A SEMINAR ABSTRACT ON TRANSMISSION SYSTEM APPLICATION REQUIREMENT FOR FACTS CONTROLLERS

Guided By:

Submitted By:

Dr. Mool Singh Professor

Dhanraj Meena O50215,E2 IV yr , B.Tech

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAIPUR (RAJASTHAN)-30201

MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (DEEMED UNIVERSITY) JAIPUR (RAJASTHAN)-302017

CERTIFICATE
It is certified that Mr. DHANRAJ MEENA, Student of B.Tech. (ELECTRICAL ENGG.), has worked for his seminar TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM APPLICATION REQUIREMENT FOR FACTS CONTROLLERS under my

guidance being submitted in partial fulfillment of award of degree of B.Tech. MNIT, Jaipur during the session 2008-09.

Place: Jaipur Date:

Dr. Mool Singh Professor Dept. of Electrical Engineering, MNIT, Jaipur

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have worked for my seminar entitled TRANSMISSION SYSTEM APPLICATION REQUIREMENT FOR FACTS CONTROLLERS under the guidance of Dr Mool Singh, Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, MNIT, Jaipur. Firstly, I would like to express my deep gratitude to, Dr Mool Singh,Professor Department of Electrical Engineering, for his valuable guidance given in each and every step of my work, without which it would have been incomplete. I would like to thank to Sh. V.K. Jain, Head of the Department of Electrical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur for giving me this opportunity to do this work. I would also like to thank to U.G. Coordinators, Mrs. Nikita Jhajharia, Reader and Mr. V.S. Pareek, Reader who helped me for the completion of my report. Last but never the least, I would like to state my deep gratitude for all the support given required from time to time, by my parents and all my friends.

Dhanraj meena

ABSTRACT FACTS technology is being promoted as a means to extend the capacity existing power transmission network to their thermal limits without the necessity of adding new transmission lines. Another advantage of facts lies in their ability to improve damping and to controlled flow of power through selected corridors in a network. FACTS, an acronym which stands for flexible AC transmission system, is an evolving technology based solution envisioned to help utility industry to deal with changes in the power delivery business. FACTS devices aim principally to control the three main parameters directly affecting AC power transmission namely voltage, phase angle and impedance. This work discusses system planning issues and requirements for applications of FACTS Controllers into electric transmission networks. It lists applications and discusses differences between traditional equipment and FACTS Controllers. Characteristics of models for FACTS Controllers are described. This work also provides guidance on how to incorporate FACTS Controllers into the traditional planning process. It includes detailed discussions of the various types of FACTS Controllers, their functions and applicability. With these tools, the transmission planner now has additional options available to improve overall transmission system usage while maintaining system reliability.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER ......PAGES 1. INTRODUCTION......1-2 2. FLEXIBLE A.C. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM....3-6 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Main FACTS Devices......3 Basic characteristics of FACTS...4 Opportunities for FACTS........4 Benefits of FACTS Technology..6 Comparative Technical Benefits of FACTS for Different Applications..6

3. TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS.7-9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Series Controller.....7 Shunt Controller.....7 Combined Series-Series Controller.......8 Combined Series-Shunt Controller...9

4. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM APPLICATION REQUIREMENT FOR FACTS CONTROLLERS...10-19 4.1 4.2

4.3

FACTS Controller Applications...10

Over View of FACTS Controllers13

FACTS Controller Models ..18

4.4 Operational Requirements for FACTS Controller.....18 5. CONCLUSION.....20 REFERENCES..............21

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years environment, way leave and high cost problems have delayed the construction of new transmission. This has highlighted the need to change the traditional system concepts and achieve better utilization of existing lines. FACTS technology is based on the use of power electronic controlled devices for allowing transmission circuits to be used to their maximum thermal capability. FACTS technology is being promoted as a means to extend the capacity existing power transmission network to their thermal limits with out the necessity of adding new transmission lines. Another advantage of facts lies in their ability to improve damping and to controlled flow of power through selected corridors in a network. FACTS, an acronym which stands for Flexible AC Transmission System, is an evolving technology-based solution envisioned to help the utility industry to deal with changes in the power delivery business. The term FACTS refers to alternating current controllers to transmission systems incorporating power electronic-based and other static

enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability. Technology concepts were conceived in the 1980s and projects sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) demonstrated many of these concepts with laboratory scale circuits. In the early 1990s development of higher power electronic switching devices had progressed to the point that utility size installations were feasible. It is hoped that growth in demand for these products will spur continued development in the power electronic economical installations. In particular the FACTS devices aim principally to control the three main parameters directly affecting a.c. power transmission namely voltage, phase angle, and impedance. None of the FACTS devices is new in basic concept but the use of advanced power electronics has revolutionized the design and engineering of them. HVDC is a parallel technology using advanced power electronics and is not normally included as a FACTS technology. The constraints preventing use of full Thermal Capability on conventional a.c. circuits are Poor power sharing in parallel circuits under different network operating conditions, Transient Dynamic & voltage instability, Voltage control and associated reactive power flow problems and devices allowing larger sizes and more

Fault level constraints. Although various Technologies Available for Improving

Circuit

Utilization like Changes to network configuration, HVDC, FACTS. But the advantages of Facts Technology over other solutions to network reinforcement are that it Has potential to control flows as required, Less environmental impact on than most alternative techniques of transmission reinforcement, Depending alternatives. Satisfactory damping of power oscillations is an important issue addressed when dealing with the rotor angle stability of power systems. This phenomenon is well-known and observable especially when a fault occurs. To improve the damping of oscillations in power systems, supplementary control laws can be applied to existing devices. These supplementary actions are referred to as power oscillation damping (POD) control. In this work, POD control has been applied to two FACTS devices, TCSC and UPFC. The design method utilizes the residue approach. The presented approach solves the optimal siting of the FACTS as well as selection of the proper feedback signals and the controller design problem. In case of contingencies, changed operating conditions can cause poorly damped or even unstable oscillations since the set of controller parameters yielding satisfactory damping for one operating condition may no longer be valid for another one. In this case, an advantage can be taken from the wide area monitoring platform, to re-tune the POD controllers parameters. A lately developed algorithm for on-line detection of electromechanical oscillations based on Kalman ltering techniques has been employed. It gives the information about the actual dominant oscillatory modes with respect to the frequency and damping as well as about the amplitude of the oscillation obtained through on-line analysis of global signals measured at the appropriate place in the power system. This has further been used as a basis for the ne adaptive tuning of the POD parameters. cost-benefit analysis. Could cost less than

CHAPTER-2 FALEXIBLE A.C.TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

FACTS are Alternating current transmission systems incorporating power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability

2.1 Main FACTS devices:

Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC): A device for modifying the line reactance. Current technology comprises a series capacitor for reducing line reactance with thyristor control modules for Setter power flow and stability control. Static VAR Compensator (SVC) & Advanced Static VAR Compensator : A device for oroviding controllable shunt capacitive or inductive reactance usins power electronic control. Thyristor Controlled Power Angle Regulator (TCPAR) : A development of existing quadrature boosting device.. for controlling power line flows using power electronics to improve performance characteristics. Some other devices considered under FACTS technology: Thyristor Controlled System Oscillation Damper (NGH Damper): This device adds circuit resistance to inhibit Slow (up to 50Hz) oscillations on a long heavily loaded line. Dynamic Load Brake: A large thyristor controlled resistor used to maintain generator transient fault stability. Thyristor Controlled Fault Current Limiter: Negative Sequence & Harmonic Compensator: A thyristor controlled device for balancing three phase supplies or modifying harmonics. A High Energy Surge Arrestor: Series and parallel stacked metal oxide high voltage surge arrestors in combination with thyristors, for establishing operation the precise and reproducible surge voltage threshold for

2.2 Basic Characteristics of FACTS Devices:

All three basic FACTS devices have the ability to control flow5 at the operators discretion in an a.c. transmission circuit and thereby achieve better circuit utilization. The choice of device depends on the particular application and costs. Assuming sufficient thermal capability the theoretical maximum transmittable power in a transmission line is V'/X. In practice lines can rarely operated close to this limit for stability reasons. instability). Both shunt and series line compensation can increase the maximum transmittable Dower. Thus it is expected that, with suitable and fast control can improve both transient and dynamic stability performance. Phase shifter controls could also be designed to aid stability. A sufficient margin is needed to recover from transient disturbances (transient instability). Minor disturbances can lead to increasing power oscillation (dynamic

2.3 Opportunities for FACTS

What is most interesting for transmission planners is that FACTS technology opens up new opportunities for controlling power and enhancing the usable capacity of present, as well as new and upgraded, lines. The possibility that current through a line can be controlled at a reasonable cost enables a large potential of increasing the capacity of existing lines with larger conductors, and use of one of the FACTS Controllers to enable corresponding power to flow through such lines under normal and contingency conditions. These opportunities arise through the ability of FACTS Controllers to control the interrelated parameters that govern the operation of transmission systems including series impedance, shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle, and the damping of oscillations at various frequencies below the rated frequency. These constraints cannot be overcome, while maintaining the required system reliability, by mechanical means without lowering the useable transmission capacity. By providing added flexibility, FACTS Controllers can enable a line to carry power closer to its thermal rating. Mechanical switching needs to be supplemented by rapid-response power electronics. It must be emphasized that FACTS is an enabling technology, and not a one-on-one substitute for mechanical switches. The FACTS technology is not a single high-power Controller, but rather a collection of Controllers, which can be applied individually or in coordination with others to control one or 9

more of the interrelated system parameters mentioned above. A well-chosen FACTS Controller can overcome the specific limitations of a designated transmission line or a corridor. Because all FACTS Controllers represent applications of the same basic technology, their production can eventually take advantage of technologies of scale. Just as the transistor is the basic element for a whole variety of microelectronic chips and circuits, the thyristor or high-power transistor is the basic element for a variety of high-power electronic Controllers FACTS technology also lends itself to extending usable transmission limits in a step-by-step manner with incremental investment as and when required. A planner could foresee a progressive scenario of mechanical switching means and enabling FACTS Controllers such that the transmission lines will involve a combination of mechanical and FACTS Controllers to achieve the objective in an appropriate, staged investment scenario. Some of the Power Electronics Controllers, now folded into the FACTS concept predate the introduction of the FACTS concept. Notable among these is the shunt-connected Static VAR Compensator (SVC) for voltage control. The first series-connected Controller, NGH-SSR Damping Scheme, a low power series capacitor impedance control scheme showed that with an active Controller there is no limit to series capacitor compensation. Even prior to SVCs, there were two versions of static saturable reactors for limiting over voltages and also powerful gapless metal oxide arresters for limiting dynamic over voltages. Research had also been undertaken on solid-state tap changers and phase shifters. However, the unique aspect of FACTS technology is that this umbrella concept revealed the large potential opportunity for power electronics technology to greatly enhance the value of power systems, and thereby unleashed an array of new and advanced ideas to make it a reality. It is also worth pointing out that, in the implementation of FACTS technology, we are dealing with a base technology, proven through HVDC and high-power industrial drives. Nevertheless, as power semiconductor devices continue to improve, particularly the devices with turn-off capability, and as FACTS Controller concepts advance, the cost of FACTS Controllers will continue to decrease. Large-scale use of FACTS technology is an assured scenario.

2.4 Benefits of FACTS Technology

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Within the basic system security guidelines the FACTS Controllers enable the transmission owner to obtain, on case by case basis, one or more of the following benefits: Control of power flow as ordered. The use of control of the power flow may be to follow a contract, meet the utilities' own needs, ensure optimum power flow, ride through emergency conditions, or a combination thereof. Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal capabilities, including short term and seasonal. Increase the system security through raising the transient stability limits, limiting short-circuit currents and overloads, managing cascading blackouts and damping electromechanical oscillations of power systems and machines. Provide secure tie line connections to neighboring utilities and regions thereby decreasing overall generation reserve requirements on both sides. Provide greater flexibility in siting new generation. Reduce reactive power flows, thus allowing the lines to carry more active power. Reduce loop flows. Increase utilization of lowest cost generation. One of the principal reasons for transmission interconnections is to utilize lowest cost generation. When this cannot be done, it follows that there is not enough cost-effective transmission capacity. Cost-effective enhancement of capacity will therefore allow increased use of lowest cost generation. Environment friendly, contains no hazardous material and produce no waste or pollution.

2.5 Comparative Technical Benefits of FACTS for Different Applications.

FACTS SVC TCSC STATCOM Load flow control Voltage Control Transient Stability Dynamic Stability

UPFA

* ** * ***

*** * *** ***

* *** ** ***

** ** ** **

CHAPTER-3 TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

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In general, FACTS Controllers can be divided into four categories: Series Controllers Shunt Controllers Combined series-series Controllers Combined series-shunt Controllers

Fig.1: General symbol for FACTS Controller.

3.1 Series Controllers

The series Controller could be a variable impedance, such as capacitor, reactor, etc., or a power electronics based variable source of main frequency, subsynchronous and harmonic frequencies (or a combination) to serve the desired need. In principle, all series Controllers inject voltage in series with the line. Even a variable impedance multiplied by the current flow through it, represents an injected series voltage in the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the series Controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

Fig.2: Series Controller.

3.2 Shunt Controllers

As in the case of series Controllers, the shunt Controllers may be variable impedance, variable source, or a combination of these. In principle, all shunt Controllers inject current into the system at the point of connection. Even a variable shunt impedance connected to the line voltage causes 12

a variable current flow and hence represents injection of current into the line. As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the shunt Controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

Fig.3: Shunt Controller.

3.3 Combined series-series Controllers

This could be a combination of separate series controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, in a multiline transmission system. Or it could be a unified Controller, in Which series Controllers provide independent series reactive compensation for each line but also transfer real power among the lines via the power link. The real power transfer capability of the unified series-series Controller, referred to as Interline Power Flow Controller, makes it possible to balance both the real and reactive power flow in the lines and thereby maximize the utilization of the transmission system. Note that the term "unified" here means that the dc terminals of all Controller converters are all connected together for real power transfer.

Fig.3: Unified series-series Controller.

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3.4 Combined series-shunt Controllers

This could be a combination of separate shunt and series Controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, or a Unified Power Flow Controller with series and shunt elements. In principle, combined shunt and series Controllers inject current into the system with the shunt part of the Controller and voltage in series in the line with the series part of the Controller. However, when the shunt and series Controllers are unified, there can be a real power exchange between the series and shunt Controllers via the power link.

Fig.4 (a): Coordinated series and shunt Controller.

Fig.4(b): Unified series-shunt Controller.

CHAPTER-4 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM APPLICATION REQUIREMENT FOR FACTS CONTROLLERS

Defining applications for FACTS Controllers requires an understanding of the planning process for transmission systems. These controllers must function and be economical in a deregulated

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market environment as well as meet the traditional requirements forsystem security, reliability and sufficient capacity to meet the needs of customers. Therefore the focus of the work became a discussion of the changing utility environment, the choices of solutions for power transfer and voltage control issues and the system requirements that FACTS Controllers must meet. In addition to describing the planning process, functions performed by each of the FACTS Controllers are briefly described and their basic circuits shown. This work focuses on how the transmission system planning process can define and justify FACTS applications. The main sections of the work are: Transmission Planning Environment Transmission Planning and System Control Overview of FACTS Controllers FACTS Controller Models Operational Requirements for FACTS Controllers.

4.1 FACTS Controller Applications

The simplest way to identify the potential roles to be played by FACTS Controllers is to examine their functions as they relate to conventional equipment. The definition of FACTS systems incorporates both power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability. One of the system planners tasks is to determine which combinations of Controllers provide both the capacity to supply the reactive power, dynamic reserve and continuous regulation needed for the application. Table 1 lists the main functions that can be performed by FACTS Controllers and show both FACTS and other conventional equipment that performs these functions. A characteristic of FACTS controllers is the ability to have control algorithms structured to achieve multiple objectives. Since FACTS Controllers have control systems with embedded digital processors, it is possible to switch between control algorithms and to include different types of nonlinear limiting functions. Both shunt connected and series connected controllers can be programmed to assist in one or more of these functions. They will have varying effectiveness depending on the power rating of the individual controller; its location in the network, and the desired function. In addition to the primary control function, these controllers can also provide damping to system oscillations. The effectiveness of this damping control is highly dependent of the location of the controller in the 15

network. The value of FACTS applications lies in the ability of the transmission system to reliably transmit more power or to transmit power under more severe contingency conditions with the control equipment in operation. If the value of the added power transfer over time is compared to the purchase and operational costs of the control equipment, relatively complex and expensive applications may be justified. Other economic considerations include the market structure, transmission tariff, and identification of winners and losers. Realization of the value added by a proposed transmission project often requires a coordinated implementation of conventional transmission equipment, possibly including transmission line segments, FACTS Controllers, coordinated control algorithms and special operating procedures.

Function

Non FACTS Control Methods

FACTS Controllers

Electric generators Static Var Compensator (SVC) Synchronous Voltage Control Conventional changer Condensers Static Transformer Synchronous Compensator tap- Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) Shunt Superconducting Energy Storage (SMES) Convertible Static Compensator (CSC

Conventional

Capacitor/Reactor

Conventional Battery Energy Storage System (BESS)

Series Capacitor/Reactor

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Interphase Power Controller (IPC) Active and Generator schedules Reactive Transmissionline switching Power Control Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) Flow Series Capacitor (switched or fixed) High Voltage Direct Transmission (HVdc) Thyristor controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR) Transformer (TCPST) ,UPFC Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) Braking Resistor Excitation Enhancement Transient Stability Special Protection Systems Independent Pole Tripping Fast Relay Schemes Dynamic Fast Valving Line Sectioning HVdc Power System Stabilizer TCSC, SVC, STATCOM, UPFC, SSSC, TCPST, BESS, SMES, SSSC,CSC, IPFC Thyristor switched series reactor, TCSC, IPC, SSSC, UPFC; These are secondary functions of these controllers and their effectiveness may be limited. Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) SVC, STATCOM, TCSC, TCPST, UPFC BESS, SMES, SSSC, CSC, IPFC

Current Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting

Stability HVdc Short Switched series reactors Circuit Current Limiting Table 1: System Control Functions Open circuit breaker arrangements

4.2 Over View of FACTS Controllers

This section of the work shows the circuit diagram and describes the operation of the FACTS Controllers that have been commercially applied. The Controllers described are: Static Var Compensator (SVC) Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) 17

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) Interphase Power Controller (IPC)

Static Var Compensator (SVC) The Static Var Compensator used for transmission system applications is a dynamic source of leading or lagging reactive power. It is comprised of a combination of reactive branches connected in shunt to the transmission network through a step up transformer. The SVC is configured with the number of branches required to meet a utility specification as indicated in Figure 5. This specification includes required inductive compensation and required capacitive compensation. The sum of inductive and capacitive compensation is the dynamic range of the SVC. One or more thyristor-controlled reactors may continuously vary reactive absorption to regulate voltage at the high voltage bus. This variation is accomplished by phase control of the thyristors, which results in the reactor current waveform containing harmonic components that vary with control phase angle. A filter branch containing a power capacitor and one or more tuning reactors or capacitors is included to absorb enough of the harmonic currents to meet harmonic specifications and provide capacitive compensation. The thyristor switch capacitor is switched on or off with precise timing to avoid transient inrush currents.

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Figure5. : Circuit diagram of a SVC containing a thyristor controlled reactor, a thyristor Switched capacitor and a double tuned filter Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) The STATCOM shown in Figure 6 performs the same voltage regulation and dynamic control functions as the SVC. However, its hardware configuration and principle ofoperation are different. It uses voltage source converter technology that utilizes power electronic devices (presently gate turn-off thyristors (GTO), GCTs or insulated gate bi-polar transistors (IGBT)) that have the capability to interrupt current flow in response to a gating command. Analogous to an ideal electro magnetic generator, the STATCOM can produce a set of three alternating, almost sinusoidal voltages at the desired fundamental frequency with controllable magnitude. The angle of the voltage injected by the STATCOM is constrained to be very nearly in-phase with the transmission network at the point of connection of the coupling transformer. When the voltage is higher in magnitude than the system voltage, reactive current with a phase angle 90 degrees ahead of the voltage phase angle flows through the coupling transformer. This is analogous to the operation of a shunt capacitor. When the generated voltage is lower than system voltage, the current phase angle is 90 degrees behind the voltage phase angle that is analogous to the operation of a shunt reactor. The slight deviation in voltage phase angle absorbs power needed for the losses in the circuit. For high power applications a number of six or twelve pulse converters are operated in parallel to meet both the current rating requirement and the harmonic

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requirement of the network. Two different switching patterns, phase displaced converters with electronic devices switched once per cycle and pulse width modulation, have been used to form the sinusoidal waveform.

Figure 6: STATCOM circuit diagram Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) The thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC) is placed in series with a transmission line and is comprised of three parallel branches: a capacitor, a thyristor pair in series with a reactor (TCR), and a metal oxide varistor (MOV) that is required to protect against overvoltage conditions. (See Figure 7. The TCSC can function as a series capacitor if the thyristors are blocked or as a variable impedance when the duty cycle of the thyristors is varied. Applications of TCSCs currently in service provide impedance variations to damp inter-area system oscillations. The most economical installations often contain one segment of thyristor-controlled capacitors in series with one or more segments ofconventionally switched series capacitors.

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Figure 7: One Line Diagram of the TCSC Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) A static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) is connected in series with a transmission line and is comprised of a voltage source converter operated without an external electric energy source. (See Figure 8) This configuration serves as a series compensator whose output voltage is in quadrature with, and controlled, independently of the transmission line current.

Figure 8: Circuit diagram for a Static Synchronous Series Compensator(SSSC)

The purpose of the SSSC is to increase or decrease the overall reactive voltage drop across the line and thereby control the transmitted real electric power. The SSSC may include transiently rated energy storage or energy absorbing equipment to enhance the dynamic behaviour of the power system by additional temporary real power compensation, to increase or decrease momentarily, the overall real (resistive) voltage drop across the line. This action controls the reactive power flow on the line. 21

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) provides voltage, and power flow control by using two high power voltage source converters (VSC) coupled via a dc capacitor link. Figure.9 shows the two interconnected converters. VSC 1 is connected like a STATCOM and VSC 2 is connected as a SSSC in series with the line. With the dc bus link closed, the UPFC can simultaneously control both real and reactive power flow in the transmission line by injecting voltage in any phaseangle with respect to the bus voltage with the series converter. The shuntconnected converter supplies real power required by the series connected converter. With its remaining capacity the shunt converter can regulate bus voltage STATCOM, SSSC, or coupled SSSC circuits. The UPFC circuit can be reconfigured by use of external switches and possibly additional transformers to form Similar to other inverter based FACTS Controllers, FACTS controllers that contain energy storage are coupled to the AC network through an AC-DC inverter. In addition they have a DC-DC power circuit to interface the energy storage (to date either a superconducting magnet or a battery) to the DC bus of the inverter. This equipment has been applied at the distribution voltage level. Energy limitations for storage systems have limited applications to short-term backup for critical loads and to dynamic damping of system oscillations during transient conditions.

Figure 9: Circuit Diagram of a Unified Power Flow Controller

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4.3 FACTS Controller Models For FACTS Controllers to be included in transmission system plans, there must be appropriate models for all the analyses that are normally performed. To date only the SVC typically has an embedded model in the most widely used power flow (load flow) software. Some of the other controllers are represented by user defined models and others by models for electric machines or static inductors and capacitors. This lack of explicit models extends to the software used in many transmission control centers and it is an impediment to defining new applications and to operating FACTS equipment . Models for dynamic simulation studies have, to date, been made by the equipment suppliers. These models often represent the FACTS Controllers in extreme detail requiring simulation time steps that are too small for the models to be easily incorporated into software that simulates large electric networks. There is a need for more general models that are compatible with the simulation software that is more widely used. These models would: Represent the power circuit equations algebraically in the appropriate software routines. Represent inverters as voltage sources. Allow voltage changes that affect the network to occur at simulation time steps rather than continuously. Represent control functions using differential equation and logic algorithms For specialized studies including harmonic analyses and analysis of switching phenomenon there must be models that are compatible with EMTP or EMTDC analysis software. These models must be made with the cooperation of the equipment manufacturer. They can represent inverters either as AC voltage sources or by detailed switching circuits. If the switching circuit is employed, the model must also represent the switching control logic including phase locked loop synchronizing circuits. The logic that protects inverter valves from overcurrents must also be included in these models. This level of detail is normally required only for design studies or for detailed analysis of operating issues with the equipment. 4.4 Operational Requirements for FACTS Controller When a utility, transmission coordinating council, or regional transmission organization (RTO) considers the addition of FACTS Controllers, the consideration usually involves a number of system requirements to assure the reliability and security of the installation. Since most of the 23

FACTS Controllers contain a computer based control system, they can be programmed to both perform their primary function and also manage the operation of conventional transmission equipment. Formalized procedures must be developed to define system conditions where coordinated operation of the FACTS Controller and other transmission equipment is needed. These formalized procedures are often published and increasingly are available to other system planners as well to the general public. These controllers are expected to function during both normal and transient conditions in the electric system. To meet this expectation requires design and certification procedures based upon: Directly measured system dynamics. Assured resources for the prompt detection, analysis and correction of anomalous controller effects. Performance monitors that communicate information to system analysts Tests for commissioning and periodic certification Information exchange among grid operators.

Although these formalized guidelines are necessary to assure the security of the network, they place significant demands for information about component reliability and system reliability for FACTS Controllers. They also place demands for careful study of interactions in the transmission system and definition of system contingencies that most stress the application. Much of the required information is not well known during the development phase of a FACTS Controller and engineering judgment and cooperation between equipment designers and system engineers is essential in early applications. For FACTS Controllers to become widely used they must: Meet the availability and maintenance requirements that are expected for other power electronic equipment used in the system. Contain operator interface software and displays that clearly show the operating state of the Controller and allow the operator to readily change reference settings, control modes or limits. Meet automatic startup, shutdown and mode change requirements.

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CHAPTER-5 CONCLUSIONS
Although in the deregulated electric system environment, transmission system planning is more difficult, the industry has always sought the application of equipment that will maximize the use of available transmission lines. FACTS Controllers are just additional options available to the planning engineer. Specifically, they are a new generation of power electronic based equipment with the same function as conventional equipment but with enhanced controllability and speed of response. Traditional planning methods still apply. Equipment selection will depend on function, availability, cost, applicability, reliability, and robustness in the face of future uncertainties. Transmission networks operating at current flow levels near the thermal limits of transmission lines require large amounts of reactive power. They also require that this reactive power is properly distributed throughout the network and that a portion be dynamic to prevent voltage collapse during system contingencies. The allowed transmission limits are defined both by rules intended to meet reliability requirements and the physical limits of the system. The value of FACTS Controllers increases as the operating limits of the system approach the physical limits. This work provides guidance on how to incorporate FACTS Controllers into the traditional planning process. It includes detailed discussions of the various types of FACTS Controllers, their functions and applicability, as well as commentary on appropriate models for the necessary planning analyses. With these tools, the transmission planner now has additional options available to improve overall transmission system usage while maintaining system reliability.

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REFERENCES
1. A Special Publication for System Planners IEEE WG15.05.13, Transmission System Application Planning Requirements for FACTS Controllers, 2006 2. N. G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press, 1999. 3. Arabi, S., Kundur, P., and Adapa, R., "Innovative Techniques in Modeling UPFC for Power System Analysis," Paper PE-231-PWRS-0-10-1998 IEEE PES Winter Meeting, New Yor January-February 1999. 4. G.D. Galanos, et al, Advanced Static Compensator For Flexible AC Transmission. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol8, No. 1, Feb. 1993, pp. 113-121. 5. L. Gyugyi, Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), in Inst.Elect. Eng. Power and Energy Series 30, Y. H. Song and A. T. Johns,Eds. London, U.K., 1999, ch.1. 6. Larsen, F, et al., Benefits of Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation, Cigre Conference 1992, paper 14/37/38-04. 7. Hingorani, N.G., High Power Electronics and Flexible AC Transmission System, IEEE Power Eng. REV., July 1988. 8. A Special Publication for System Planners IEEE WG15.05.13, Application Planning Requirements for FACTS Controllers, 2006 Transmission System

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