Lesson 1

DATE: 12/7/2025 Heredity and Evolution

Question 1.
Complete the following diagram.

Answer:

Question 2.
Read the following statements and justify same in your own words with the
help of suituble examples.
a. Human evolution began approximately 7 crore years ago.
Answer:

 Approximately around 7 crore years back the ice age began on the
earth. In such conditions, dinosaurs became extinct. The evolution
and diversity of mammals started during this time. Due to change in
climate the forest cover also declined rapidly.
 Ancestors of monkey-like animals were Lemur like animals which
evolved during this time period.
 The tails of these monkey-like creatures started vanishing very
gradually around 4 crore years ago.
  The body and brain both increased in volume forming first ape like
animals. The monkey like ancestors gave rise to two evolutionary
links to apes and human like animals.
 Later, the human evolution took place by changes in the brain
volume, the ability to walk upright, excessive use of hand for
manipulations.
 This journey of human evolution began 7 crore years ago. But the
true wise and intelligent man arose around 50,000 years ago.
b. Geographical and reproductive isolation of organisms gradually leads to
speciation.
Answer:

 Every species survives in specific geographical conditions. The

requirements of food and habitat, is specific for each species. Their
reproductive ability and period is also different.
 Therefore, the individuals from one species cannot reproduce with
individuals from other species.
 When they are separated by a distance or geographical barriers they
are said to be isolated geographically.
 When they cannot reproduce with each other, they are said to be
isolated reproductively.
 The ancestor species of both these subspecies may be the same but
due to isolation over a very long-time duration, there is genetic
variation between the two. Therefore, the isolation leads to
speciation.
c. Study of fossils is an important aspect of study of evolution.
Answer:
Answer:

 Fossils offer palaeontological evidence for the evolutionary process.

 Due to some natural calamities the organisms get buried during
ancient times.
 The impressions and remnants of such organisms remain preserved
underground. The hot lava also traps some organisms or their
impressions. All such formations form fossils.
 Study of fossils help the researcher to understand the characteristics
of the organisms that existed in the past.
 Carbon dating method also helps in finding out exact age of the
fossil. According to the structure of earth’s crust the fossils are
obtained at specific depths.
  The oldest ones are obtained at the depth while the relatively recent
ones occupy the upper surface. Thus fossils of invertebrates were
seen in very old Palaeozoic era. Later were seen fossils of Pisces,
Amphibia and Reptilia. The Mesozoic era was dominated by reptiles
while Coenozoic era showed presence of mammals.
 In this way, study of fossils unfold the evolutionary secrets.
d. There is evidences of faetal Science among chordates.
[Please read the above question as: Among different chordates there are
embryological evidences.]
Answer:

 Very young embryos of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals

show quite similar structure in the early stages.
 As the further growth takes place, they acquire different patterns.
 The initial similarity between the vertebrate embryos is an evidence
that during evolution, there was a common ancestor for all the
vertebrate classes.
 This is called embryological evidence for vertebrate evolution.
Question 3.
complete the statements by choosing correct options from bracket.
(Genes, Mutation, Translocation, Transcription, Gradual development,
Appendix)
a. The causality behind the sudden changes was understood due to …………
principle of Hugo de Vries.
Answer:
Mutation

b. The proof for the fact that protein synthesis occurs through ……….. was
given by George Beadle and Edward Tatum.
Answer:
Genes

c. Transfer of information from molecule of DNA to mRNA is called as

…………… process.
Answer:
Transcription

d. Evolution means ………….

Answer:
Gradual development
e. Vestigial organ ……….. present in human body is proof of evolution.
Answer:
Appendix

Question 4.
Write short notes based upon the information known to you.
a. Lamarckism.
Answer:
(1) Lamarckism consists of two theories which were proposed by Jean
Baptiste Lamarck. These are as follows: (a) Use and disuse of the organs (b)
Inheritance of acquired characters.
(2) In theory of use and disuse of organs, Lamarck says : The characters of
organs develop because specific activities that the organisms perform. If
such organ is not used it gets degenerated. Thus the morphological
changes take place due to activities or inactivity of a particular organism.
(3) To emphasise this theory, he quoted following examples. Due to
constant extension of neck to eat foliage from the top of the trees, giraffe’s
neck became long. Similarly blacksmith has strong arms due to constant
work. Flightless ostrich and emu did not fly and hence their wings became
useless. Aquatic birds like swan and duck made their feet suitable for
swimming by living in water. Snake lost limbs as it tried burrowing mode.
(4) Such acquired characters are passed from one parental generation to
the offspring. This is called inheritance of acquired characters.
(5) The theory of inheritance of acquired characters is not accepted as such
transmission of acquired character does not take place. Only genetic
characters are transmitted.

b. Darwin’s theory of natural selection.

Answer:

 Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection after making

many observations on different specimens. He published a concept
‘Survival of the fittest’.
 For this purpose, Darwin had published a book titled ‘Origin of Species’.
 While explaining the concept, Darwin says that all the organisms reproduce
prolifically. All the organisms compete with each other in a life--threatening
manner. In this competition, only those organisms sustain which show the
modifications essential for winning the competition.
 However, besides this, natural selection also plays important role because
nature selects only those organisms which are fit to live and the rest perish.
Sustaining and selected organisms can perform reproduction and thereby give
rise to the new species with their own specific characters.
  Darwin’s theory of natural selection was widely accepted for long duration.
However, some objections were raised against the theory. Some of the main
objections are-
1. Natural selection is not the only factor responsible for evolution.
2. Darwin did not mention any explanation about useful and useless modifications.
3. There is no explanation about slow changes and abrupt changes.

c. Embryology.
Answer:

 Embryology is the study of developing embryos.

 These embryos in their initial stages are very similar to each other.
 These similarities decrease later in the development.
 This similarity in initial stages indicate that these vertebrates have
originated from a common ancestor.
 In evolutionary science, comparative study of embryos of various
vertebrates provide evidence for evolution.
d. Evolution.
Answer:

 The sequential changes in the groups of living organisms that take

place very gradually is called evolution.
 Evolution is also described as the formation of new species due to
natural selection.
 The process of evolution takes millions of years for development and
speciation of different organisms.
 Changes in stars and planets in space and the changes in biosphere
occurring on the Earth are all included under study of evolution.
 Due to evolution organisms become fit, biodiversity is increased, and
new species are created.
 Different scientists have put forth theories to explain the process of
evolution. Among these Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection
and speciation is accepted worldwide.
e. Connecting link.
Answer:

 Some plants and animals show some morphological characters by which they
can be related to two different groups; hence they are called as ‘connecting
links
 Examples: (1) Peripatus: Peripatus is the connecting link between
Annelida and Arthropoda. It shows characters of both animal phyla.
Like annelid worm, it shows segmented body, thin cuticle and
 parapodia. Like an arthropod, it shows open circulatory system and
tracheal system for respiration.
 (2) Duck Billed platypus: This is a connecting link between reptiles
and mammals. Like reptiles it lays eggs but like mammals it has
mammary glands and hairy skin.
 (3) Lung fish: Lung fish is a connecting link between fishes and
amphibians. Though a fish, it shows lungs for respiration as in
amphibian animals.
 This shows Arthropods evolved from annelida, Mammals evolved
from reptiles and Amphibians from fishes.
 Connecting links indicate the direction and hierarchy of evolution.

Question 5.
Define heredity. Explain the mechanism of hereditary changes.
Answer:
(1) Heredity: Heredity is the process by which the biological characters from
parental generation are transmitted to the next generation through genes.

(2) The mechanism of hereditary changes:

 Mutation: Sudden change in the parental DNA can cause mutations.

This results into changes in the hereditary characters.
 At the time of meiosis, the crossing over takes place. This creates new
recombination of the genetic information. Therefore, the haploid
gametes produced carry changed hereditary characters.
Question 6.
Define vestigial organs. Write names of some vestigial organs in human
body and write the names of those animals in whom same organs are
functional.
Answer:

 Vestigial organs are degenerated or underdeveloped organs of

organisms which do not perform any function.
 According to the principle of natural selection, such organs are on the
verge of disappearance. But it takes many millions of years for its
complete vanishing.
 Such organ, though non-functional in certain organism, it may be functional in
other organisms i.e. it is not vestigial in other organisms
 Appendix, which is useless to human, is useful and fully functional organ in
ruminants.
 Similarly, muscles of ear pinna, which are useless to human, are useful in
monkeys for movement of ear pinna.
  Various vestigial organs like tail-bone (coccyx), wisdom teeth, and body hairs
are present in body of human being
Question 7.
Answer the following questions.
a. How are the hereditary changes responsible for evolution?
Answer:

 Hereditary characters are transmitted from parental generation to the

offspring.
 These characters are maintained through inheritance. But the genes
which are beneficial for the organisms in helping them to adapt to
the environment are transmitted to the next generations in a greater
proportion.
 This happens due to natural selection. The process of evolution
happens at a very slow pace.
 The favourable genes are preserved in the species as they bring
about better survival of the individuals. Such individual reproduces
more efficiently and evolve.
 The individuals with unfavourable genes are not selected by nature
and are thus removed from the population through natural death. T

b. Explain the process of formation of complex proteins.

Answer:
The proteins are synthesised in following steps, viz. transcription, translation
and translocation. Protein synthesis takes place according to the sequence
of nucleotides present on the DNA molecule with the help of RNA
molecules. This is known as central dogma of protein synthesis.

1. Transcription: In the process of transcription, mRNA is produced as per

the nucleotide sequence on the DNA. For this the two strands DNA are
separated. Only one strand participates in the formation of mRNA. The
sequence of nucleotides which is complementary to that of present on DNA
is copied on mRNA. Instead of thymine present in DNA, uracil is added on
the mRNA. Transcription takes place in nucleus but the mRNA leaves
nucleus, carries the genetic code and enters the cytoplasm. This genetic
code is always in triplet form arid hence is known as triplet codon. The code
for each amino acid always consists of three nucleotides.

2. Translation: Each mRNA may carry thousands of codons. But each codon
is specific for only one amino acid. The tRNA molecule brings the required
amino acid as per the code present on mRNA. There is anticodon on each
tRNA which is complementary to the codon on mRNA. This process is
known as translation.

3. Translocation: In translocation, the ribosome keeps on moving from one

end of mRNA molecule to other end by distance of one triplet codon. While
this process is taking place, rRNA, helps in joining the amino acids together
by peptide bonds. The peptide chains later come together to form complex
protein molecules.

c. Explain the theory of evolution and mention the proof supporting it.
Answer:
1. Theory of evolution:

 According to the theory of evolution, first living material was in the

form of protoplasm which was formed in ocean.
 Gradually, it gave rise to unicellular organisms. Changes took place in
these unicellular organisms which made them evolve into larger and
more complex organisms.
 All evolutionary changes were very slow and gradual taking about
300 crore years to happen.
 Different types of organisms were developed as the changes and
development that occurred in living organisms wefts all round and
multi-dimensional.
 Hence, this overall process of evolution is called organizational and
progressive.
 Variety of plants and animals developed from the ancestors having
different structural and functional organization during the process of
evolution.
2. Evidences of evolution are

 Morphological evidences
 Anatomical evidences
 Vestigial organs
 Palaentological evidences
 Connecting links
 Embryological evidences.
d. Explain with suitable examples importance of anatomical evidences in
evolution.
Answer:
  There are similarities in the structure and anatomy of different animal
groups. E.g. human hand, forelimb of bull, patagium of bat and
flipper of whale are all similar in their internal anatomy. There is
similarity in the bones and joints of all these specimens.
 External morphology does not show any similarity. Use of each of the
organ is also different in different animals. Structurally, they may not
be related.
 However, the similarities in the anatomy is an evidence that they may
have a common ancestor.
 In this way, the anatomical evidence throws light on the process of
evolution.
e. Define fossil. Explain importance of fossils as proof of evolution.
Answer:

 Fossils offer palaeontological evidence for the evolutionary process.

 Due to some natural calamities the organisms get buried during
ancient times.
 The impressions and remnants of such organisms remain preserved
underground. The hot lava also traps some organisms or their
impressions. All such formations form fossils.
 Study of fossils help the researcher to understand the characteristics
of the organisms that existed in [Link].
 Carbon dating method also helps in finding out exact age of the
fossil. According to the structure of earth’s crust the fossils are
obtained at specific depths.
 The oldest ones are obtained at the depth while the relatively recent
ones occupy the upper surface. Thus fossils of invertebrates were
seen in very old Palaeozoic era. Later were seen fossils of Pisces,
Amphibia and Reptilia. The Mesozoic era was dominated by reptiles
while Coenozoic era showed presence of mammals.
 In this way, study of fossils unfold the evolutionary secrets.
f. Write evolutionary history of modern man.
Answer:
(1) Ancestors of humans developed from animals which resembled lemur
like animals.
(2) Around seven crore years ago, monkey-like animals evolved from some
of these lemur like animals.
(3) Then after about 4 crore years ago, in Africa the tails of these monkey
like creatures very gradually disappeared.
(4) Simultaneously, there was enlargement in their body and brain volume
too. The hands also improved and were provided with opposable thumb. In
this way, ape-like animals were evolved.
(5) These ape-like animals independently gave rise to two lines of evolution,
one giving rise to apes like gibbon and orangutan in the South and North-
East Asia and gorilla and chimpanzee which stayed in Africa around 2.5
crores of years ago.
(6) The other line of evolution gave rise to human like animals around 2
crore years ago.
(7) The climate became dry and this resulted into reduction of forest cover.
This made arboreal apes to descend on the land and start terrestrial mode.
(8) Due to this, there were changes in the pefvic
girdle and vertebral column. The hands were also freed from locomotion
and thus they became more manipulative.
(9) Later, journey of hominoid species started from around 2 crores years
ago. The first record of human like animal is ‘Ramapithecus’ ape from East
Africa.
(10) Ramapithecus → Australopithecus → Neanderthal man → Cro-Magnon
are the important steps in human evolution.
(11) Neanderthal man was said to be the first wise man. The increasing
growth of brain made man more and more intelligent and thinking animal.
(12) Later, more than biological evolution, it was cultural evolution, when
man started agriculture, animal , rearing. There was development of
civilizations, arts and science etc. About 200 years ago there were industrial
inventions and thus man now rules the earth.