protruding jaw/
non-prognathous prognathous
CHIN Lower jaw has a well Lower jaw has a poorly
developed chin developed chin
TASK 2 : Watch the telematics DVD, Human evolution by Dr. Raath, and
answer the following questions.
(a) What changes in the human skull gives rise to bipedalism.
• The opening that allows the spinal cord to leave the skull (the
foramen magnum) must change from the back of the skull in
animals who walk on all fours to a forward position at the bottom
of the skull in bipedal animals.
(b) How does the skull of modern humans differ from that of apes?
• Larger skull, foramen magnum forward,
(c) What factor contributed to the larger brain size of humans?
• As reproductive and social behaviour changes, humans developed
a larger brain that handle encoding and processing information.
(d) Compare the face of the ape to that of modern humans. Name
3 characteristics that are different between the two.
• We are flat faced, the bones of the nose and jaws do not stick out,
brow ridges are not pronounced i.e. we are not prognathous. Well
developed chin
(e) Describe how the jaw apes and modern humans differ with
reference to the shape and dentition.
• We have a gently curved jaw and slightly rounded front, the size of
the teeth is smaller, humans have very small canines, do not have a
diastema.
(f) The skeleton of apes and humans differ in size. Describe how
these differences have lead to an increase in height.
• The increased size of skeleton would mean and increase in height.
Arms shorter in comparison to legs.
The general pattern of human development that most scientists generally
agree on is as follows:
Ape-like ancestor → ape men → early humans → modern humans
TASK 3 : (a) When did the first ape-like beings appear?
• 38 million years ago
(b) Were the first apes on the same line of development as
humans?
• Yes, between 5 to 25 million years ago these were referred to as
dryopithecine.
(c) Which fossil found by Michael Brunet in 2001 suggests that the
first bipedal primate appeared 6-7 million years ago?
• Sahelanthropus tchadensis (or simply Toumai) found in Chad
(d) Nearly 4 million years ago the australopithecines appeared.
Using fossil evidence show how progressive evolution of these
species took place.
• Lucy - a 32 million year old fossil – forward head position
suggested that it was bipedal.
• Taung child – 2.6 – 2.8 million year old – forward position of the
foramen magnum suggested that was bipedal, it had ape-like head,
but dentition like that of a human baby.
• Mrs Ples – 2.6 million years old – adult form of the baby Taung
• Little foot – 3.9 to 4.2 million years old – skull of little foot showed
that it was Australopithicus africanus
• Australipithecines – were built like modern humans from the neck
down, 300-600 ml brain, protruding jaws, heavy brow ridges1.2
meters tall
• Karabo – 1.78 – 1.98 million years ago – brain size between 420
and 450ml, a height of 1.27 meters
(e) Name the first species of early humans that The
Australopithecines gave rise to. What is the name of the fossil
that supports this theory?
• Homo habilis – less pronounced brow ridges, more human-like
teeth, flatter face, more rounded head and brain size 650-700ml
• Named Handy man – fossil evidence suggests that these early
humans made and used tools.
(f) Which species did Homo habilis gave rise to 1.5 million years
ago? what features distinguished it from Homo habilis?
• Homo erectus – tall as modern humans with a brain size of 700 ml
to 1300ml
(g) Name the four other human species that were around when
modern humans first emerged on the scene.
• Homo neanderthalensis,
• Homo antecessor
• Homo florensiensis
• Homo heidelbergensis
(h) What was the name given to the fossil found of the earliest
human in the Free State?
• Florisbad man – larger brain 1200ml – 1800 ml, and a flat face
(i) Why do you think that Homo sapiens survived when the others
did not?
• It is thought that Homo sapiens, with better tools and better
organised social structures, out-competed these species so that
they eventually became extinct.
(j) Draw a family tree to show the emergence of Homo sapiens from
the first ape-like beings. Include all relevant fossil evidence.
CONTRIBUTION OF AFRICAN FOSSILS TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF
HUMAN EVOLUTION
TASK 4 : South Africa has made an important contribution to the
understanding of human evolution. Read the following extract and
answer the questions:
(a) How many fossil sites are found in South Africa?
• There are 13 major fossil sites in SA.
(b) Name the areas which make up the Cradle of Humankind.
Why did the scientist give this area this title?
• The Sterkfontein
• Swartkrans
• Kromdraai
• Environs World Heritage Site
(c) What type of fossil evidence was found in these areas?
• About 3 million years ago, a hominid which was part ape and part
human (Australopithicus africanus) occupied the Gauteng
Highveld. This ape-man may have been one of the ancestors of
modern man Homo sapiens
• Fossils show that one of the earliest known members of the modern
human family, Homo habilis, lived in the Cradle about 2 million
years ago.
• Homo habilis
(d) These fossils provided important evidence to the theory of
evolution. Briefly describe the deductions that these scientist
made as South Africa’s contribution to the understanding of
the theory of evolution.
•
TASK 5 : Important fossils were also found outside of South Africa, but still
within the continent. Read the following extract and answer the
questions:
(a) What lead scientists to change their minds in believing that
Australopithecus africanus was the oldest hominid fossil ever
found?
(b) What was the evidence that lead them to this discovery?
(c) Is South Africa still considered the Cradle of Humankind?
THE “OUT OF AFRICA” HYPOTHESIS
Most scientists now accepted that humans originated in Africa and then migrated ‘Out
of Africa’ to all parts of the world.
The ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis is based on fossil evidence as well as on genetic
evidence
FOSSIL EVIDENCE
TASK 6 : Read pages 284 – 285, Location of the Cradle of Humankind,
regarding discovered fossils (in chronological order) that attempt to
link the past, and answer the questions that follow:
In 1924, Raymond Dart a South African anatomist discovered a skull
of a young hominid.
(a) Where did Raymond Dart’s fossil come from?
(a) What “name” was given to this fossil?
(b) What features did the skull have which linked apes to humans?
(c) What scientific name (genus and species) did Raymond Dart give
to this fossil?
In 1947, Dr. Robert Broom found the almost complete skull of an adult
hominid.
(d) What “name” was given to the fossil discovered by Dr Robert
Broom?
(e) Where in South Africa did Dr. Robert Broom make this discovery?
(f) Using radiometric dating, how old was this fossil estimated to be?
(g) Did the features of the skull discovered by Dr Robert Broom differ
from the skull discovered by Raymond Dart? Hence, what can be
concluded regarding its genus and species classification?
(h) What name was given to this fossil by the South African
newspapers?
(i) In 1966, Professor Phillip Tobias started the first organized dig at
this famous site. Why is it considered world famous?
In 1938 a schoolboy called Gert Terblanche found skull pieces, which
was shown to Dr. Broom.
(j) Where in South Africa did Gert make this discovery?
(k) Why was the discovery important to Dr. Broom?
(l) What scientific name (genus and species) did Robert Broom give to
this fossil?
(m) Did the features of the skull discovered by Gert Terblanche differ
from the skull discovered by Dr Robert Broom and John Robinson?
Hence, describe these differences in terms of its skull features.
In 1997, Dr. Ron Clarke discovered the complete skeleton of a young
australopithicene.
(n) What “name” was given to the fossil discovered by Dr. Ron
Clarke?
(o) To which genus and species does this fossil belong?
In 2008, pieces of what appeared to be fossils was discovered by
Matthew Berger showed it to his father Dr. Lee Berger.
(p) Where was this discovery made
(q) What was the “name” given to this fossil and who named it?
(r) To which genus and species does this fossil belong?
In 1974, Donald Johansen an American palaeontologist, discovered the
nearly complete skeleton of an australopithicene.
(s) What “name” was given to the complete skeleton discovered by
Donald Johansen?
(t) Using radiometric dating, how old was the skeleton estimated to
be?
(u) What can you conclude when comparing your answers to (f) and (i)
above?
(v) What genus and species name was given to the skeleton discovered
by Donald Johansen?
TASK 7 : Important fossils found on he African continent, outside of South
Africa are the Nutcracker man, the Handy man, the Laetoli footprints
and Toumai. Research these fossils and tabulate your information
under the following headings:
(a) Scientific name
(b) Age of fossil
(c) Who discovered it
(d) Where and when it was discovered
GENETIC EVIDENCE FOR THE ‘OUT OF AFRICA’ HYPOTHESIS
When DNA is analysed for the purpose of tracing ancestry, a search is made for
mutations since individuals who have the same mutation must share the same
common ancestor. These mutations therefore serve as markers of decent.
TASK 8 : Read the extract “Genetic evidence for the ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis.
(a) Why does the Y chromosome remain almost unchanged (except
for mutations) as it is passed from generation to generation?
(b) Explain why the mitochondrial DNA remains almost unchanged
(except for mutations) as it is passed from generation to
generation.
(c) Why can females only trace their female lineage whilst males can
trace their male and female lineage?
(d) What have scientists learned from an analysis of Y-chromosome
and mitochondrial DNA?
MIGRATION OF HOMO ERECTUS FROM AFRICA INTO THE REST OF THE
WORLD
TASK 9 : Answer the follosing questions using the timeline and map provide.
(a) Identify the continents or countries shown on the map. Use an atlas
to help you.
(b) Where have fossils of the following hominids been found?
a. Homo habilis
b. Australopithecus africanus
c. Homo ergaster
d. Homo erectus
e. Paranthropus boisei
(c) Create a table to summarise the information from the map and
from other information.
(d) Which was the first hominid to successfully migrate out of Africa?
(e) How do scientist know this species of hominid migrated and
colonised other regions?
(f) Why did Homo erectus spread out across the continents of Africa,
Asia
TASK 10 : Creationism and Intelligent Design (ID) oppose the theory of
evolution.
(a) Explain what is meant by Creationism.
(b) Explain what is meant by Intelligent Design.
(c) Write an argumentative essay in which you support either the
theory of evolution, creationism or Intelligent Design.
